353-6 Interior Design Studio-I

Interior Design Studio-I
Students’ Reference Material SRM/IDS1/1

INDEX
Content Pages
Unit – I ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Lesson – 1: Elements of Design .................................................................................................... 4
Lesson – 2: Principles of Design ................................................................................................ 19
Unit – II ........................................................................................................................................ 24
Lesson – 3: The Design Process ................................................................................................. 25
Lesson - 4: Anthropometrics ...................................................................................................... 38
Unit – III ...................................................................................................................................... 49

Lesson - 5: Client Profiling for Residential Projects ............................................................... 50
Lesson - 6: Presentation Techniques ......................................................................................... 55
Unit – IV ...................................................................................................................................... 62
Lesson - 7: Design Project 1 ....................................................................................................... 63
Unit – V ........................................................................................................................................ 78
Lesson - 8: Design Project 2 ....................................................................................................... 79
Supplementary Material / Suggested Reading ......................................................................... 96

Unit – I
Lesson 1: Elements of Design

Lesson 2: Principle of Design

Lesson – 1: Elements of Design
Objective
To study in detail the stages involved in the process of solving a design problem.
Structure:
1.1 The elements are:
1.1.1 Point
1.1.2 The Elements: Line
1.1.3 Form, shape and space
1.1.4 Movement
1.1.5 Colour, value and hue
1.1.6 Value and Hue
1.1.7 Pattern
1.1.8 Texture
Introduction
The elements are components or parts which can be isolated and defined in any visual design or
work of art. They are the structure of the work, and can carry a wide variety of messages
The elements are components or parts which can be isolated and defined in any visual design or
work of art. They are the structure of the work, and can carry a wide variety of messages.
1.1. The elements are:
Point
Line
Form, shape and space
Movement
Colour
Pattern
Texture
1.1.1 Point
Even if there is only one point, one mark on a blank page there is something built into the brain
that wills meaning for it, and seeks some kind of relationship or order, if only to use it as a point
of orientation in relation to the outline of the page. If there are two points, immediately the eye
will make a connection and "see" a line. If there are three points, it is unavoidable to interpret

them as a triangle; the mind supplies the connections. This compulsion to connect parts is
described as grouping, or gestalt.
Gestalt is the fundamental tool the designer or artist uses to build a coherent composition. The
example of a student self-portrait seen on the left demonstrates how images may be built from
points, with the variations in density producing the illusion of form.
The involuntary will-to-order that we impose on a collection of points can be clearly seen when
we examine the series of faces presented on the right (to see the distortions properly, you will
need to click on this small image to bring up the larger version). At what stage do the apparently
random points of value become identifiable as a face? At what point do they become a specific
face?
1.1.2 The Elements: Line
A line is a mark made by a moving point and
having psychological impact according to its
direction, weight, and the variations in its
direction and weight. It is an enormously
useful and versatile graphic device that is
made to function in both visual and verbal
ways. It can act as a symbolic language, or it
can communicate emotion through its
character and direction
Line is not necessarily an artificial creation of
the artist or designer; it exists in nature as a
structural feature such as branches, or as
surface design, such as striping on a tiger or a Different types of lines used
seashell.
It can function independently to suggest forms that can be recognized, even when the lines are
limited in extent. This can be seen in drawings such as the Saul Steinberg illustration shown
here, or in Alexander Calder's minimal wire sculptures, which convey a great deal of information
about the figure with the most limited line.
Lines can be combined with other lines to create textures and patterns. This is common in
engravings and pen and ink drawings such as the one on the right (click and enlarge to see linear
detail). The use of line in combination results in the development of form and value, which are
other elements of design.
However, line is not always explicit. It can exist by implication, as the edge of forms. As young
children we usually begin drawing landscapes by making outlines for earth, sky, and other
objects. Gradually we learn that objects do not have such outlines and we let colour changes
define the edges of shapes, creating implicit lines. Thus we can speak of a horizon "line," or the
"lines" of a car or a fashion silhouette, even though we know there is no literal line present.
Expressive Qualities of Line
Certain arrangements of line are commonly understood to carry certain kinds of information.

For example, calligraphy is recognizable as a representation of words, even when we do not
know the language. Calligraphic imagery is often used by modern artists simply because of the
mysterious messages implied in the "code" of unknown language.
Line in the form of maps is readily recognized as a symbolic representation of a place. The place
may be a local neighbourhood, or the entire world. It may be a carefully measured
representation, or a stylised diagram, such as a subway map. In either case, we understand it to
be a device by which we can understand the relationship between places; how to get from "here"
to "there."
Floor plans are a specialized kind of map, a commonly understood device which describes a
building. This linear language can be understood even when the building is as unusual as this
one, which was to be constructed of a sprayed foam material in a decidedly unconventional form.
Line also communicates emotion and states of mind through its character and direction. The
variations of meaning generally relate to our bodily
experience of line and direction.
Horizontal line suggests a feeling of rest or repose.
Objects parallel to the earth are at rest in relation to
gravity. Therefore compositions in which horizontal lines
dominate tend to be quiet and restful in feeling. One of the
hallmarks of Frank Lloyd Wright's architectural style is its
use of strong horizontal elements which stress the
relationship of the structure to the land.
Vertical lines communicate a feeling of loftiness and
spirituality. Erect lines seem to extend upwards beyond
human reach, toward the sky. They often dominate public
architecture, from cathedrals to corporate headquarters.
Extended perpendicular lines suggest an overpowering
grandeur, beyond ordinary human measure.

Diagonal lines suggest a feeling of movement or direction. Since objects in a diagonal position
are unstable in relation to gravity, being neither vertical nor horizontal, they are either about to
fall, or are already in motion, as is certainly the case for this group of dancers. In a two
dimensional composition diagonal lines are also used to indicate depth, an illusion of perspective
that pulls the viewer into the picture-creating an illusion of a space that one could move about
within. Thus if a feeling of movement or speed is desired, or a feeling of activity, diagonal lines
can be used.
Horizontal and vertical lines in combination communicate stability and solidity. Rectilinear
forms stay put in relation to gravity, and are not likely to tip over. This stability suggests
permanence, reliability and safety. In the case of the man in this family group, the lines seem to
imply stability to the point of stodginess.
Deep, acute curves, on the
other hand, suggest
confusion, turbulence, even
frenzy, as in the violence of
waves in a storm, the chaos
of a tangled thread, or the
turmoil of lines suggested by
the forms of a crowd. The
complicated curves used to
form the mother in the
family group shown above
suggest a fussy, frivolous
personality.
Curved lines do vary in
meaning, however. Soft,
shallow curves suggest
comfort, safety, familiarity, relaxation. They recall the curves of the human body, and therefore
have a pleasing, sensual quality.
The quality of the line is in itself a fundamental visual language, to an extent that cannot be
claimed for any other single element. Its use is so universal that we are all profoundly sensitive
to it. Even without an artist's training, we can extract considerable meaning from the kind of line
used in a drawing. It is possible to recognize the soft, irregular lines of a quick sketch from life,
as seen in this study of a lion.
On the other hand, the crisp, carefully placed lines of the rhinoceros are typical of a more
studied, scrupulously worked studio drawing. The lines suggest that this was not drawn from life,
but from hearsay. This is also evident from the fact that Durer drew this rather inaccurate image
in fifteenth century Europe when he could only have known of this African animal from
travellers' tales.
The quality of line in itself contributes to the mood of the work, and for the master artist, the
quality of line is a fundamental expression of his/her style. This drawing of a nude by Matisse
demonstrates his ability to create his image through a minimal number of expertly placed lines-
lines that by their placement and movement on the page identify this work with this artist as
surely as a signature.

1.1.3 Form, Shape and Space
Form and shape are areas or masses which define objects in space. Form and shape imply space;
indeed they cannot exist without space.
There are various ways to categorize form and shape. Form and shape can be thought of as either
two-dimensional or three-dimensional.
Two-dimensional form has width and
height. It can also create the illusion of
three dimension objects. Three-
dimensional shape has depth as well as
width and height.
Form and shape can also be described
as either organic or geometric. Organic
forms such as these snow-covered
boulders typically are irregular in
outline, and often asymmetrical.
Organic forms are most often thought
of as naturally occurring.
Geometric forms are those which
correspond to named regular shapes,
such as squares, rectangles, circles,
cubes, spheres, cones, and other regular
forms. Architecture, such as this
example by Frank Lloyd Wright, is
usually composed of geometric forms.
These forms are most often thought of
as constructed or made. If you are
interested in the visual possibilities of
geometric form in the context of
mathematics, you might wish to look at
this Web site, or at least at this
mathematically generated pattern.
However, not all made objects are
geometric; many designed forms have
irregular contours. Although this
kimono is geometric in its construction,
the surface design is organic in form.
Nor are all naturally occurring objects
organic; snowflakes and soap bubbles
are among many geometric forms found in nature. If you are interested seeing other visual
examples of geometry in nature, you might enjoy looking at this site, created at the Laboratory of
Atomic and Solid State Physics, here at Cornell. These images of examples of microphotography
are also worth looking at.

There are some other terms commonly used to describe form and shape in composition; these
have to do with what kind of representations the forms have. If we can recognize every day
objects and environments, we refer to the images as being realistic, or naturalistic. However, if
the images are difficult or impossible to identify in terms of our normal, daily visual experience,
we may refer to the images as abstract.
There are several kinds of abstract images. Generally, abstractions are "abstracted" or derived
from realistic images - perhaps even distorted--, but perhaps in such a way that the source is not
immediately apparent. An example of this would be one of Georgia O'keefe's paintings of a
detail from a flower. This kind of abstraction in art is sometimes referred to as an objective
image -- that is, it is derived from an actual object. On the other hand, some abstract art images
are based on a pure study of form, line, and colour, and do not refer to any real-world object or
scene. Such art works are sometimes referred to as non-objective images.
Caricature is a special instance of abstraction, in which realistic images are distorted to make a
statement about the people, places, or objects portrayed. This is probably the kind of abstraction
we are most familiar with, as it is constantly presented to us via all sorts of popular media.
However, it is important to remember that had not the more difficult-to-understand conventions
of abstraction in the fine arts not broken ground with experiments in distortion, we would not be
able to make sense out of some caricature images. A century ago, there was really nothing
equivalent to our modern cartoons.
Our perception of shape and form are affected by several factors. The position or viewpoint from
which we see an object will
emphasize or obscure
certain features, and
therefore affect the
impression it makes. As you
can see in this series of
photographs, all featuring
the same wooden artist's
mannequin, the character of
the space around the object
can distract, focus, or alter
our impression. A cluttered
background tends to
diminish the importance of
the object, while a plain
background draws attention
to it.
The character and source of light also changes the perceived character of the object. Lighting in a
photographic portrait, for example, can make the subject look older, younger, dramatic, or rather
abstract.
1. Two Dimensional Form
Two-dimensional form is the foundation of pictorial organization or composition in painting,
photography, and many other media. It is created in a number of ways.

It can be defined by line, in all the ways described above. Line, either explicit or implied,
provides the contour of forms.
Value (the relative lightness or darkness of a colour) can also define form. Strong contrasts in
value within a composition may define the boundaries of forms. Gradations of value, or shading,
can also create the illusion of contour and volume.
In the same way, hue contrasts and gradations can also define forms. Form may also be defined
by change in texture, even when hue and value remain essentially consistent. However, most
typically, form is defined by a combination of these factors, as is the case in this print by Max
Ernst.
2. Form in relation to positive and negative space
Forms and shapes can be thought of as positive or negative. In a two dimensional composition,
the objects constitute the positive forms, while the background is the negative space. For
beginning art and design students, effective use of negative space is often an especially important
concept to be mastered. This exercise in cut paper required the student to work with the same
composition in black on white and white on black simultaneously. This makes it difficult to
ignore the background and treat it as merely empty space. The effective placement of objects in
relation to the surrounding negative
space is essential for success in
composition.
Some artists play with the reversal of
positive and negative space to create
complex illusions. The prints of M. C.
Escher often feature interlocking
images that play with our perception
of what is foreground and what is
background. Other artists take these
illusions of positive and negative
images to even greater lengths, hiding
images within images. Perception of
form and shape are conditioned by
our ingrained "instinct" to impute
meaning and order to visual data.
When we look at an image and
initially form an impression, there is a tendency to latch on to that conclusion about its meaning,
and then ignore other possible solutions. This may make it hard to see the other images. Training
the eye to keep on looking beyond first impressions is a crucial step in developing true visual
literacy.
1.1.4 Movement
Movement is the design element that operates in the fourth dimension - time. Movement is the
process of relocation of objects in space over time. We can speak of movement as literal or
compositional.

The physical fact of movement is part of
certain designed objects; we are speaking here
of literal movement. Sometimes the physical
movement is signalled by symbolic forms that
suggest speed and motion. For example, cars,
when first invented met their movement
function, but the form did not suggest
movement. Even after the mass production of
automobiles began, the design had little to do
with the fact of movement.
The engineering concepts of aerodynamics in
the 1930's, originally developed in connection
with the airplane, were transferred to
automotive design as well, particularly as cars
became faster, and marketing of cars became
more competitive. The result was forms that
suggest movement and speed; we have all
come to recognize aerodynamic forms as a
symbol for speedy movement.
The invention of motion pictures also introduced the element of movement to visual language.
For the first time we had an art form that literally moved. For example, if your computer can
handle video, you can watch some Buster Keaton clips, or this snippet of the silent horror film
She Who Must Be Obeyed!
Both the development of the car and of motion pictures in the early 20th century created a
romantic fascination with speed and movement; many artists began to focus on movement as
subject matter. The question for painters and others working in static media was how to capture
the sense of implied movement in the fixed image that could not literally move.
Prior to motion pictures, artists tried to show movement through diagonal (off-balance) use of
line and positioning of images in the composition.
However, new approaches were suggested by the multiple frame images of motion picture film,
and stop action photography. Futurist painters such as Balla used these ideas to celebrate speed
and movement. Marcel Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase also attempted to capture the
entire sequence of action through "stop-action" imagery.
Finally, Alexander Calder began to create sculptures that actually moved, which he called
mobiles. Subsequently many artists have used movement involving mechanical or electronic
means that bridged the worlds of art and engineering.
Dance is probably the oldest art form that involves movement. It is the ultimate expressive use of
the element of movement of objects through space in time.

Another way to think
about movement is to
consider how the viewer's
eye moves through the
composition. This is what
we refer to as
compositional movement.
In this case we are not
concerned with the
presence (or lack of)
implied motion in the
image. We are concerned
instead with how the
viewer perceives the
composition-- how the
components relate and
lead the viewer's attention.
Compositional movement
may be classified as static:
that is, movement of the
eye that jumps and hops between separate components of the image, attracted by similarities and
simply shifting to shapes with related shape or colour Compositions exhibiting static movement
are characterized by repetition of closed, isolated shapes and contrasts of colour and/or value.
Movement may also be classified as dynamic. Dynamic movement is characterized by
movement of the eye that flows smoothly from one area of the composition to another, guided by
continuations of line or form, and by gradations of colour or form. Dynamic movement is
characterized by open shapes or shapes that closely relate to adjacent shapes.
The eye will always move through the composition in some way, so there is always some sort of
compositional movement. All compositions can be described in terms of one or the other of these
concepts - or both.
1.1.5 Colour, Value and Hue
Colour is one of the most powerful of elements. It has tremendous expressive qualities.
Understanding the uses of colour is crucial to effective composition in design and the fine arts.
The word colour is the general term which applies to the whole subject - red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, violet, black and white and all possible combinations thereof. Hue is the correct
word to use to refer to just the pure spectrum colours. Any given colour can be described in
terms of its value and hue. In addition, the various physical phenomena and psychological effects
combine to affect our perceptions of a colour.
1.1.6 Value and Hue
Value is defined as the relative lightness or darkness of a colour. It is an important tool for the
designer/artist, in the way that it defines form and creates spatial illusions. Contrast of value
separates objects in space, while gradation of value suggests mass and contour of a contiguous
surface. In the drawing on the right, value contrast separates the artichoke from the background,

and the separate leaves from
one another, while gradation
suggests the curves of leave
surfaces and of the whole form.
Hue also has value. When
contrasting hues are made
similar in value, the spatial
effects are flattened out. In the
colour image of the fashion
model the coat draws our
attention through contrast of
hue although the skin tones
blend with the background
(remember the object of the
image is to sell the coat, not the
model). However, it also seems
to be softly blending with a
background that seems quite
close, and is very similar to the
coat in value. The face tends to
blend with the background which is similar in both hue and value. In the black and white
version, however, the coat virtually disappears, since only value, not hue, is available to
distinguish it, and the values are quite similar. However, the strong value contrast of the eyes and
hat draw our attention to the face, even though the contours of the face seem to melt into the
background. Therefore the black and white version emphasizes the model more than the
garment.
To summarize: If values are close, shapes will seem to flatten out, and seem closely connected in
space; none will stand out from the others. If values contrast, shapes will appear to separate in
space and some will stand out from the others. This works whether the colours are just black,
white and grey, or whether hues are involved.
Hue is the term for the pure spectrum colours commonly referred to by the "colour names" - red,
orange, yellow, blue, green violet - which appear in the hue circle or rainbow. Theoretically all
hues can be mixed from three basic hues, known as primaries. When pigment primaries are all
mixed together, the theoretical result is black; therefore pigment mixture is sometimes referred to
as subtractive mixture.
The primary colours consist of three hues from which we can theoretically mix all other hues.
There are two commonly used definitions of primary colours:
Painters Primaries - red, blue, and yellow: This traditional definition of primaries does not in
fact mix to clear greens or purples; it is based on 19th century theories.
Printers Primaries - magenta, cyan (turquoise), and yellow: This definition of primaries mixes
to clear colours across the entire spectrum. It is used as the basis for colour printing. The
computer screen probably does not give you a true turquoise--the colour should be a blue-green--
because of differences between colour mixture in pigment and colour mixture in light.

In mixing colours hues can be desaturated (reduced
in purity, weakened) in one of three ways: mix
with white to lighten the value (tint), mix with
black to darken the value (shade), or mix with grey
or the complement to either lighten or darken the
value (tone).
Light Primaries - red, blue, green. This definition is
active when coloured light is mixed, as on your
computer screen, or when theatrical spotlights
overlap on a white wall. Its effects are less familiar
than pigment mixture to most people. If all three
primaries are mixed, the theoretical result is white
light. Therefore Light mixture is sometimes
referred to as additive mixture.
Your computer screen mixes colour as light, and
therefore follows additive colour mixture rules. This means that the depiction of subtractive
mixture shown here is less than ideal, particularly for the cyan (turquoise) and magenta of the
printers primaries.
If you want to see some amazing animations of hue and value relationships, try going to this link,
which will also take you to a good descriptive explanation of hues and primaries. For a more
technical discussion of how we see hue, and how it can be measured, try this link to a scholarly
paper, The Representation of Colour Metrics and Mappings in Perceptual Colour Space.
Colour metrics
There are many systems for classifying hue,
developed so that researchers can measure and
define colour qualities, and so that designers,
industry, and marketing people can communicate
colour ideas over distance. This link will introduce
you to some of the most common of these colour
communication systems.
Complements are colours that are opposite one
another on the hue circle. When complements are
mixed with one another in paint, the result is muted
tones desaturate or dull hues. Such opposite pairs
can also be compared in terms of their relative warmth and coolness. Warm-cool contrast of hue
can cause images to appear to advance or recede. In this 15th century painting, for example, the
warm reds of the man's doublet and his son's cap reinforce the cues of placement to make these
figures seem very close. On the other hand, the cool tones of the sea and sky suggest great
distance.
Afterimage is another, more specific definition of complements consisting of a stimulus colour
and its physical opposite generated in the eye by exposure to the stimulus colour. Afterimage
colours tend to make each other appear more intense, and have vibrating boundaries.

1. Colour Illusions
Some of the effects of colour occur only in the
eye and brain of the viewer, and are not
physical properties of light waves or pigment.
These illusions, however, are very powerful,
and have enormous impact on our responses to
colour.
Colour Proportion refers to the impact of the
relative quantity of a given hue or value used
in colour compositions. In order to achieve
over-all unity, and/or create emphasis, one
should make a clear decision as to which
colours should be assigned the largest and
least areas. The colour proportion choice will
also affect the impact of the colour
composition. This can be seen in the set of
panels shown here. The very same colours are
used in each panel. Yet depending on the choice of dominant colour, the feeling of the
composition, and even the appearance of each colour, is altered.
Simultaneous Contrast is the phenomenon which occurs when a colour appears to change when
seen against a different background. A set of principles were first laid out in the 19th century by
Chevreul, a dye master for the Gobelin tapestry works, who became an important colour
theoretician. His principles state that changes in the hue, value, saturation (purity of hue), and
area of a background colour will alter the appearance of the selected colour. The print shown
here is made up of wavy bands of colours.
Some of the bands extend from the centre
panel to intrude into areas of contrasting hue
in the side panels. These extended bands are
in fact the same hue and value throughout, but
appear to change from left to right.
If you are interested in further information
about how our visual response to colour may
vary, see this section on optical effects in
colour.
Optical mixture is the phenomenon which
occurs when small particles of different
colours are mixed in the eye; this type of
mixture differs from pigment mixture in that it
is based on light primaries. However, optical
mixture differs from light mixture in which
the primaries will mix to white, and from pigment mixture, in which the primaries mix to black.
In optical mixture there is an averaging of hue and value, resulting in grey. Optical mixture is
experienced when observing many textiles, such as this example, a detail from a hand woven
tapestry. It can also be seen in natural objects, colour television, and printed colour pictures.

2. Psychological Implications of Colour
Market researchers have done extensive studies exploring the emotional responses of people to
colour. Some of these responses seem to be powerful and fairly universal. However, much of this
information is culturally biased. We know that cultural traditions endow colours with powerful
meanings that can differ greatly from place to place. For example, in Europe and the United
States, black is the colour of mourning. In many tropical countries and in East Asia white is the
colour of death. On the other hand, white is the colour worn by American brides, while brides in
much of Asia wear red. If you would like to participate in a worldwide survey on colour
symbolism, try this link. Meanwhile, we know that the following associations are generally
found to hold in Euro-American societies:
Red is associated with blood, and with feelings that are energetic, exciting, passionate or erotic.
Most colours carry both positive and negative implications. The downside of red evokes
aggressive feelings, suggesting anger or violence.
Orange is the colour of flesh, or the friendly warmth of the hearth fire. The positive implications
of this colour suggest approachability, informality. The negative side might imply accessibility to
the point of suggesting that anyone can approach-- a lack of discrimination or quality.
Yellow is the colour of sunshine. This colour is optimistic, upbeat, modern. The energy of yellow
can become overwhelming. Therefore yellow is not a colour that tends to dominate fashion for
long periods of time.
Green In its positive mode, green suggests nature (plant life, forests), life, stability, restfulness,
and naturalness. On the other hand, green in some tones or certain contexts (such as green skin)
might instead suggest decay (fungus, mould), toxicity, and artificiality.
Blue suggests coolness, distance, spirituality, or perhaps reserved elegance. Some shade of blue
is flattering to almost anyone. In its negative mode, we can think of the "blues"-the implication
being one of sadness, passivity, alienation, or depression.
Violet is the colour of fantasy, playfulness, impulsiveness, and dream states. In its negative
mode, it can suggest nightmares, or madness.
Market research on colour is also done to establish colour trends. Colour forecasting is
accomplished by surveying consumer preferences and other indicators of changes in taste.
Colour forecasting firms then issue projections defining palettes of colours that can be expected
to rise, fall, or maintain popularity in coming seasons. The design industries then develop their
new lines with these projections in mind. Some major companies employ their own colour
forecasters to research and project colour trends for their industry. On the whole, colour trends
change more rapidly for fashion than for interior design, probably because changes in home
furnishings entail a more serious financial investment.

1.1.7 Pattern
Pattern is an underlying structure that organizes surfaces or structures in a consistent, regular
manner. Pattern can be described as a repeating unit of shape or form, but it can also be thought
of as the "skeleton" that organizes the parts of a composition.
Pattern exists in nature as well as in designed objects; it is useful
to look at the parallels. A Harvard biologist named Peter S.
Stevens has published a book entitled "Patterns in Nature" in
which he claims that there are only a finite number of ways that
patterns can be structured. He starts with the idea of a grid as the
foundation for any structure or image. He presents a set of ways
in which the points of a grid can be connected. These modes of
connection become classes of pattern, which he claims can be
seen in any situation, in nature and in made images, and from the
microscopic to the cosmic scale.
The modes he describes include the following which are
described here in terms of examples from nature. However, each of these modes can also be seen
in examples of designed objects and works of art:
Flow all things flow, following paths of least resistance. Flow can be seen in water, stone, and
the growth of trees. Meander patterning is related to the idea of flow, and is built on the
repetition of an undulating line. In this detail from a textile hanging made up of knotted threads,
the meandering colour lines resulting from the technique quite naturally create this type of
pattern.
Branching is an obvious form of patterning in the
plant world, but it can also be seen in geological
formations such as river deltas and certain
crystalline formations.
Spiral patterns can be seen from the scale of galaxies
to the opening "fiddlehead" buds of ferns, to the
forms of microscopic animals.
Packing and Cracking refers to the way in which
compacted cells define each other’s shape. A
densely packed cluster of mushrooms will grow
together, deforming the circular form of each cap
because of crowding. In the same way a cluster of soap bubbles deforms each bubble from the
perfect sphere of the isolated bubble, according to rules that govern the surface tension of soap
bubbles. Surfaces (like mud or old paint) that shrink may experience cracking, resulting in
similarly cellular patterning.
Similar types of patterning can be seen in many designed objects. Even complex works of art
exhibit an underlying structure or pattern grid, although the mode of patterning may vary over
the surface of a complex composition.

1.1.8 Texture
Texture is the quality of an object
which we sense through touch. It
exists as a literal surface we can
feel, but also as a surface we can
see, and imagine the sensation
might have if we felt it. Texture
can also be portrayed in an image,
suggested to the eye which can
refer to our memories of surfaces
we have touched. So a texture can
be im aginary.
Rough wall texture

Textures are of many kinds:
Bristly, rough, and hard -- this is what we usually
think of as texture, but texture can also be smooth,
cold and hard, too. Smooth, soft, and/or
warm and Wet or dry are also textures; in fact, any
tactile sensation we can imagine is a texture
In other words, all surfaces can be described in
terms of texture. Many artists and designers make
use of texture as a dominant element in their work.
This is particularly evident in craft media, such as
fibres, metal, wood and glass, where the tactile
qualities of the material are a major feature.
Creation of the illusion of texture is also an
important element in many paintings, drawings,
textile designs, and other surface designs. This can
be observed and discussed separately from the
tactile qualities of the actual materials and surface
of the work.
Smooth wall texture

Lesson – 2: Principles of Design
Objective
To understand the principles of design.
Structure
2.1 Balance
2.2 Proportion
2.3 Rhythm
2.4 Emphasis
2.5 Unity
Introduction
The Principles are concepts used to organize
or arrange the structural elements of design.
Again, the way in which these principles are
applied affects the expressive content, or the
message of the work.
The principles are:
Balance
Proportion
Rhythm
Emphasis
Unity
2.1 Balance
Balance is the concept of visual equilibrium,
and relates to our physical sense of balance.
It is a reconciliation of opposing forces in a
composition that results in visual stability. Most successful compositions achieve balance in one
of two ways: symmetrically or asymmetrically. Balance in a three dimensional object is easy to
understand; if balance isn't achieved, the object tips over. To understand balance in a two
dimensional composition, we must use our imaginations to carry this three dimensional analogy
forward to the flat surface.
Symmetrical balance can be described as having equal "weight" on equal sides of a centrally
placed fulcrum. It may also be referred to as formal balance. When the elements are arranged
equally on either side of a central axis, the result is Bilateral symmetry. This axis may be
horizontal or vertical. It is also possible to build formal balance by arranging elements equally
around a central point , resulting in radial symmetry.

There is a variant of symmetrical balance called approximate symmetry in which equivalent but
not identical forms are arranged around the fulcrum line.
Asymmetrical balance, also called informal balance, is more complex and difficult to envisage. It
involves placement of objects in a way that will allow objects of varying visual weight to balance
one another around a fulcrum point. This can be best imagined by envisioning a literal balance
scale that can represent the visual "weights" that can be imagined in a two dimensional
composition. For example, it is possible to balance a heavy weight with a cluster of lighter
weights on equal sides of a fulcrum; in a picture, this might be a cluster of small objects balanced
by a large object. It is also possible to imagine objects of equal weight but different mass (such
as a large mass of feathers versus a small mass of stones) on equal sides of a fulcrum. Unequal
weights can even be balanced by shifting the fulcrum point on our imaginary scale.
Whether the solution is simple or complex, some form of balance can be identified in most
successful compositions.
2.2 Proportion
Proportion refers to the
relative size and scale of
the various elements in a
design. The issue is the
relationship between
objects, or parts, of a
whole. This means that it
is necessary to discuss
proportion in terms of the
context or standard used to
determine proportions.
Our most universal
standard of measurement
is the human body; that is,
our experience of living in
our own bodies. We judge
the appropriateness of size
of objects by that measure.
For example, a sofa in the form of a hand is startling because of the distortion of expected
proportion, and becomes the centre of attention in the room. Architectural spaces intended to
impress are usually scaled to a size that dwarfs the human viewer. This is a device often used in
public spaces, such as churches or centres of government. The same principle is often applied to
corporate spaces through which the enterprise wishes to impress customers with its power and
invincibility.
In contrast, the proportions of a private home are usually more in scale with human measure, and
as a result it appears more friendly, comfortable, less intimidating.
Use of appropriate scale in surface design is also important. For example, an overly large textile
design can overwhelm the form of a garment or a piece of furniture.

A surprising aspect of proportion is the way ideal proportions can vary for the human body itself.
Styles change in bodies as they do in clothing. Prior to the 16th century, for example, the female
body ideally had large hips and belly. Only later was a small waistline stressed.
In the 17th century and many other periods, the ideal body was much heavier than we would
accept today.
Of course, in the last 25 years the ideal personified by the fashion model has fostered a standard
which idealizes exceptionally slender body proportions for women. In this century, sports have
provided models for ideal male body proportions. Beginning with the rise of televised football in
the 1960's, and the subsequent fitness boom, an increasingly muscular silhouette has been
presented as the ultimate male form. This ideal is quite different from that presented in earlier
periods.
In addition, artists frequently take liberties with the natural proportions of the human body to
achieve their expressive goals. A well-known classic example is Michaelangelo's David, in
which distortions of proportion are used by the artist to depict both the youthfulness of the boy
David, together with the power of the hero about to conquer the giant Goliath. The surrealist
painter Magritte often used distortions of proportions to create striking effects.
2.3 Rhythm
Rhythm can be described as timed movement through space; an easy, connected path along
which the eye follows a regular arrangement of motifs. The presence of rhythm creates
predictability and order in a composition. This link will take you to a short movie of a West
African playing the "talking drum"; if you try it, pay attention to the way in which sound,
movement, and gesture all work together to support the idea of rhythm.

Rhythm depends largely upon the elements of pattern and movement to achieve its effects. The
parallels between rhythm in sound/ music are very exact to the idea of rhythm in a visual
composition. The difference is that the timed "beat" is sensed by the eyes rather than the ears.
Rhythm can be created in a number of ways. Linear rhythm refers to the characteristic flow of
the individual line. Accomplished artists have a recognizable manner of putting down the lines of
their drawings that is a direct result of the characteristic gesture used to make those lines, which,
if observed, can be seen to have a rhythm of its own. Linear rhythm is not as dependent on
pattern, but is more dependent on timed movement of the viewer's eye.
Repetition involves the use of patterning to achieve timed movement and a visual "beat". This
repetition may be a clear repetition of elements in a composition, or it may be a more subtle kind
of repetition that can be observed in the underlying structure of the image.
Alternation is a specific instance of patterning in which a sequence of repeating motifs are
presented in turn; (short/long; fat/thin; round/square; dark/light).
Gradation employs a series of motifs patterned to relate to one another through a regular
progression of steps. This may be a gradation of shape or colour. Some shape gradations may in
fact create a sequence of events, not unlike a series of images in a comic strip.
2.4 Emphasis
Emphasis is also referred to as point of focus, or interruption. It marks the locations in a
composition which most strongly draw the viewers attention. Usually there is a primary, or main,
point of emphasis, with perhaps secondary emphases in other parts of the composition. The
emphasis is usually an interruption in the fundamental pattern or movement of the viewers eye
through the composition, or a break in the rhythm.

The artist or designer uses emphasis to call attention to something, or to vary the composition in
order to hold the viewers interest by providing visual "surprises."
Emphasis can be achieved in a number of ways. Repetition creates emphasis by calling attention
to the repeated element through sheer force of numbers. If a colour is repeated across a map, the
places where certain colours cluster will attract your attention, in this instance graphing varying
rates of mortality from cardiovascular disease.
Contrast achieves emphasis by setting the point of emphasis apart from the rest of its
background. Various kinds of contrasts are possible. The use of a neutral background isolates the
point of emphasis.
Contrast of colour, texture, or shape will call attention to a specific point.
Contrast of size or scale will as well.
Placement in a strategic position will call attention to a particular element of a design.
Prolonged visual involvement through intricacy (contrast of detail) is a more unusual form of
emphasis, not as commonly used in Euro-American design, though it is common in many other
cultures. In this case, many points of emphasis are created that are to be discovered through close
attention to the intricacies of the design.
2.5 Unity
Unity is the underlying principle
that summarizes all of the
principles and elements of design.
It refers to the coherence of the
whole, the sense that all of the
parts are working together to
achieve a common result; a
harmony of all the parts.
Unity can be achieved through the
effective and consistent use of any
of the elements, but pattern-- that
is, underlying structure-- is the
most fundamental element for a
strong sense of unity. Consistency
of form and colour are also powerful tools that can pull a composition together.
However, unity also exists in variety. It is not necessary for all of the elements to be identical in
form providing they have a common quality of meaning or style. For example, fashions from a
specific period share common features of silhouette, materials, and colour that identify the style
of the day, or the look of a particular designer.
Unity can also be a matter of concept. The elements and principles can be selected to support the
intended function of the designed object; the purpose of the object unifies the design.

Unit – II
Lesson 3: The Design Process

Lesson 4: Anthropometrics

Lesson – 3: The Design Process
Objective
To understand the design process.
Structure
3.1 Commit
3.2 State
3.3 Collect
3.4 Analysis
3.5 Synthesis
3.6 Ideate
3.7 Choose
3.8 Implementation
3.9 Evaluation
Introduction
We determine which element to use
and how to arrange them into
patterns through the process of
design. Although presented as a
linear sense of steps, the design
process is amore often a cyclic one
in which a sequence of careful
analysis, synthesis and evaluation of
available information, insights and
possible solutions is repeated until a
successful fit between what exists
and what is desired is achieved.
The design process can be divided
into eight parts, namely:
1. Commit
2. State
3. Collect
4. Analyse
5. Ideate
6. Choose
7. Implement
8. Evaluate

3.1 Commit
The first stage in any design process is the commitment of the
designer to the client that he (the designer) is ready to take on
the design project, as per the mutually agreed terms.
3.2 State
The designer then prepares a design statement, also called the
design brief, describing a particular set of circumstances, which
creates a need. The brief outlines the needs related to the design
problem. As the name suggests, a brief is simply a short
statement of intent; i.e. what the designer intend doing in order to
solve the problem.
3.3 Collect
The next step is the collection of information/data
relating to the existing circumstances of the project.
It is very important for the designer to understand
the exact requirements of the client, therefore it is
imperative that all the available information
regarding the desired design outcomes are collected
and studies carefully. The design constraints such as
the available time and resources and budget are also
taken into account.
The various methods of collecting data are:

Interviews
Observation
User questionnaires
Literature search
Client records
Activities
Relationships
Problem issues
Example of Interview Notes

3.4 Analysis
The ability to define and understand the nature of the design problem adequately is an essential
part of the solution.
The design problem is first defined. This
definition should include a specification of
how the design solution should perform.
Goals and objectives should be set.
An analysis of the problem requires that it be
broken down into parts, issues clarified, and
values assigned to the various aspects of the
problem, analysis also involves gathering
relevant information that would help us to
understand the nature of the problem and
develop appropriate responses to the
problem. From the outset, it is worthwhile
to know what limitations will help shape the
design solution. Any givens- what can
change and what cannot be altered- should be determined. Any constraints – financial, legal, or
technical – which will impinge on the design solution should be noted.
As we cycle through the design process, a clearer understanding of the problem should emerge.
New information may be uncovered or be required which could alter our perception of the

problem and its solution. The analysis of a problem, therefore, often continues throughout the
design process.
There are various methods of analysing the data collected, such as:
1. Organizational Relationships: Functional Adjacencies
2. Matrices: Matrices help to identify spaces and/or activities that should be located or
performed together
3. Bubble Diagrams: Bubble diagrams graphically illustrate functional and spatial
relationships. Scale is not an issue at this step.
4. Identify Needs
a) User Needs
b) Physiological Needs: Anthropometrics and
Ergonomics
o Anthropometrics: Measuring the physical
requirements of human beings as users
o Ergonomics: Application of anthropometric
data to human/environment relationships
c) Psychological and Sociological Needs: Proxemics
(Theories of man’s spatial relationships)
d) Structural, Contextual, Economic Needs
o Structural: Determined in terms of
protection, health, safety, and welfare of
occupants (e.g., means of egress, structural
soundness, environmental comfort, systems
performance)
o Contextual: Cultural, historical, religious, political context; relationships to
external systems such as power sources,
communication, water, transportation
o Economic: Relationship to client’s budget;
life-cycle costs; quality and quantity;
expectations vs. reality
3.5 Synthesis
Design requires rational thought based on knowledge and
understanding gained through experience and research. Also
playing equal roles are intuition and imagination, which add the
creative dimension to the rational design process.
From the analysis of the problem and its parts, we can begin to
formulate possible solutions. This requires synthesizing –
bringing together and integrating – responses to the various
issues and aspects of the problem into coherent solutions. There
are several approaches one can take to generate ideas and
synthesize possible solutions to a problem:
o Isolate one or two issues which have value or importance
Matrices
attached to them, and develop solutions around them.

o Study analogous solutions and use them as models for developin g possible solutions to
the problem at hand.
Develop ideal solutions for parts of the problem which can then be integrated into whole
solutions and be tempered by the reality of what exists.
3.6 Ideate
Once the data relating to the design problem has been collected and analyzed, the designer can
begin to formulate the first idea of the design solution. There are a number of techniques which
can help a designer in this process like:
o Role playing: In this process the designer(s) can think from the point of view of the client
or the people who will be using that space by putting himself/herself in the client’s/users’
place.
o Brainstorming: This is a very useful method as it allows the designer to come up with
diverse ideas for the design solution.
o Group Discussions: A number of good ideas are likely to emerge during a group
discussion, as each individual will put forward his/her own solution and from these the
most suitable can be chosen.
o Synectics: In this technique the designer tries to unify or reconcile different schools of
thought to come up with the solution which best suits the design problem.
There are various stages to the process of ideation of a design solution.
a) Schematics: preliminary sketches, plans are made to:
o Indicate spatial and circulation relationships.
o The scale and shape of spaces become evident.
o Important features are delineated.
o Several schemes are quickly sketched for study.

Examples of schematic
plans.
b) Exploratory Sketches: These are quick sketches which are made by the designer with
the purpose of recording his/her ideas for the design solution in a graphic format, to be
utilized as and when required.
c) Concept Statements: Verbalization of how to achieve project objectives. Establishes
underlying principles, both aesthetic and functional, that the physical designs will
address. It discusses methods that will be used to achieve results, not the results.

3.7 Choose
After various solutions have been arrived at for a particular design problem, the best solution has
to be chosen. There are again a number of methods which can be utilized for this purpose:
o Personal choice: This is one of the most common methods where the personal preference
of a client or the user dictates the choice of the design solution.
o Critical comparison: In this method two or more design solutions are compared on the
basis of their inherent qualities and out of these the one best suited is picked. In some
cases a combination of two or more solutions may be used.
Once the choice has been made the process of making the preliminary drawings can begin. The
preliminary plans of a design solution will have:
o Scaled proportions of spaces and elements.

o Addition of internal architectural details.
o Walls, windows and built-in items are shown.
o Furniture might be indicated in some areas.

3.8 Implementation
Techniques include final design drawings, time schedules, construction drawings, specifications.
3.9 Evaluation
Design requires a critical review of alternatives and careful weighing of the strengths and
weaknesses of each proposal until the best possible fit between problem and solution is achieved.
Given a range of possible solutions, each must be evaluated according to the criteria set forth in
the problem statement and further clarified in the problem analysis
Implementation: Final Drawings
Successive explorations of the problem and the evaluation of alternative solutions should help
narrow down the choices for design development. While the initial stages of the design process
encourages divergent thinking about the problem, this latter phase requires a convergent focus on
a specific design solution.
Once a final decision has been made, the design proposal is developed, refined, and prepared for
implementation. This includes the production of working drawings and specifications, and other
services related to purchasing, construction, and supervision.
No design process is complete until a design solution which has been implemented is evaluated
for its effectiveness in solving a given problem. This critical appraisal of a completed design can

build up our knowledge base, sharpen our intuition, and provide valuable lessons that may be
applied in future work.
One of the idiosyncrasies of the design
processes is that it does not always lead
simply and inevitably to a single obvious,
correct answer. In fact, there is often more
than one valid solution to a design problem.
How then can we judge whether a design is
good or bad?
A design may be good, in the judgement of
the designer, the client, or the people who
experience and use the design, for any of
several reasons:
A design may be good because it
functions well- it works.
A design may be good because it is
affordable – it is economical,
efficient, and durable.
A design may be good because it
looks good – it is aesthetically
pleasing.
At times we may judge a design to
be good because we feel it follows
current design trends – it is in
fashion – or because of the
impression it will make on others –
it enhances our status.
As the foregoing suggests, there are several kinds of meaning which can be conveyed by a
design. Some operate at a level generally understood and accepted by the general public. Others
are more readily discerned by specific groups of people. Successful design usually operates at
more than one level of meaning and thus appeal to a wide range of people.
A good design, therefore, should be understandable. Knowing why something was done helps to
make a design comprehensible. If a design does not express an ides, communicate a meaning, or
elicit a response. Either it will be ignored or it will be a bad design.

Summary
It is important to emphasise that interior design is a specialised branch of architecture or
environmental design. The field of interior design already has a number of specialised areas. One
of the newer areas is "space planning"--i.e., the analysis of space needs, allocation of space, and
the interrelation of functions within business firms.
Interior designers need to be creative, imaginative and artistic. They also need to be disciplined,
organized and skilled business people. Combining aesthetic vision with practical skills and
knowledge, interior designers work with clients to develop design solutions that are
"aesthetically appealing, technically sophisticated and pragmatically satisfying."
Revision Points
A design may be good because it functions well- it works.
A design may be good because it is affordable – it is economical, efficient, and durable.
A design may be good because it looks good – it is aesthetically pleasing.
At times we may judge a design to be good because we feel it follows current design
trends – it is in fashion – or because of the impression it will make on others – it
enhances our status.
The design process can be divided into eight parts, namely:
1. Commit
2. State
3. Collect
4. Analyse
5. Ideate
6. Choose
7. Implement
8. Evaluate
Key Words
Analysis - the ability to define and understand the nature of the design problem adequately is an
essential part of the solution.
1. Organizational Relationships: Functional Adjacencies
2. Matrices: Matrices help to identify spaces and/or activities that should be located or
performed together
3. Bubble Diagrams: Bubble diagrams graphically illustrate functional and spatial
relationships. Scale is not an issue at this step.
4. Identify Needs
o User Needs
o Physiological Needs: Anthropometrics and Ergonomics
Anthropometrics: Measuring the physical requirements of human beings as users
Ergonomics: Application of anthropometric data to human/environment
relationships

Intext questions
1. Describe in detail the various fields open to a professional interior designer.
2. What do you understand by the term “retail designer”? Explain in detail the requirements
of a good retail designer.
3. What are the principles of Interior Design? In what two main categories can you divide
the field of Interior Design?
Terminal Exercises
1. What do you understand by the aesthetic component of interior design? Explain with the
help of examples.
2. What is the definition of an interior designer?
3. Explain with the help of examples the elements of design?
4. Why is it important for an interior designer to have through knowledge of the elements
and principles of design?
5. What are the expressive qualities of lines? Explain with the help of sketches.
6. Differentiate between form and shape. What is the relationship of form and shape to
space?
7. What is positive and negative space?
8. What is the importance of colour for an interior designer? Explain the terms hue, value
and intensity.
9. How do pattern and texture effect a design? Explain with the help of examples.
10. What purpose would the principle of “emphasis” have in a design? How can you create
emphasis in a design?
11. What is the importance of the “Design Process”? Explain in detail how this process helps
a designer to work better.
12. Explain the stages of analysis, synthesis and evaluation in a design process.
Assignments / Learning Activities
Students shall cut pictures of various kinds of interiors from magazines and present these
as innovative collages.
Design Solution: implementing the design idea developed with the help of working
(orthographic projections) and presentation drawings (metric and perspective views).
Design Appraisal: a critical evaluation of the whole project. Analyse the results and
compare to what you initially set out to achieve. What modifications need to be made to
improve the design? What changes would you make if you were to design the room
again?
Supplementary Material / Suggested Reading
Time Saver’s Standards for Interior Design
Magazines and Periodicals.

Lesson - 4: Anthropometrics
Objectives
To understand what is Anthropometrics and its requirement for designing an interior space.
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Anthropometric Variance Parameters
4.2 Anthropometrics and Design
4.3 Design Aids
4.4 Anthropometric Data for Various Rooms
4.0 Introduction
The study of Anthropometrics (human measurement) is concerned with the physical sizes and
shapes of humans. Of particular interest are the differences between and among different
populations (men vs. women, Northern Europeans vs. Japanese).
It is also essential, due to the many variables involved, that the data selected be appropriate to the
user of the space or furniture to be designed. It becomes necessary, therefore, for the intended
user population to be properly defined. To develop your own primary anthropometric data by
actually having individual body measurements taken, surely it will reflect a far greater financial
investment. Unavailability of both time and funds prevent undertaking sophisticated studies, an
engineering anthropometries can be consulted to discuss the statistical methods of obtaining the
necessary information
4.1 Anthropometric Variance Parameters
Anthropometrics literally means man (anthro) measurements (metric). It is the measurement of
the size and proportions of the human body, as well as parameters such as reach and visual range
capabilities. Accurate data on height, weight, limb, and body segment sizes are needed to design
items ranging from clothing, furniture, automobiles, buses, and subway cars to space shuttles and
space stations. Anthropometrics enables us to properly size items, including system interfaces,
to "fit" the user.

Gender Age Ethnicity
Height, size, weight, strength, Height, size, weight, strength, Height, size, weight, and body
and body segment proportion and body segment proportion segment proportion
Anthropometric Variance Parameters
There are individual differences in human characteristics and that these follow a normal
distribution. This is true with anthropometric measurements.
You may have heard the expression "to design for the 5th percentile female to the 95th percentile
male." This means that for the selected anthropometric measure, such as height, the lower limit
of our range is the height of a 5th percentile female and the upper limit is the height of a 95th
percentile male. This range accommodates 90% of the population for that one selected measure.
We again use the concept of "population." This is important in anthropometrics as there are
differences in size and body segment proportions due to age, gender, and ethnicity. So, to
properly select the data to use, we must know something about our population composition, and
we must know what percentage of the population we wish to accommodate. The anthropometric
range will be much different if we are designing products for male, professional basketball
players than if we are designing for the general public.

Stature (Item 34) in inches
1st 5th 50th 95th 99th
Men 63.1 64.8 69.1 73.5 75.2
women 58.4 60.2 64.1 68.4 70.1
Functional Reach (Item 43) in inches
1st 5th 50th 95th 99th
Men 28.4 29.1 31.5 34.1 35.3
women 25.9 26.7 28.9 31.4 32.4

Data from FAA Human Factors Design Guide
In choosing the proper anthropometric measurements to use, we must know not only the user
population, but also the specific application or design problem. If we are designing overhead
luggage racks for public transportation, accommodating 90% of the rider population is probably
sufficient. However, if we are determining the position of an emergency button, we should
design to accommodate 99% of the rider population, including wheelchair users.
High Forward Reach Limit High and Low Side Reach Limits
4.2 Anthropometrics and Design

Design Limitations
Myth of designing for the "average" person - since there are no people whose body
dimensions are all at the 50th percentile. Body dimensions aren't linearly correlated so people
with short arms don't necessarily have short legs, etc. While the use of the 5th and 95th
percentiles on one body dimension may exclude 10% of the population, the use of these on 13
dimensions actually can exclude 52% of the population.

a. People of smaller body dimensions and, correspondingly, the lower-range percentile
data should be used to establish dimensions where reach is the determining factor.
b. Larger-size people and, correspondingly, the high percentile range data should be
used in establishing clearance dimensions
a) Myth that designing for 5-95th percentile - designing to include the ranges between
the 5th and 95th percentiles of anthropometric data doesn't fit everyone. There are
two misunderstandings:
i. 5 - 95 percentile is only 90% - 5-95% _ 95% of people, it's only 90%! If you design for
90%, you'll fit 9 out of 10, 90 out of 100, 900 out of 1000, etc.
ii. Anthropometrics are based on population "norms" - must consider differences if dealing
with a subpopulation such as a group of Southeast Asians or offices for a pro basketball
team.
b) Use appropriate anthropometric data- It is essential, because of the many variables
involved, that the data selected be appropriate to the user of the space or furniture to
be designed. It becomes necessary, therefore, for the intended user population to be
properly defined in terms of such factors as age, sex, occupation, and ethnicity. If the
user is an individual or constitutes a very small group, it may, in certain situations, be
feasible to develop your own primary anthropometric data by actually having
individual body measurements taken.
i. Maximum value - Examples include door clearances and door widths for wheelchairs
and users (arms must work the chair), getting a gurney through a door, and railings.
ii. Minimum clearances - Examples include safety clearances for railings and elevator
buttons.

c) Design for an adjustable
range - but beware of the
cost/benefits of including
more percentiles. Each
successive percent of the
population to be
accommodated increases
the costs relative to the
ben efits, i.e. there are no
diminishing returns.
4.3 Design Aids -

a) Data tables - have
anthropometric data but
may be difficult to find
and use.
b) Human scale - a series
of templates are used
by a computer to
change relevant
attributes as
populations change.
Values are printed.
Unfortunately, it's still
necessary to draw the
figures from the data
values.
c) Mannequins - a two-dimensional drawing or figure which articulates like ADAM
(Anthropometric Data Applications Mannequin) with plastic parts snap together like clear
moveable paper dolls or overlay transparencies.
d) Models - three-dimensional models like "George" can be useful as examples of
anthropometric data. Models have often been used by clothing manufacturers.
e) Computer generated models - three-dimensional models of a user at a specified
percentile in certain respects. Can see elevation, plan, or perspective. An example is
"SAMMIE", System for Aiding Man-Machine Interaction and Evaluation. Image can be
changed to simulate motion but we don't have good data for most biomechanics.

4.4 Anthropometric Data for Various Rooms
Kitchens

Bathrooms

Dining Table

Bedrooms

Sofa Measurements

Unit – III
Lesson 5: Client profiling for Residential Projects

Lesson 6: Presentation Techniques

Lesson - 5: Client Profiling for Residential
Projects
Objective
To understand the importance of a questionnaire in a design project, its relevance in the design
process and formulating a profile.
Structure:
5.1 Household Members
5.2 Household Size
5.3 Career Goals and Job-Related Activities
5.4 Recreation and Use of Leisure Time
5.5 Physical Characteristics
5.6 How Household Members Relate to Space
5.7 Individual Need for Privacy
5.8 Provisions for Pets
5.9 Personal Furnishings
5.10 Guest Entry
5.11 Service/Family Entry
5.12 Design Guidelines for Service Entry
5.13 Social Areas
5.14 Living Area
5.15 Family Room
5.16 Dining
Introduction
Before you can start designing a residence there is a lot of information that you need to collect
regarding the family for whom you are designing the house. Until and unless you do proper
research on the habits and likes and dislikes of your client’s family you will not be able to meet
your client’s requirements and therefore will never be able to satisfy him/her fully.
For conducting your research on the household you should have a number of meetings with all
the family members and the best method of collecting information is to prepare a questionnaire.
A questionnaire for a residential project should contain the following questions/queries:
5.1 Household members
Ages, sexes

5.2 Household size
Adults/children living at home
Will size change? Will people be leaving?
Are there overnight guests? How many? For how long?
5.3 Career Goals and Job-related Activities
In what ways do careers or job-related activities of household members affect the
following?
Your lifestyle: Where you live, your leisure time, the way you entertain, the kind of
house you will need.
Housekeeping and maintaining the home and grounds: The division of household tasks,
the need to employ household help, the need for outside care-giving.
If anyone in the household works during other than daytime hours, how does this affect:
The domestic routine, mealtimes, other members’ free time, space arrangements in the
home?
List ways in which better space arrangements could alleviate any problems resulting
from work-related issues.
5.4 Recreation and Use of Leisure Time
Identify each household member’s leisure-time
activities
Will the client(s) need special spaces for these
activities?
Will clients need storage space for supplies/
equipment, collections, books, athletic
equipment, campers, boats, etc.?
5.5 Physical Characteristics
Physical characteristics of household
members that may require deviation from
standards (e.g., height, girth, mobility,
vision, hearing)
Door widths, heights, hardware
Kitchen cabinets
Bathroom vanities/basins; bathtubs; toilets
Clearances within spaces, hallways
Electrical outlets, switches
Stairs, ramps
Beds
Flooring materials

5.6 How Household Members Relate to Space
Do you prefer living spaces that
flow together; that are open
visually to a view; that feel airy
and spacious?
Do you want large window walls
that open to outdoor living
spaces? Minimal window
treatments?
Do you like light, small-scale
furnishings? Perhaps built-ins?
Do you prefer individual rooms that can be closed off?
Do you prefer cosy, intimate spaces?
Do you like windows to be smaller and covered for privacy?
Do you want some open spaces and others that are more private? Which ones?
5.7 Individual Need for Privacy
Can the client afford separate bedrooms where
needed and desired? If not, how can visual
privacy be created? Can privacy be achieved in
places other than the bedrooms? (e.g., a
playhouse, a fort)
Can furniture groupings in an open space create
different activity areas?
Could a space be converted to a private retreat?
Should interior doors be provided with locks?
Is privacy from neighbours an issue? What
mechanisms can be implemented to increase privacy within the house and in the
outdoor space?
5.8 Provisions for Pets
Indoor pets
Kinds of pets (current, future)
Provision for pet door; litter box; location
Feeding routine; sleeping arrangements
Restrictions within house
Bathing, grooming
Exercise routine (e.g., runs)
Outdoor pets
Kinds of outdoor pets
Special facilities required

5.9 Personal Furnishings
Which of the following is applicable?
You have not started to acquire furnishings or
appliances.
You have a few things you intend to use.
You intend to add a few pieces, a little at a time, to
what you now have.
You have everything you need.
Do you intend to carry out a specific theme/style?
Do you like to mix furnishings of different styles? Different finishes? Patterns?
5.10 Guest Entry
Which entry the household members will use most often? By guests?
Do you prefer guest entry to be: Completely separated from living areas? Partially
screened?
Completely open to living areas?
What first impression do you wish to convey?
To see people at the front door before opening it, which arrangement do you prefer?
A window adjacent to the door? A glass panel in the door? A peephole? A one-way
glass panel? A security camera?
What storage requirement does one have?
5.11 Service/Family Entry
Do you want the family entrance accessible to garage? Kitchen? Laundry area?
Workshop? Food storage area? Outdoor spaces?
What items should be logically stored here?
What special electrical requirements?
What types of finishes?
5.12 Design Guidelines for Service Entry
An important criterion for service entry location is access to work zone, including the
kitchen, laundry area, shop area, and possibly cleanup area.
Traffic from this entrance should not penetrate work triangle in kitchen.
Size and arrangement are determined by functions of the space.
Storage requirements are determined by functions and client needs.
5.13 Social Areas
(Living room, family room, dining)
What activities will occur?
Entertaining
Adults and/or children’s games (quiet)
Watching TV; playing video games
Playing musical instruments; listening to music

Reading; studying
Dining; serving drinks and snacks
Will space or storage be required? (e.g., entertainment equipment, game table, study space,
bookshelves, piano, collections)
5.14 Living Area
For what will the living area be used?
A gathering space for household members; adults only?
Adults and children?
A quiet retreat for adults
A special occasion room
For what kinds of entertaining will it be used?
Formal and/or informal adult gatherings
Children’s gatherings
Meetings
5.15 Family Room
If the living room is used as a more formal space, do you desire a family room that is
open to the kitchen? Do you want it to be an extension of the living room? Or located
in another part of house?
What activities will take place here?
What type of storage is needed?
Do you want it accessible to outdoor living space?
What kind of special furnishings are needed? (e.g., game tables, hobby surfaces)
5.16 Dining
How many members of the
household sit down together for
meals? For breakfast? For lunch?
For dinner?
Where do you prefer to serve
family meals? At a table in the
kitchen? At a counter or bar? In
family room? In formal dining
area? On patio/deck?
When serving guests, which
arrangement is preferred? Formal
dining room?
How are meals typically served?
E.g., family style, buffet-style, or
formal service

Lesson - 6: Presentation Techniques
Objectives
To understand how design is universal.
Structures
6.1 Process Drawing
6.2 Scale Drawings
6.3 Models
6.3.1 Interior Models
6.4 Final Drawings and other Presentation Materials
Introduction
Emphasis will be placed on design process, problem solving, spatial organization,
anthropometrics, universal design awareness, and presentation techniques.
Other Forms of
Presentations:
The term “Presentation”
is now a general use to
describe the way a
design proposal is
shown to a client to give
information and to gain
approval. Presentation
for large projects may
involve elaborate
rendering, models, even
film or taped TV
Techniques to make it
easy for a group to
understand and
appreciate the proposal.
In the study of the making of both large and small scale interiors, students should understand that
the drawing process is inextricably connected with the design process. When design assignments
are made and program and drawings are received, students are then ready to begin process
Drawing, thinking and drawing are intimately interrelated. Some practitioners say that thinking
begins first others are convinced that until lines are put on paper, no real thinking occurs.

6.1 Process Drawing:
From the given architectural plan
to the final stages of design
development, process drawings
indicate changes in thinking.
Nevertheless, movement towards
a concept is the desired result.
Preliminary design stage
presented through rough, loosely
scaled drawings of plans,
elevations and perspectives.
Different shapes and sizes change
the configuration of the interior
without necessarily affecting the
existing architecture.
Design is a visual, physical activity; design ideas must be made visible – Understandably visible.
This can be accomplished only through drawings and models. At this stage rough sketches are
expected.
The profession demands some kind of presentation which would speak for your design. sketches
at initial stage thus forms the very heart of the design process as it is carried on by architects,
interior designers and designers in virtually every other field.
In practice, the designer depends on sketches, not only to help in the development of ideas but
also a means to communicate. And finally convert design idea into highly specific
construction/working drawings.
Presentation drawings can be in sketchy form which may include:
1. Personal Sketching helpful to designer
2. Conceptual Sketching it self.
3. Presentation Sketching
Personal and conceptual sketching are very direct product of the mind and hand of the person
who makes them, they automatically become personally expressive, even if this is not the aim of
designer.
Hard or
Use of Presentation Drawings
Soft / Sketching
Almost by definition, sketching is quick. It commits ideas to paper with enough rapidity to keep
up with, or atleast not fall too far behind, in the process of thought. Presentation is a matter of
putting down on paper, as quickly and easily as possible.
Any sketch can be used in a presentation; however, concept and developmental sketches are
sometimes abstract to a degree that is meaningful only to the designer and, perhaps colleagues.
When sketches are intended for presentation, somewhat more “finish” and clarity are usually in
order so that the meaning will come through with only limited verbal explanation.
Presentation sketches are also particularly well suited to reproduction in prints – in brochures,
magazines or newspapers.
There is no question that the typical client is impressed and often charmed to actually be present
as creative design develops along with conversation.
The comparison of sketch and photo is an interesting demonstration of how closely drawing can
simulate reality. Presentation often in for of perspectives for exterior and interior design of a
built form. Although plans and perspectives are the most common sketch presentation drawings,
elevations also can be useful and give exact information about height dimensions which can be
useful later when construction drawings are to be made.
6.2 Scale Drawings:
Traditionally, the initial concept was called the sketch design and this was then translated into
the building process information and called working drawings. The manufacturing and assembly
of the building elements and components will require for more information than the initial
design. Much more information is needed simply to coordinate the building work. The initial,
tentative, solution remains tentative for a considerable time while the details of the design are
investigated and coordinated.
All rough sketches translate into scale
drawing. Rough plans and elevations will
become precise, measured drawings.
Architectural sections are usually required
where interior design is considered as a
part of Architectural design. At this stage
in the design process the drawing should
begin to suggest materials and the values
of light and shade.
Final presentation may include partially
coloured drawings or renderings.
6.3 MODELS
6.3.1 Interior Models
a) A rough model of existing
architectural conditions clearly
describes the volume of the
interior. Experimentation with size,
shape and aesthetic principles
continue.
b) In a finished model, which may be
used as part of a presentation the
final relationships of shapes
are revealed. All design have been made and all the components are in place.

6.4 Final Drawings and Other Presentation Materials
As the design process continues, all required drawings and models move toward a level of finish.
Final presentations that include models and material samples require that students consider those
components of the assignment at as high a level of design finish as their drawings.
6.5 Other forms of Presentations:
a) Models
1. Sketch Model / Block
2. Finished Model
3. Model with Interiors
b) Sketches
4. Personal Sketching
5. Concept Sketching
6. Presentation Sketching
c) Photographs
A) MODELS
Models provide another way to visually represent an interior space or series of spaces. Sketch
models are usually made from inexpensive material. They can be put together quickly, and the
effort is worthwhile. Such rough models assist in judging matters of function as well as aesthetic
problems of scale and proportion, colour and texture. Models can give a more exact position –
relationship in three – dimensions of the component parts that make up the whole of the design.
Finished Models: which are more specific in the quantity and quality of design information they
provide, require more time. Better-quality of materials will be used.

B) SKETCHES
Personal Sketching: not for the purpose to be displayed. These type of sketches helps the
designer to further develop the design. for personal help.
Concept Sketching: This is a very

important stage of concept formation. At
this stage the complete design idea is
prepared broadly. These sketches are
fairly good to be understood. Concept
sketching shows the flow of activities
and inter-connectivity among them,
clubbing of activities or being more
specific clubbing of similar activities and
at the same time segregation of
dissimilar activities. Concept sketches are reasonably in good condition to be displayed and
form a more specific and easier way of presentation.

Presentation Sketching: When the final design is ready. The complete design has to be put
forward in front of the client or for that matter in front of public. Before actually putting all
paper work to reality it is necessary that public opinion has to be t aken. At this stage
beautiful perspective drawings are prepared, rendered to show every detail with colour
combination. The total atmosphere is created in front of observer. Whatever till this stage
was in designer’s mind comes out on paper with all details as far as possible.
C) PHOTOGRAPHS
This is another way to present an idea. Photographs which can be clicked in no time.
Photographic presentation is comparatively less time consuming but at the same time very
interesting. Overview of the complete design can be prepared.
Remote sensing, Aerial photography which is very helpful to town planners. In case of interiors,
again photography plays a very important role.

Summary
Principles of Universal Design are applicable to a wide range of design disciplines including
environments, products, and communications. These seven principles may be applied to evaluate
existing designs, guide the design process and educate both designers and consumers about the
characteristics of more usable products and environments.
Revision Points
1. Process Drawing
2. Scale Drawings
3. Models
4. Interior Models
5. Final Drawings and other Presentation Materials
Key Words
Presentation Sketching: Perspective drawings are prepared, rendered to show every detail with
colour combination. The total atmosphere is created in front of observer..
In text Questions
What are interior Models?
Terminal Exercises
Explain the principles in detail using examples of any product ?
Students will collect examples of universal design from magazines and publication.

Unit – IV
Lesson 7: Design Project 1

Lesson - 7: Design Project 1
Objectives
To use the process learnt in the earlier lessons to conceptualize and design the interiors of a
room.
Structures
7.1 Analysis
7.2 Synthesis
7.3 Evaluation
Introduction
The design project is the major assignment done by the students of interior design; because this
is where they actually use all the knowledge they have gained. In this first project the emphasis is
on implementing all the steps which have been learnt in the previous chapters.
As we have already learnt, the design process consists of the following:
1. Commit
2. State
3. Collect
4. Analyse
5. Ideate
6. Choose
7. Implement
8. Evaluate
For ease of use we will compress the process into the following:
1. Analysis (commit, state, collect, analyse)
2. Synthesis (ideate, choose)
3. Evaluation (implement, evaluate)
7.1 Analysis
The first stage in the design process is to study and analyse the design problem and all the
possible design solutions available. This helps us to have a greater understanding of what is
required from the design and how exactly to achieve it.
Design Brief
The initial step in doing the proper analysis of the design problem is the design brief; a design
brief is a written document for a design project developed by the designer with the help of his

client. The document gives an outline of the work to be carried and the desirable outcomes
expected. A design brief for a single room design project would read something like this:
Design the interiors of a room 14’-0” x 18’-0” for a girl/boy of age group 18-22 years.
The room will function as a multi-purpose living area, having space for seating,
entertaining, reading, working, sleeping and storage.
While a lot of information can be gathered from the design brief, the designer can also use
various methods like interviewing the client, analysing the existing site to get the following
information:
1. Client Profile: it is very important that a designer is fully versed with the exact
requirements from the design solution and the best way to do this is to fully understand
the likes and dislikes of the client, as well as the lifestyles of the various people who will
be using the space. It is very important that a designer prepares a comprehensive profile
of the client which includes specifics such as: professional and personal requirement from
the space, lifestyle and habits of the client, colour preference, etc. The designer can use
personal interviews and meetings with the client to find out this information.
2. Design Requirements: Once the client profile is ready the designer would be able make
a detailed list of the specific requirements of the design. This would be a list of all
desirable furniture pieces and specific spaces you would want in the given area based on
the activities taking place in the space, in this case it would be something like the
following:
a. Sofa with side tables and occasional chairs.
b. An entrainment unit containing T.V, D.V.D, audio system, a gaming station (X-
Box, PS, and Wii etc.)
c. A study or a work table.
d. A bed with side table(s).
e. A cupboard or closet (with open or closed shelves) for storage.
f. Other than this a lot of information regarding the kind or furnishings, colours,
finishes, and lighting required can also be worked out, taking into consideration
the client profile and size, shape and location of the space to be designed.
3. Design Limitations: These are the things which cannot be altered in the design to be
made and the designer has to work within these limitations to achieve the design
outcome. These would include all restrictions which exist, such as:
a. Physical: shape and size of the space to be designed,
b. Adjacencies: the area which already exist around the space to be designed
c. The number and size of the openings: doors and windows
d. Structural elements: beams and columns present in the space
e. The budget: the amount of money the client is willing to spend on the project.
f. Likes and dislikes of the client.
g. Time available: the amount of time within which the design has to be completed.

Case Study
Once the details regarding the requirements, desirables and limitations for a design solution have
been worked out, the next step is to stat formulating the solution. One of the best method to come
up with a solution is to first study how a similar design problem has been solved by somebody
else, this is called a case study. During a case study students are required to study in detail an
existing design similar to the one they are supposed to make, so for example is you are going to
design a bedroom you should look at examples of other bedrooms already designed and being
used.
A case study is carried out via the following steps:
1. Find a design similar to the one you are going to make, if possible try to look for a live
design i.e. a design which has been actually made and is in use.
2. Study the design carefully in all aspects – space utilisation, furniture placement and
design, colours and patterns used, lighting and electrical fittings, etc. – keeping in mind
what the design brief for that particular design might have been.
3. If possible try and meet the designer of the design under study, and find out why the
designer came up with that particular solution and what was going on in his/her mind
while designing.
4. Prepare a questionnaire for the people who are using that space to find our whether they
are satisfied with the design or would they want to change something in the design.
5. Prepare a report out of your study, complete with pictures of the point and elements
(good or bad) which stood out the most for you, explain why did you find these points so
striking. List the positive and negative aspects of the design – according to you as a
designer or the people who are using the design.
7.2 Synthesis
Up until now the objective was to collect all possible information regarding the design problem
and the possible solution. From the information collected a designer can start building on his/her
design idea and eventually the desired design solution. This is the stage where the solutions in
the designer’s mind are ideated – given a physical shape, and the best way to do that is through
drawings, models and samples.
To formulate a solution and to successfully execute it, a designer needs to communicate his or
her ideas to a number of concerned persons starting with the client. Drawing is the language used
by a designer to communicate, and depending on the purpose they are made for drawings can be
broadly classified as:
Conceptual Drawings: made by the designer for him/herself.
Presentation/Schematic Drawings: made to present your ideas to a non-technical
person/s usually the client.
Working Drawings: made for the execution of the design, technical in nature.
All design projects have to have these three basic categories of drawings, otherwise the chances
of miscommunication and misinterpretation of design are very high.
Concept Drawings:
The first step towards building the solution is to arrive at a concept for the design keeping in
mind the data available. A concept is the basic idea behind the formulation of a design. It is the
guiding principle that tells the designer which layout, material, furniture piece, colour or
furnishing will do in giving the design a cohesive and complete look. A designer usually makes
the following boards or drawings as part of the concept drawings:
1. Concept/Inspiration board: a concept board is a collection of images and written text
which a designer uses as a guideline to formulate the various aspects of the design
solution. You should always try and give a title to your inspiration board which reflects
your basic idea behind adopting a particular style or idea for the space. For example, a
boards titled “A Happy Day” can work very well for a space meant for children, and can
look something like this:
The above board gives the designer an idea about the colours and textures to be used, the shapes
and motifs to apply and also some idea about the layout and furniture to be employed.

Here are a few more examples of concept boards:
Sunshine Yellow: Yellow is the colour of

sunshine. It’s associated with joy, happiness,
intellect, and energy

The inspiration board is about clean lines, fresh accents and peaceful elements for relaxing
and romance.
2. Bubble Diagram: After the concept has been finalised, the next step is to plan the layout
of the space and where what furniture item has to go. Depending on the relationships of
the spaces to one another as well as to the hierarchy of function, bubbles are drawn
indicating how the spaces will be laid out in the area available.
This is an indicative drawing and the size of the bubble has nothing to do with the actual
space to be allocated. Scale is kept in mind while making this drawing, the only purpose
is to fix the position of spaces in relation to one another.

3. Block Diagram: This is the last of the concept drawings, and while being somewhat
similar to bubble diagrams, has a slightly different function. In this type of a drawing
attention is paid to the size of the required space and the blocks drawn are proportionate
and indicative of the actual space required on the ground.

Presentation/schematic Drawings:
Once the designer is clear about what kind of design he/she is going to propose for the space, the
next step is to present the idea to the client for his/her approval. Presentation drawings have a
very important role to play in the design process as without the client’s approval of the design
the project cannot move forward. This is the stage of the choice – where the client will choose a
design most to his liking form the alternates given to him by the designer.
As the client is usually a non-technical (lay) person and thus is unable to understand technical
drawings, therefore these drawings are very visually pleasing in nature consisting of mainly
pictorial views with the use of a lot of colour and texture.
Presentation drawings are made to scale and are drawn both manually and on CAD; only the
basic dimensioning is done on these drawings.
The main types of presentation drawings are:
2D Drawings: these include layout plans and elevations. In drawing floor plans it is
important to convey significant spatial relationships with consistent graphic conventions.
Various line weights are used to convey depths and qualities of form. In standard floor
plans the boldest line weight is used to outline those elements that have been cut through
and are closest to the viewer (such as full-height wall lines). An intermediate line weight
is employed to outline objects that lie below the plane of the cut but above the floor
plane, such as fixtures, built-ins, and furnishings. A finer line weight is used to outline

surface treatment of floors and other horizontal planes, such as tile and wood grain.
Objects that are hidden, such as shelves, or above the plane of the cut are dashed or
ghosted in; this must be done in a manner that is consistent throughout the presentation.

3D Drawings: these include isometrics and axonometric projections, one and two point
perspectives. When deciding which drawings are needed to explain the scheme, careful
note must be made of the important points of the scheme that need to be explained.
Rendering a drawing will help to

convey colour and textural
intentions. h is drawing has been
worked up relatively quickly on the
drawing board with casual pencil
work, then scanned and rendered in
Photoshop.

Presentation Boards: Other than drawings a client needs to know about the materials
and finishes which play a very important role in giving a finished look to a space. Many
designers mount preliminary selections on presentation boards so that the client or end
user gets a sense of the materials and finishes to be used in a design. This is called a
presentation board and this requires a lot of thought and effort on the part of the designer
as they go a long way in making the client have a clear understanding of the proposed
design.
While you may give a verbal presentation to the client in addition to showing a set of
boards, it is likely that the presentation boards will be let for the client to review, and the
client and others that may not have been at the presentation will need to be able to easily
assimilate all the material that forms the submission. Once again, clarity is the key, as any
discrepancies, inconsistencies or breaks in the narrative of the presentation will create
doubts in the mind of the client. Even when the designer has made a verbal presentation,
the boards need to be able to stand on their own to explain the design.
Models: For presentation purposes, models that have been more carefully constructed
can be used to explain the space to the client. Un-rendered white models will help to
focus attention on the three-dimensional qualities of the space and rendered models can
be used to communicate the impact of the decorative scheme. Models can be physical or
digital.

Working Drawings:
After the client’s approval the work moves on to the next stage, where drawings are made which
will be used by the contractor to execute the design on site. For this purpose a designer makes
working drawings which convey all the details regarding the materials to be used, the exact size
and dimension, the method of construction etc. of a design so that it can be given physical shape.
Working drawings are always drawn to scale and must contain all information regarding
dimensions, material used and construction methods employed. They can be drawn either by
hand or CAD, though now-a-days preference is given to CAD drawings because of their
accuracy and ease in revising changes.
They are never coloured and are almost always two dimensional, great care is taken to ensure
that the drawings are as accurate as possible and give complete information regarding the design.
Working drawings constitute the major bulk of the drawings made for a design project and
depending on the complexity of the design to be executed the following type of working
drawings are made:
1. Plans:
a. Structural plans
b. Furniture/Spatial Layout plans
c. Flooring plans
d. Reflected ceiling / Electrical layout plans
e. Sanitary and plumbing
f. HVAC plans
2. Sectional elevations as required
3. Detail drawings:
a. Furniture
b. Partitions and Wall treatments: panelling, moulding and, p.o.p work etc.
c. Cupboards and wardrobes
d. Door and window

Example of working drawing
7.3 Evaluation
With the completion of the working drawings the design the designing part of the project is over
and it is ready to be implemented on site. The interior designer’s work shifts to that of a
supervisor and manager, it is his/her duty to ensure that the work is done according to the how it
was visualised at the designing stage.
Before implementing the design it is very important that the design is evaluated based on the
initial design brief and the list of requirements worked out from it. Only once the designer and
the client are satisfied that the design solution worked out will completely fit the design problem
identified in the initial stages should the work progress to the next stage. If the design is found to
be lacking in any aspect the designer needs to go back to the drawing board to work out the
problem.

Summary
The steps required to complete a design project successfully are covered in this lesson. The first
design project will be a simple room with living space for a young boy or girl, and the student
designers need to design the space as per the steps laid out in the lesson.
Students will complete all steps laid out in the lesson to complete this assignment.

Unit – V
Lesson 8: Design Project 2

Lesson - 8: Design Project 2
Objectives
To be able to design a multipurpose space
Structures
8.1 Questionnaire
8.2 Creche Playroom
8.2.1 Requirements/Research of Needs of Children of Age Group 2-5 Years
8.2.2 General Requirements
8 2.3 Environment
8.2.4 Educational Areas
8.2.5 Discovery Area
8.2.6 Art Area
8.2.7 Music Area
8.2.8 House Area
8.2.9 Reading/Listening Area
8.2.10 Block-Building Area
8.2.11 Manipulative Area
8.2.12 Toilets
8.2.13 Kitchenette
8.2.14 Diapering Station
8.2.15 Sleeping And Napping Areas
8.2.16 Common Areas
8.3 Real Life Space
8.3.1 Concept
8.3.2 Finishes Sheet
Introduction
Crèche Playroom – Large area to be used as multipurpose space for kids of age 2-5 years.
8.1 QUESTIONNAIRE
Q1. What is your name and address?

Q2. How many children you have and whom you want to leave here?
Q3. Name and age of the child?
Q4. What is time and days of child’s stay?
Q5. Whether he’ll directly come from school or you’ll drop him?
Q6. Whether it is first time for the child?
Q7. Who will drop and pick up the child?
Q8. What is the daily schedule of the child?
Q9. Any medical treatment to be followed or does he has any kind of allergy?
Q10. Will the eatables be provided by you?
Q11. What are the likes and dislikes of the child?
8.2 CRECHE PLAYROOM
8.2.1 Requirements/Research of needs of children of age group 2-5 years
Recent studies of young
children’s cognitive development
emphasize the importance of
providing stimulating educational
environments. Theorists contend
that safe, nurturing spaces
offering a wide variety of
learning opportunities enhance
the early development of the
neurological connections that
spark emotional interest and
provide the pathways for
learning. Optimal learning
environments directly motivate
students to enjoy the process of
learning and help teachers to
facilitate the learning process.
By definition well-designed
classrooms are motivational places that create new opportunities for learning by providing
educational and physical stimulation and a variety of settings within an area. The brief summary
that follows provides a general overview of typical spaces found in early childhood education
centres. Individual centres and teaching methods determine the combination of element utilized
in a particular facility but the guidelines below will help to determine how to design spaces to
create the ideal educational environment for young children.

8.2.2 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
The compositions of early
education vary. Prekindergarten
and daycare programmes can
now be found within schools,
corporate offices, community
centres or strip malls serving
anywhere from 3 to 4 children in
a private home to facilities
serving 400 or more children.
The centre can serve infants
(birth to 12 months), toddlers
(12-36 months) and pre-school
children (3-5 years old).
Alongwith the variations of size
and locations of programmes, age
groups within programmes may
also differ. Exact teacher to
student ratio will vary by state so it is important to check with your state government
requirements for early childhood facilities. Examples of staff to child ratios based upon age are
as follows:
RECOMMENDED STAFF CHILD RATIOS WITH GROUP SIZES
Group Size
Age of Chi
6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Infants (birth-12 months) 1:3 1.4
Toddler (12-24 months) 1:3 1:4 1:5 1:4
2 years old 1:4 1:5 1:6
2½ years 1:5 1:6 1:7
3 years 1:7 1:8 1:9 1:10
4 years 1:8 1:9 1:10
5 years 1:8 1:9 1:10

Similar to the student teacher ratio, space allocations for an early education area will also vary by
state requirement. The space programme of the facility should reflect the expected age range of
the children in attendance. Outlined generally accepted space requirements for early education
facilities, exclusive of washrooms, kitchens, staff areas etc. are –
Age Group and Class Suggested Minimum (Square Suggested Optimal (Square
Size Feet/Student) Feet/Student)
Infants 35 50
Toddlers 35 50
Pre-school 35 60
8.2.3 ENVIRONMENT
The environment should contribute to a child’s concept of order and space as well as provide a
rich, stimulating and safe environment where children can develop a variety of skills. To create
this type of nurturing environment, the design of the crèche must reflect an appreciation of
children’s scale in the design of individual spaces as well as the choice of furnishings.
The early educational classrooms should also provide a maximum of natural lighting and few
acoustical distractions. The colours and wall textures of a classroom are important and they can
be used to differentiate quite areas from active areas, identify classrooms, and display student
work or seasonal decorations. It is important
for each child to have a personalized space
such as cubby or mailbox where they can
leave coats, bags, or projects to bring home.
The overall space allocation of a classroom
will largely be determined by the curriculum
used by the educational facility. In a broad
sense, the crèche should be a flexible
environment that has specified spaces for
active and passive play as well as group
learning. In addition, the space plan of the
room should facilitate the teacher’s visual
supervision of the students at all times.

The National Association for the Education of Young
Children (NAEYC) recommends that classroom
space be divided into a Discovery Area which would
include sand and water play, a larger motor area, art
area, music area, house area, reading/listening area,
manipulative area block building area, wood

working/ construction area, science area, and math/computer area. The division and use of these
active and passive spaces within a room will vary based upon a school’s curriculum. Whichever
curriculum is used by an early educational centre it is important that the classroom environment
foster a climate conducive to the educational objectives of the programme.
In addition to specific curriculum – related areas within the classroom, early education rooms
should have an architecturally defined entry, cubby storage, teacher storage, diapering station
and storage, toilet areas, sleeping and nursing areas (for infants). The display areas should be
within a child’s realm of visual awareness.
Acoustical control is a fundamental concern in designing early education classrooms because
children’s voices are naturally high-pitched, and many activities, both noisy and quiet, take place
simultaneously within the room. A carpeted floor is recommended for acoustical purposes,
however, state mandates may restrict your use of carpeting within the room. In messy areas of
the room it is important to have floors that can be easily cleaned. If area rugs are used, it is
important to have non slip backings to prevent injury.
Regarding the number of
windows and their placement,
consideration ought to be
given to the view outside the
window. Where the crèche
playroom sitting affords a
pleasant, changing view,
windows might be included as
integral parts of the crèche
area. Windows should be low
enough for the children to see
through so they may
appreciate the world outside
the centre, with a minimum of
18 inches beneath the window
sill for placement of furniture
or equipment along the
exterior walls. Natural light is
an important element in any
classroom and play area:
where possible, use a
combination of windows and
skylights to maximize
sunlight. By combining
natural light with artificial
light, the sharp contrasts from
direct sunlight are softened and the artificial light can be used to create interest in the room.

8.2.4 EDUCATIONAL AREAS
Large Motor Area
Every crèche playroom will contain a large motor area where children can move about freely and
gather together as a class. Over the course of a day, this area may be incorporated into the small
learning areas of the
overall room, such as
reading area or music
area. For this reason, it
is important that the
area remains flexible.
Specific design
requirements for the
large motor area will
vary based upon
student age, but in
general, this area is
used to develop
eye/hand coordination,
large and small motor
skills, and positive
self-image.
Infants
Infants require a soft, print-rich environment where they can crawl and explore the room.
Creating nesting areas and crawl spaces will provide the infants with different environments
within the larger motor area thus scaling the room down to their size. To provide additional
stimulation within the infant’s scope of comprehension, place mirrors approximately 17 inches
above the finished floor so children can see and play with their reflections. Be sure that the
mirror material is shatterproof with edges that will not cut or puncture the skin. In addition to
items of interest on the floor level it is important to provide infants with something to look at
when held on an adult lap or lying in their cribs.
Children within the infant age group will begin to experiment with the process of walking by
pulling themselves up to a standing position. To aid this development, it is important to provide
low grab bars that are 17.3 inches above the floor that the child can use for leverage or support as
they begin walking.
Toddlers
Large motor areas for toddlers should have a hard surface flooring with non-skid area carpets
available for quieter areas or in colder climates. As with infants, the motor area should leave
space for toddlers to explore and wander. It is important to create pathway wide enough for small
groups to navigate and to create areas of interest such as small lofts. While creating these
intimate spaces keep in mind that the caretaker must be able to maintain visual contact with the
child. It is through visual supervision that early education instructors maintain order and ensure
safety within their classroom.

8.2.5 DISCOVERY AREA
The discovery area is also often called the sand and water
area of the room. It is in this area, that children explore
the materials of the world around them through play
while developing concept formation, experimentation,
exploration, sensory development, eye/hand coordination
and small motor skills. The main components of this area
are tubs – one filled with sand and the other water –
placed on free standing 24-inch-high tables. The flooring
surrounding the tubs should have an impervious floor
finish, and, if possible, a floor drain to facilitate clean up.
If a floor drain is not a possibility within the classroom, it
is suggested to place the discovery area close to the art
area sink.
In addition to the tubs, the space should contain hooks for students smocks and towels as well as
shelving for storage of tools that might be used while playing.
8.2.6 ART AREA
In the art area, children paint pictures, make
finger paintings, collages and mobiles, or
play with clay, modeling compound, paste,
crayons, marking pens, and on assortment of
other material such as soda strews, pipe
cleaners, and pop side sticks.
The art area is placed near a water source
and, like the water and sand area, must have
easily cleanable floors. A sink must be
provided in this area to facilitate clean up of
art materials and students. The guidelines for
day-care facilities in federal buildings require
the art area be equipped with a stainless steel
sink with a goose neck faucet and wrist handles. The sink handles are placed at 22 inches above
the floor for toddlers and 26 inches above the floor for pre-scholars.
The art area is equipped with shelving that is within
easy reach of the children for paper storage such as
newsprint (usually 18x24 inches) and coloured
construction paper. The construction paper should be
organized so that each child can take one colour
without disturbing the other stacks. This storage
space might also be used to store markers, paint
brushes and crayons. A second storage area for items
such as scissors, paint and paint cleaner should be
closed and out of reach of the children. The storage
cabinets can also serve as room dividers.

The art area should have space enough for two or more children to paint one at time. A regular
easel with room for painting on either side is satisfactory; or three or four easels side by side
could be provided by sloping a long piece of plywood or masonite out from a wall or room
divider. The latter arrangement has the virtue of providing more work area in less space, and it
allows the young painters to admire each other’s work. Easels should be easy to clean, and the
tray that holds the paints and brushes should be removable for cleaning.
A table is important in this area, it should be large enough to accommodate four children playing
with clay, using finger paints, or pasting collages. The table should be about 18 inches high and
have a work area of 15 square feet a more.
A drying rack provides an area to store just completed pictures while an extensive display area,
positioned at a child’s height, provides a place where children can hang and see completed
works. It is important to place the display area within a child’s scope of vision to enhance their
feeling of ownership and importance related to a completed project.
8.2.7 MUSIC AREA
Important studies have found interesting linkages between music and other cognitive
developmental skills such as mathematics. Easily incorporated into the larger motor area the
music area provides students with musical instruments, stereo equipment, and toys that can be
used during musical play (balls, scarves etc.). If possible, supply students with a recording device
so that they can make tapes of themselves or classmates and playback the recorded sound.
Children should have room within this area to sit and listen to music as well as dance or move
around the larger motor area.
8.2.8 HOUSE AREA
The house area encourages role-playing or make-believe among children. By participating in this
form of socio-dramatic play, children develop their oral language skills, positive self-image, self-
expression and vocabulary.
Providing child-size duplicates of home furnishings enables students to mimic reality within a
known environment: the home. When organizing this space provides students with a child – size
sink, stove, refrigerator, table and chairs, doll bed, high chair, mirror, and a space for hanging up
dress-up clothes. The dress-up area is usually of great interest of the children. It should include a
child-size chest of drawers and either hatboxes or open shelves for dress-up clothing (shoes, hats,
jewellery, material suitable for belts, trains, capes, veils), a full length mirror, and a telephone
connected to another telephone elsewhere in the room.

8.2.9 READING/LISTENING AREA
Children need a place within the
classroom specified for quiet or down
time. The reading/listening area should be
a welcome escape from the noise and
motion of the classroom. It is within this a
rea that children develop articulation
skills, auditory discrimination, concept
formation, oral language skills, self-
expression, and vocabulary.
The reading and listening area should be a
quiet place well away from the more
active areas of the classroom such as the
block area, art area and house area. The
space should be well defined either by
walls and dividers, by cabinets, or by a
difference in ceiling height, floor
elevation, lighting, or colour and texture
on the floor and walls. In addition, the
floor should have carpeting and be sure to
supply plenty of comfortable seats. This
area could be elevated two or three steps
above the general area, an arrangement
that would convey a feeling of its being
special, separate and cozy. If elevated, it
can also serve as a platform for dramatic
activity, and the children can sit on the
steps when they are being read to.
The reading/listening area requires
sufficient display-shelf space for showing
the front cover of each of 20-25 books.
The highest shelf should be no more than
3 feet 6 inches from the floor, preferably
only 3 feet. If the shelving cannot be
adjusted, there should be at least 14 inches
between the two shelves. Thirty-two linear feet of shelving provides enough space for books.
There should be a place to display one book and related small objects and pictures. An adjacent
bulletin board adds to the display.

8.2.10 BLOCK-BUILDING AREA
Blocks provide a wide variety of learning opportunities. These
opportunities include development of cooperation eye/hand
coordination, self-expression, problem solving, and perceptual
motor development. Building structures that are shared with and
admired by peers and teachers help the child view herself positively.
If possible, the block area should be located near the house area
with enough room for storage of the building blocks and space for
small groups of children and their projects. The block area could be
a little alcove (24 to 30 square feet) outside of the major traffic area
but opening onto the general area. This arrangement creates a
protected space where children can build something that won’t be
inadvertently knocked down by children engaged in other activities,
and it also provides the necessary space for several children to play
with the blocks simultaneously.
Unpainted, rectangular unit blocks,
uniform in height and width but varying
in length, are used, along with blocks of
various shapes: triangular, curved, and
so on. Blocks of the same shape and
length are stored in separate stacks with
enough space between the stacks to
make them easy to arrange. The lengths
of the blocks, which vary, are exposed
rather than the ends which do not vary.
Silhouettes pointed on the shelves help
the children to find and replace the
blocks themselves.
8.2.11 MANIPULATIVES
AREA
Play with manipulative toys
complements and enhances some
of what children learn when
playing with the blocks. By playing
with coloured pegs and pegboards,
lock boards, small unit blocks, rods
puzzles, felt boards and geometric
forms children can learn colours,
develop perceptions of size and
form, develop small motor skills,
develop eye/hand coordination and
develop concept formation.
The manipulative toy area is
basically a quiet area where

children work individually. It can be by itself or part of the area for reading and listening. Two or
three two-shelf, open cabinets are sufficient to display the manipulative toys. Puzzles are best
displayed on sloping shelves so the children can see them all as they select the ones they want to
use. Most children can select their own books or puzzles if the top shelves are not higher than 3
feet 6 inches. A cabinet above the manipulative toy area is a good place to store toys and puzzles
not currently in use; the number and complexity of toys and puzzles are increased as the year
progresses. A table should be located near this toy area so children have a place to bring their
puzzles while working with them.
8.2.12 TOILETS
Where rest rooms for the children are not
adjacent to the play areas, inordinate time
is wasted in moving children to and from
the rest room. If rest rooms are integral
parts of the classroom, children can use
them independently and develop self-
reliance.
The theory that the fixtures should
resemble those in the children’s homes has
merit, but the overriding consideration are
convenience and utility. The wash basin
and toilets should be appropriately sized for children.
8.2.13 KITCHENETTE
Considerations should be
A B C D E
given to providing small Age 3-4
kitchen areas for the yrs 12” 36” 11”-12” 14” 18”-20”
storing and preparation (30.5cm) (91.5cm) (35.5cm) (45.5-51cm)
(28-30.5cm)
of snacks and meals.
This is especially important in infant and young toddler areas where regular and frequent
feedings occur and where individual bottles need to be stored and heated. The size and outfitting
of kitchens will depend on whether or not students bring their own food and the type of program
offered by the crèche. Kitchenettes are typically equipped with residential equipment including:
a refrigerator/ freezer: a microwave and a stainless steel sink and should be placed near activity
areas offering the teacher clear views of the playroom. Standard adult-height base and wall
cabinets should be utilized and equipped with child-proof latches or locks. In infant playrooms,
consideration should be given in providing a gated separation of the kitchen to prevent crawling
children from entering the area. Food preparation areas must be separated from diapering station,
toilet, and hand washing areas.
8.2.14 DIAPERING STATION
Each playroom serving infants on toddlers should have a diaper changing station and diaper
storage located in an easily accessible area. This station consists of a changing table, storage area
for diapers and other supplies, and a hand washing sink. When diapering the teacher should be
able to maintain visual control over the entire area and the children should also be able to see the
caretaker. Additionally, the caretaker should be able to reach all needed diapering supplies while

maintaining direct physical contact with the infant. Removable stairs to help toddlers climb to
the changing station are required and help prevent unnecessary back strain by the caretakers.
Consideration should be given to providing exhaust ventilation at the station to remove odours.
8.2.15 SLEEPING AND NAPPING AREAS
Since infants and some young toddlers sleep more frequently during the day, separate areas for
sleeping are required for these age groups. While it is important for caretakers to be able to
maintain visual and acoustical access to this area, it should be located away from active areas of
the classroom and can be separated with a low, 30-inch-high defining wall. The sleeping area
should be quiet and have dimmable light fixtures – indirect up lighting should be considered to
avoid direct light in the eyes of sleeping infants.
The sleeping area should be sized to provide room for one crib per infant spaced according to
state requirements.
Quite often older toddler and pre-school classrooms will not have a separate sleeping area
although cots or mats will be provided for napping. Storage should be provided for the cots in the
playroom.
8.2.16 COMMON AREAS
Entry
The entry into the early education facility should be welcoming to the children and their parents
while providing maximum safety and security for the building. To accomplish these goals, the
entry should provide views of the short-term parking lot through windows with sills low enough
for children to look in or out of the building. Ideally, children should be able to see other children
in classrooms to help allay anxiety. Double sets of doors should be used at the entry for
maximum security and energy conservation.
Reception
Once inside the building, the reception area should be warm, bright, and welcoming area. To
make children feel comfortable they should be able to see the person sitting behind the reception
desk or table. The reception desk can be a full-height desk that serves several functions.
Additional furnishings within the reception area include a sofa, chairs, and table, and small
coffee table.

Office
The director’s office will provide a space for administrative tasks, interviews and meetings with
parents, staff members, children or visitors. It should be located in a quiet space near the
reception area and be easily accessible to visitors. From the office, the director must have
excellent views of the building entry, reception area and as many as playrooms as possible.
Within the office a small isolation area can be created where children may go to receive their
medications or where a sick child can rest while waiting for a parent to arrive. The isolation area
should have a small cot where the child may lie down without feeling completely isolated from
the office staff.
Indoor Play Area
Facilities with ample indoor space
should also consider providing an
indoor activity area where children
may go during bad weather. An
indoor play area would be located
near the playground and provide
approximately 800 square fe et of
space for children to use. The indoor
play area can also serve as a large
gathering place for performances,
movies and other social events where
several classes and/or parents would
be brought together.
Laundry
Accessible only by adults, the laundry
area will be used to clean bedding,
smocks and toys. The laundry room
should be located near the
infant/toddler playroom with a
lockable door that can be opened from
inside. Ideally the room should be
located near an exterior wall to
minimize the run of the dryer exhaust
vent. The size of the early child-care
centre will determine the equipment
needed in the laundry area. A folding
table, however, must be provided as
well as shelves for drying toys.
Cleaning supplies must be kept in wall
lockable cabinets.
Resource Storage Room
A centrally located resource storage room can be used for bulk storage of curriculum materials,
supplies, books and audio/visual equipment. This larger storage area will supplement the smaller

storage within the classrooms and it will permit the teachers to rotate toys, props, and lesson
materials throughout the year. The resource storage room should have adequate lighting, open
shelving, lockable and closed door storage, filing cabinets.If space is available an early
educational facility may wish to create a resource centre would serve as a common library for
students, teachers, and parents.
8.3 REAL LIFE SPACE
Develop the design of a circular area of 25 feet radius within a primary school campus but
separate building for crèche playroom as a multipurpose space for kids of age 2-5 years.
8.3.1 CONCEPT
The multipurpose room will be very colourful and safe for children. There will be proper
segregation of play spaces.
Relationship of various spaces:
HOUSE
KEEPING
DRESS UP
PLAY
AREA I
GROUP
ACTIVITIES STUDY
AREA
PLAY
AREA II
STUDY STAFF

Keeping in mind the relationship between different spaces the design evolved out is –

8.3.2 FINISHES SHEET
To decorate the playroom is a challenge. Unlikely colour schemes offer a vast, untapped source
of combinations for the play area of kids of 2-5 years of age. Pale sherbets colours are interesting
– lime, lemon, yellow, light orange. There is no reason why a sophisticated scheme cannot be
used – beige and red, blue and lilac, or turquoise and acid green.
Traditional nursery fabrics with their patterns of tiny animals and toys will remain a perennial
favourite. Carnival stripes or polka dots will please both a boy and a girl.
Storage for toys is the same for both boys and girls. Accommodation must be provided for
books, games, building sets, dolls etc. The solution can be a large, hinged box. To make it serve
two purposes the lid can be upholstered to provide an extra seat. A second way to store toys is
the office filling cabinet. They are available in two, three or four drawer heights and can be
painted any colour. Putting toys away will be fun when the children know that books go in the
blue drawer, games in the red and so on.
Flooring is non-skid hard surface. Various finishes for different type of areas have been
discussed earlier.

Summary
Studies of young children’s cognitive development emphasize the importance of providing
stimulating educational environments. Theorists contend that safe, nurturing spaces offering a
wide variety of learning opportunities enhance the early development of the neurological
connections that spark emotional interest and provide the pathways for learning.
Revision Points
The environment should contribute to a child’s concept of order and space as well as provide a
rich, stimulating and safe environment where children can develop a variety of skills. To create
this type of nurturing environment, the design of the crèche must reflect an appreciation of
children’s scale in the design of individual spaces as well as the choice of furnishings.
Key Words
Theme board – Based on the concept .
In text Questions
Use a short case study to learn about the requirements of the space.
Terminal Exercises
Develop theme board, sketches and finishes board.
Students will complete a set of presentation and working drawings for this project.
Students will complete a set of presentation and working drawings for this project.

Supplementary Material / Suggested
Reading
1. Architecture Form, Space and Order, Francis D.K. Ching.
2. Interior Design Illustrated, Francis D.K. Ching.
3. Time Savers Standards for Interior Design and Space Planning by Joseph De Chiara.
4. Time Savers Standards for Building Types by Joseph de Chiara.
5. Interior Design in 20th Century; C. Ray Smith, Allen Tate.
6. Introduction to Interior Design; Dorothy Stepat-De Van.
7. Sketching Interior Architecture; By Norman Dickman & John Pile.

353-6 Interior Design Studio-I

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Interior Design Studio-I

Students’ Reference Material SRM/IDS1/1

Unit – III ...................................................................................................................................... 49

Supplementary Material / Suggested Reading ......................................................................... 96

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Lesson 1: Elements of Design

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Rough wall texture

Smooth wall texture

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Lesson 3: The Design Process

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The various methods of collecting data are:

Example of Interview Notes

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o Scaled proportions of spaces and elements.

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Implementation: Final Drawings

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1st 5th 50th 95th 99th

Men 63.1 64.8 69.1 73.5 75.2

women 58.4 60.2 64.1 68.4 70.1

Functional Reach (Item 43) in inches

1st 5th 50th 95th 99th

Men 28.4 29.1 31.5 34.1 35.3

women 25.9 26.7 28.9 31.4 32.4

4.2 Anthropometrics and Design

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4.3 Design Aids -

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