A. The Domain of The Function

P.
3 Functions and Their Graphs 21
The Domain and Range of a Function

The domain of a function can be described explicitly, or it may be described implicitly
by an equation used to define the function. The implied domain is the set of all real
numbers for which the equation is defined, whereas an explicitly defined domain is one
that is given along with the function. For example, the function
1
f 共x兲 ⫽ , 4 ⱕ x ⱕ 5
x2 ⫺ 4
has an explicitly defined domain given by 再x: 4 ⱕ x ⱕ 5冎. On the other hand, the
function
1
g共x兲 ⫽
x2 ⫺ 4
has an implied domain that is the set 再x: x ⫽ ± 2冎.
y
Finding the Domain and Range of a Function
f(x) = x−1
Range: y ≥ 0
2
a. The domain of the function
1
f 共x兲 ⫽ 冪x ⫺ 1
x
1 2 3 4 is the set of all x-values for which x ⫺ 1 ⱖ 0, which is the interval 关1, ⬁兲. To
Domain: x ≥ 1 find the range, observe that f 共x兲 ⫽ 冪x ⫺ 1 is never negative. So, the range is the
interval 关0, ⬁兲, as shown in Figure P.23(a).
(a) The domain of f is 关1, ⬁兲, and the range
is 关0, ⬁兲. b. The domain of the tangent function
f 共x兲 ⫽ tan x
y f(x) = tan x
is the set of all x-values such that
3
␲
2 x⫽ ⫹ n␲, n is an integer. Domain of tangent function
1
2
Range
x The range of this function is the set of all real numbers, as shown in Figure P.23(b).
π 2π
For a review of the characteristics of this and other trigonometric functions, see
Appendix C.
A Function Defined by More than One Equation

Domain For the piecewise-defined function y 1 − x, x<1
(b) The domain of f is all x-values such that f (x) =
冦1 ⫺x ⫺x, 1,
␲ x < 1 x − 1, x ≥ 1
x ⫽ ⫹ n␲, and the range is 共⫺ ⬁, ⬁兲. f 共x兲 ⫽
Range: y ≥ 0
2 2
冪 x ⱖ 1
Figure P.23
1
f is defined for x < 1 and x ⱖ 1. So, the
domain is the set of all real numbers. On the x
portion of the domain for which x ⱖ 1, the 1 2 3 4
function behaves as in Example 2(a). For Domain: all real x

x < 1, the values of 1 ⫺ x are positive. So, The domain of f is 共⫺ ⬁, ⬁兲, and the
the range of the function is the interval range is 关0, ⬁兲.
关0, ⬁兲. (See Figure P.24.) Figure P.24
A function from X to Y is one-to-one when to each y-value in the range there

corresponds exactly one x-value in the domain. For instance, the function in Example
2(a) is one-to-one, whereas the functions in Examples 2(b) and 3 are not one-to-one. A
function from X to Y is onto when its range consists of all of Y.
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22 Chapter P Preparation for Calculus
The Graph of a Function

y y = f(x) The graph of the function y ⫽ f 共x兲 consists of all points 共x, f 共x兲兲, where x is in the
(x, f (x)) domain of f. In Figure P.25, note that
x ⫽ the directed distance from the y-axis
f(x)
and
x
x f 共x兲 ⫽ the directed distance from the x-axis.
The graph of a function
A vertical line can intersect the graph of a function of x at most once. This
Figure P.25
observation provides a convenient visual test, called the Vertical Line Test, for
functions of x. That is, a graph in the coordinate plane is the graph of a function of x if
and only if no vertical line intersects the graph at more than one point. For example, in
La excepción son las funciones Figure P.26(a), you can see that the graph does not define y as a function of x because
implícitas (como las cónicas) o a vertical line intersects the graph twice, whereas in Figures P.26(b) and (c), the graphs
las paramétricas, que veremos do define y as a function of x.
más adelante
y y y
4 3 4
2 3
2 1
x
1
1 2 4
x x
− 3 −2 1 −2 −1 1 2 3
(a) Not a function of x (b) A function of x (c) A function of x

Figure P.26
Figure P.27 shows the graphs of eight basic functions. You should be able to recognize
these graphs. (Graphs of the other four basic trigonometric functions are shown in
Appendix C.)
y y y y
f(x) = x f (x) = x 2
2 4 2 4
1 3 1 3 f (x) = x
f (x) = x 3
x 2 x 2
−2 −1 1 2 −2 −1 1 2
−1 1 −1 1
−2 x −2 x
−2 −1 1 2 1 2 3 4
Identity function Squaring function Cubing function Square root function
y y y y
1
f (x) =
4 2 x 2 2
f (x) = sin x f (x) = cos x
f(x) = ⎜x ⎜
3 1 1 1
2 x x x
−1 1 2 −π π 2π −2 π −π π 2π
1 −1 −1
x −2 −2
−2 −1 1 2
Absolute value function Rational function Sine function Cosine function

The graphs of eight basic functions
Figure P.27
P.3 Functions and Their Graphs 23
Transformations of Functions
Some families of graphs have the same basic shape. For example, compare the graph of
y ⫽ x 2 with the graphs of the four other quadratic functions shown in Figure P.28.
y y
4 4
y= x2 +2
3 3
1 y = x2 1
y = (x + 2)2 y = x2
x x
−2 −1 1 2 −3 −2 −1 1
(a) Vertical shift upward (b) Horizontal shift to the left
y y
4
2
3
1 y = 1 − (x + 3)2
2
y = x2 y = x2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2 x
−5 −3 −1 1 2
−1 y= − x2
−2
−2
(c) Reflection (d) Shift left, reflect, and shift upward

Figure P.28
Each of the graphs in Figure P.28 is a transformation of the graph of y ⫽ x 2. The

three basic types of transformations illustrated by these graphs are vertical shifts,
horizontal shifts, and reflections. Function notation lends itself well to describing
transformations of graphs in the plane. For instance, using
f 共x兲 ⫽ x 2 Original function
as the original function, the transformations shown in Figure P.28 can be represented by
these equations.
a. y ⫽ f 共x兲 ⫹ 2 Vertical shift up two units
b. y ⫽ f 共x ⫹ 2兲 Horizontal shift to the left two units
c. y ⫽ ⫺f 共x兲 Reflection about the x-axis
d. y ⫽ ⫺f 共x ⫹ 3兲 ⫹ 1 Shift left three units, reflect about the x-axis, and shift up one unit
Basic Types of Transformations 冇c > 0冈

Original graph: y ⫽ f 共x兲
Horizontal shift c units to the right: y ⫽ f 共x ⫺ c兲
Horizontal shift c units to the left: y ⫽ f 共x ⫹ c兲
Vertical shift c units downward: y ⫽ f 共x兲 ⫺ c
Vertical shift c units upward: y ⫽ f 共x兲 ⫹ c
Reflection (about the x-axis): y ⫽ ⫺f 共x兲
Reflection (about the y-axis): y ⫽ f 共⫺x兲
Reflection (about the origin): y ⫽ ⫺f 共⫺x兲
24 Chapter P Preparation for Calculus
Classifications and Combinations of Functions

The modern notion of a function is derived from the efforts of many seventeenth- and
eighteenth-century mathematicians. Of particular note was Leonhard Euler, who
introduced the function notation y ⫽ f 共x兲. By the end of the eighteenth century,
mathematicians and scientists had concluded that many real-world phenomena could be
represented by mathematical models taken from a collection of functions called
elementary functions. Elementary functions fall into three categories.
1. Algebraic functions (polynomial, radical, rational)
2. Trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, tangent, and so on)
3. Exponential and logarithmic functions
You can review the trigonometric functions in Appendix C. The other nonalgebraic
functions, such as the inverse trigonometric functions and the exponential and logarithmic
functions, are introduced in Chapter 5.
LEONHARD EULER (1707–1783)
The most common type of algebraic function is a polynomial function
In addition to making major
contributions to almost every f 共x兲 ⫽ anxn ⫹ an⫺1xn⫺1 ⫹ . . . ⫹ a2x2 ⫹ a1x ⫹ a0
branch of mathematics, Euler was
one of the first to apply calculus
to real-life problems in physics.
His extensive published writings where n is a nonnegative integer. The numbers ai are coefficients, with an the leading
include such topics as shipbuilding, coefficient and a0 the constant term of the polynomial function. If an ⫽ 0, then n is
acoustics, optics, astronomy, the degree of the polynomial function. The zero polynomial f 共x兲 ⫽ 0 is not assigned
mechanics, and magnetism. a degree. It is common practice to use subscript notation for coefficients of general
See LarsonCalculus.com to read
polynomial functions, but for polynomial functions of low degree, these simpler forms
more of this biography.
are often used. 共Note that a ⫽ 0.兲
Zeroth degree: f 共x兲 ⫽ a Constant function
First degree: f 共x兲 ⫽ ax ⫹ b Linear function
Second degree: f 共x兲 ⫽ ax 2 ⫹ bx ⫹ c Quadratic function
Third degree: f 共x兲 ⫽ ax3 ⫹ bx 2 ⫹ cx ⫹ d Cubic function
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION
For more on the history of the Although the graph of a nonconstant polynomial function can have several turns,
concept of a function, see the eventually the graph will rise or fall without bound as x moves to the right or left.
article “Evolution of the Function Whether the graph of
Concept: A Brief Survey” by f 共x兲 ⫽ an x n ⫹ an⫺1x n⫺1 ⫹ . . . ⫹ a 2 x 2 ⫹ a1x ⫹ a 0
Israel Kleiner in The College
Mathematics Journal. To view this eventually rises or falls can be determined by the function’s degree (odd or even) and
article, go to MathArticles.com. by the leading coefficient an, as indicated in Figure P.29. Note that the dashed portions
of the graphs indicate that the Leading Coefficient Test determines only the right and
left behavior of the graph.
an > 0 an < 0 an > 0 an < 0

y y y y
Up to
Up to left
right
Up to Up to Down Down Down

Down
left right to left to right to right
to left
x x x x
Graphs of polynomial functions of even degree Graphs of polynomial functions of odd degree
The Leading Coefficient Test for polynomial functions
Figure P.29
North Wind Picture Archives/Alamy
P.3 Functions and Their Graphs 27
P.3 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.
冦x2x ⫹⫹2,2, x ⱕ 1
Evaluating a Function In Exercises 1–10, evaluate the 2
function at the given value(s) of the independent variable. 30. f 共x兲 ⫽ 2

x > 1
Simplify the results.
(a) f 共⫺2兲 (b) f 共0兲 (c) f 共1兲 (d) f 共s 2 ⫹ 2兲
1. f 共x兲 ⫽ 7x ⫺ 4 2. f 共x兲 ⫽ 冪x ⫹ 5
ⱍⱍ x ⫹ 1, x < 1
(a) f 共0兲 (b) f 共⫺3兲 (a) f 共⫺4兲 (b) f 共11兲
31. f 共x兲 ⫽ 冦⫺x ⫹ 1, x ⱖ 1
(c) f 共b兲 (d) f 共x ⫺ 1兲 (c) f 共4兲 (d) f 共x ⫹ ⌬x兲 (a) f 共⫺3兲 (b) f 共1兲 (c) f 共3兲 (d) f 共b 2 ⫹ 1兲
3. g共x兲 ⫽ 5 ⫺ x 2 4. g共x兲 ⫽ x 2共x ⫺ 4兲冪x ⫹ 4, x
冦共x ⫺ 5兲 , x ⱕ> 5
5
32. f 共x兲 ⫽
(a) g共0兲 (b) g共冪5 兲 (a) g共4兲 (b) g共兲
3 2
2
(c) g共⫺2兲 (d) g共t ⫺ 1兲 (c) g共c兲 (d) g共t ⫹ 4兲 (a) f 共⫺3兲 (b) f 共0兲 (c) f 共5兲 (d) f 共10兲
5. f 共x兲 ⫽ cos 2x 6. f 共x兲 ⫽ sin x Sketching a Graph of a Function In Exercises 33–40,
␲ 5␲
冢冣冢冣
sketch a graph of the function and find its domain and range.
(a) f 共0兲 (b) f ⫺ (a) f 共␲兲 (b) f
4 4 Use a graphing utility to verify your graph.
(c) f 冢␲3 冣 (d) f 共␲兲 (c) f 冢23␲冣 (d)

␲
f 冢⫺ 冣
6 33. f 共x兲 ⫽ 4 ⫺ x 34. g共x兲 ⫽
4
x
7. f 共x兲 ⫽ x3 8. f 共x兲 ⫽ 3x ⫺ 1 35. h共x兲 ⫽ 冪x ⫺ 6 36. f 共x兲 ⫽ 14 x3 ⫹ 3
f 共x ⫹ ⌬x兲 ⫺ f 共x兲 f 共x兲 ⫺ f 共1兲 37. f 共x兲 ⫽ 冪9 ⫺ x 2 38. f 共x兲 ⫽ x ⫹ 冪4 ⫺ x 2
⌬x x⫺1
␪
1 39. g共t兲 ⫽ 3 sin ␲ t 40. h共␪兲 ⫽ ⫺5 cos
9. f 共x兲 ⫽ 10. f 共x兲 ⫽ x3 ⫺x 2
冪x ⫺ 1
f 共x兲 ⫺ f 共2兲 f 共x兲 ⫺ f 共1兲 WRITING ABOUT CONCEPTS
x⫺2 x⫺1 s
41. Describing a Graph
Distance (in miles)

Finding the Domain and Range of a Function In The graph of the distance 10
Exercises 11–22, find the domain and range of the function. that a student drives in a 8
(10, 6)
10-minute trip to school 6
11. f 共x兲 ⫽ 4x2 12. g共x兲 ⫽ x 2 ⫺ 5 is shown in the figure. 4
(4, 2)
13. f 共x兲 ⫽ x 3
14. h共x兲 ⫽ 4 ⫺ x 2 Give a verbal description 2
(6, 2)
of the characteristics of the t
15. g共x兲 ⫽ 冪6x 16. h共x兲 ⫽ ⫺ 冪x ⫹ 3 student’s drive to school. (0, 0) 2 4 6 8 10
17. f 共x兲 ⫽ 冪16 ⫺ x 2 18. f 共x兲 ⫽ x ⫺ 3 ⱍ ⱍ Time (in minutes)
␲t 42. Sketching a Graph A student who commutes 27 miles
19. f 共t兲 ⫽ sec 20. h共t兲 ⫽ cot t
4 to attend college remembers, after driving a few minutes,
3 x⫺2 that a term paper that is due has been forgotten. Driving faster
21. f 共x兲 ⫽ 22. f 共x兲 ⫽ than usual, the student returns home, picks up the paper,
x x⫹4
and once again starts toward school. Sketch a possible graph
Finding the Domain of a Function In Exercises 23–28, of the student’s distance from home as a function of time.
find the domain of the function.
23. f 共x兲 ⫽ 冪x ⫹ 冪1 ⫺ x 24. f 共x兲 ⫽ 冪x2 ⫺ 3x ⫹ 2 Using the Vertical Line Test In Exercises 43–46, use the
Vertical Line Test to determine whether y is a function of x. To
2 1
25. g共x兲 ⫽ 26. h共x兲 ⫽ print an enlarged copy of the graph, go to MathGraphs.com.
1 ⫺ cos x sin x ⫺ 共1兾2兲
1 1 43. x ⫺ y 2 ⫽ 0 44. 冪x 2 ⫺ 4 ⫺ y ⫽ 0
27. f 共x兲 ⫽ 28. g共x兲 ⫽
ⱍx⫹3 ⱍ ⱍ x2 ⫺ 4 ⱍ y y
2 4
Finding the Domain and Range of a Piecewise 3
Function In Exercises 29–32, evaluate the function as 1 2
indicated. Determine its domain and range. x 1
1 2 3 4 x
冦
2x ⫹ 1, x < 0 −1 −3 −2 −1
29. f 共x兲 ⫽ 1 2 3
2x ⫹ 2, x ⱖ 0 −2 −2
(a) f 共⫺1兲 (b) f 共0兲 (c) f 共2兲 (d) f 共t 2 ⫹ 1兲
48 Chapter 1 Limits and Their Properties
1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

Estimate a limit using a numerical or graphical approach.
Learn different ways that a limit can fail to exist.
Study and use a formal definition of limit.
An Introduction to Limits
To sketch the graph of the function
x3 1
f 共x兲
x1
lim f (x) = 3
x→1 (1, 3)
for values other than x 1, you can use standard curve-sketching techniques. At x 1,
however, it is not clear what to expect. To get an idea of the behavior of the graph of f
near x 1, you can use two sets of x-values—one set that approaches 1 from the left
y
and one set that approaches 1 from the right, as shown in the table.
3
x approaches 1 from the left. x approaches 1 from the right.
2
x 0.75 0.9 0.99 0.999 1 1.001 1.01 1.1 1.25
f 共x兲 2.313 2.710 2.970 2.997 ? 3.003 3.030 3.310 3.813
f(x) = x − 1
3
x −1
f 共x兲 approaches 3. f 共x兲 approaches 3.
x
−2 −1 1
The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 1 is 3. The graph of f is a parabola that has a gap at the point 共1, 3兲, as shown in
Figure 1.5 Figure 1.5. Although x cannot equal 1, you can move arbitrarily close to 1, and as a
result f 共x兲 moves arbitrarily close to 3. Using limit notation, you can write
lim f 共x兲 3. This is read as “the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 1 is 3.”
x→1
This discussion leads to an informal definition of limit. If f 共x兲 becomes arbitrarily close
to a single number L as x approaches c from either side, then the limit of f 共x兲, as x
approaches c, is L. This limit is written as
lim f 共x兲 L.
x→c
Exploration
The discussion above gives an example of how you can estimate a limit
numerically by constructing a table and graphically by drawing a graph.
Estimate the following limit numerically by completing the table.
x2 3x 2
lim
x→2 x2
x 1.75 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.25

f 共x兲 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
Then use a graphing utility to estimate the limit graphically.
1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically 49
Estimating a Limit Numerically

Evaluate the function f 共x兲 x兾共冪x 1 1兲 at several x-values near 0 and use the
results to estimate the limit
x
lim .
x→0 冪x 1 1
y Solution The table lists the values of f 共x兲 for several x-values near 0.
f is undefined
at x = 0.
f (x) = x
x+1−1
x 0.01 0.001 0.0001 0 0.0001 0.001 0.01
1
f 共x兲 1.99499 1.99950 1.99995 ? 2.00005 2.00050 2.00499
x f 共x兲 approaches 2. f 共x兲 approaches 2.

−1 1
The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 0 is 2. From the results shown in the table, you can estimate the limit to be 2. This limit is
Figure 1.6 reinforced by the graph of f (see Figure 1.6).
Numéricamente podemos resolver el In Example 1, note that the function is undefined at x 0, and yet f (x) appears to
límite con la regla de L'Hopital: be approaching a limit as x approaches 0. This often happens, and it is important to
realize that the existence or nonexistence of f 共x兲 at x c has no bearing on the
lim f(x) / g(x) = lim f'(x) / g'(x) existence of the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches c.
Finding a Limit
y
Find the limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2, where
冦1,0, x2
1, x ≠ 2
2 f (x) = f 共x兲 .
0, x = 2 x2
Solution Because f 共x兲 1 for all x other than x 2, you can estimate that the limit
is 1, as shown in Figure 1.7. So, you can write
x
1 2 3 lim f 共x兲 1.
x→2
The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 is 1.
The fact that f 共2兲 0 has no bearing on the existence or value of the limit as x
Figure 1.7
approaches 2. For instance, as x approaches 2, the function
冦2,
1, x 2
g 共x兲
x2
has the same limit as f.
So far in this section, you have been estimating limits numerically and graphically.
Each of these approaches produces an estimate of the limit. In Section 1.3, you will
study analytic techniques for evaluating limits. Throughout the course, try to develop a
habit of using this three-pronged approach to problem solving.
1. Numerical approach Construct a table of values.
2. Graphical approach Draw a graph by hand or using technology.
3. Analytic approach Use algebra or calculus.
Limits That Fail to Exist

In the next three examples, you will examine some limits that fail to exist.
Different Right and Left Behavior
Show that the limit lim ⱍxⱍ does not exist.

x→0 x
y
⎪x⎪ Solution Consider the graph of the function
f (x) = x
f 共x兲 ⱍxⱍ.
1 x
f (x) = 1
In Figure 1.8 and from the definition of absolute value,
ⱍxⱍ 冦x,
x, x 0
x Definition of absolute value
−1 1 x < 0
−δ δ
you can see that
ⱍxⱍ
f (x) = − 1 x 冦1,1, x > 0
x < 0
.
lim f 共x兲 does not exist. So, no matter how close x gets to 0, there will be both positive and negative x-values
x→0 that yield f 共x兲 1 or f 共x兲 1. Specifically, if (the lowercase Greek letter delta) is
Figure 1.8
a positive number, then for x-values satisfying the inequality 0 < ⱍxⱍ < , you can
classify the values of ⱍxⱍ兾x as
共 , 0兲 or 共0, 兲.
Negative x-values Positive x-values

yield ⱍxⱍ兾x 1. yield ⱍxⱍ兾x 1.
Because ⱍxⱍ兾x approaches a different number from the right side of 0 than it approaches
from the left side, the limit lim 共ⱍxⱍ兾x兲 does not exist.
x→0
Unbounded Behavior
1
Discuss the existence of the limit lim .
x→0 x2
Solution Consider the graph of the function
1
f 共x兲 .
x2
y In Figure 1.9, you can see that as x approaches 0 from either the right or the left, f 共x兲
increases without bound. This means that by choosing x close enough to 0, you can
4 force f 共x兲 to be as large as you want. For instance, f 共x) will be greater than 100 when you
1 1
f (x) = choose x within 10 of 0. That is,
x2 3
1 1
0 < ⱍxⱍ < f 共x兲 > 100.
2 10 x2
1 Similarly, you can force f 共x兲 to be greater than 1,000,000, as shown.
1 1
−2 −1
x 0 < ⱍxⱍ < f 共x兲 > 1,000,000
1 2 1000 x2
lim f 共x兲 does not exist.
x→0 Because f 共x兲 does not become arbitrarily close to a single number L as x approaches 0,
Figure 1.9 you can conclude that the limit does not exist.
Oscillating Behavior
See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
1
Discuss the existence of the limit lim sin .
x→0 x
y Solution Let f 共x兲 sin共1兾x兲. In Figure 1.10, you can see that as x approaches 0,
f 共x兲 oscillates between 1 and 1. So, the limit does not exist because no matter how
f (x) = sin
1 small you choose , it is possible to choose x1 and x2 within units of 0 such that
x
1 sin共1兾x1兲 1 and sin共1兾x2 兲 1, as shown in the table.
2 2 2 2 2 2
x
x
3 5 7 9 11 x→0
−1 1
1
sin 1 1 1 1 1 1 Limit does not exist.
x
−1
lim f 共x兲 does not exist.

x→0
Figure 1.10 Common Types of Behavior Associated with Nonexistence
of a Limit
1. f 共x兲 approaches a different number from the right side of c than it approaches
from the left side.
2. f 共x兲 increases or decreases without bound as x approaches c.
3. f 共x兲 oscillates between two fixed values as x approaches c.
There are many other interesting functions that have unusual limit behavior. An
often cited one is the Dirichlet function
冦1,
0, if x is rational
f 共x兲 .
if x is irrational
Because this function has no limit at any real number c, it is not continuous at any real
number c. You will study continuity more closely in Section 1.4.
TECHNOLOGY PITFALL When you use a graphing utility to investigate the

behavior of a function near the x-value at which you are trying to evaluate a limit,
remember that you can’t always trust the pictures that graphing utilities draw. When
you use a graphing utility to graph the function in Example 5 over an interval
containing 0, you will most likely obtain an incorrect graph such as that shown in
Figure 1.11. The reason that a graphing utility can’t show the correct graph is that the
PETER GUSTAV DIRICHLET graph has infinitely many oscillations over any interval that contains 0.
(1805–1859)
In the early development of 1.2
calculus, the definition of a function
was much more restricted than it
is today, and “functions” such as
the Dirichlet function would not − 0.25 0.25
have been considered.The modern
definition of function is attributed
to the German mathematician
Peter Gustav Dirichlet. − 1.2
more of this biography. Incorrect graph of f 共x兲 sin共1兾x兲
Figure 1.11
INTERFOTO/Alamy
1.2 Exercises See CalcChat.com for tutorial help and worked-out solutions to odd-numbered exercises.
Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 1–6, 冪10 x 4 关x兾共x 1兲兴共2兾3兲

11. lim 12. lim
complete the table and use the result to estimate the limit. Use x→6 x6 x→2 x2
a graphing utility to graph the function to confirm your result.
sin 2x tan x
13. lim 14. lim
x4 x→0 x x→0 tan 2x
1. lim 2
x→4 x 3x 4
Finding a Limit Graphically In Exercises 15–22, use the
graph to find the limit (if it exists). If the limit does not exist,
x 3.9 3.99 3.999 4 4.001 4.01 4.1
explain why.
f 共x兲 ?
15. lim 共4 x兲 16. lim sec x
x→3 x→0
y y
x3
2. lim 2
x→3 x 9 4 2
3
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 2
f 共x兲 ? 1
x
x −π π
1 2 3 4 2 2
冪x 1 1
3. lim
x→0 x 17. lim f 共x兲 18. lim f 共x兲
x→2 x→1
4 x,
冦 x2
冦x2, 3, x1
2
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 f 共x兲 f 共x兲
0, x2 x1
f 共x兲 ? y y
4
关1兾共x 1兲兴共1兾4兲 6
4. lim 3
x→3 x3
2
2
x 2.9 2.99 2.999 3 3.001 3.01 3.1 1
x x
f 共x兲 ? 1 2 3 4 −2 2 4
sin x 19. lim ⱍx 2ⱍ 20. lim

2
5. lim x→2 x2 x→5 x5
x→0 x
y y
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 3 6

2 4
f 共x兲 ? 1 2
x x
3 4 5 −2 6 8 10
cos x 1
6. lim −2 −4
x→0 x
−3 −6
x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

21. lim cos 22. lim tan x
f 共x兲 ? x→0 x x→ 兾2
y y
1
Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 7–14, 2
create a table of values for the function and use the result to 1
estimate the limit. Use a graphing utility to graph the function x x
to confirm your result. −1 1 −π π π 3π
2 2 2
x2 x4
7. lim 8. lim −1
x→1 x2 x 6 x→4 x2 9x 20
x4 1 x3 27
9. lim 10. lim
x→1 x6 1 x→3 x3
Graphical Reasoning In Exercises 23 and 24, use the 30. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of
graph of the function f to decide whether the value of the given
1
quantity exists. If it does, find it. If not, explain why. f 共x兲
x1
23. (a) f 共1兲 y
(b) lim f 共x兲 6

is shown in the figure. Find such that if 0 < x 2 < , ⱍ ⱍ
x→1 5 ⱍ
then f 共x兲 1 < 0.01. ⱍ
(c) f 共4兲 y
3
(d) lim f 共x兲 2
2.0 f
x→4 1 1.01
1.00
x 1.5 0.99
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
1.0 201 2 199
101 99
0.5
24. (a) f 共2兲 y
x
(b) lim f 共x兲 4 1 2 3 4
x→2 3
(c) f 共0兲 2 31. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of
(d) lim f 共x兲 1
x
x→0
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 f 共x兲 2
(e) f 共2兲 x
−2
(f) lim f 共x兲 is shown in the figure. Find such that if 0 < x 1 < , ⱍ ⱍ
ⱍ ⱍ
x→2
then f 共x兲 1 < 0.1.
(g) f 共4兲
y y
(h) lim f 共x兲 1.1
x→4 1
4 f
2 0.9
Limits of a Piecewise Function In Exercises 25 and 26, 3
sketch the graph of f. Then identify the values of c for which f 2
1 3.2
lim f 冇x冈 exists. 3
x→c 1
2.8
冦
x
x2, x
2 1 2
x
1 2 3 4
25. f 共x兲 8 2x, 2 < x < 4
4, x 4 Figure for 31 Figure for 32
32. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of
冦
sin x, x < 0
26. f 共x兲 1 cos x, 0
x
f 共x兲 x 2 1
cos x, x >
is shown in the figure. Find such that if 0 < x 2 < , ⱍ ⱍ
Sketching a Graph In Exercises 27 and 28, sketch a graph ⱍ
then f 共x兲 3 < 0.2. ⱍ
of a function f that satisfies the given values. (There are many
correct answers.)
Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ In Exercises 33–36, find the
limit L. Then find ␦ > 0 such that f 冇x冈 ⴚ L < 0.01 ⱍ ⱍ
27. f 共0兲 is undefined. 28. f 共2兲 0 whenever 0 < x ⴚ c < ␦. ⱍ ⱍ
lim f 共x兲 4 f 共2兲 0
冢冣
x
x→0 33. lim 共3x 2兲 34. lim 6
f 共2兲 6 lim f 共x兲 0 x→2 x→6 3
x→2
35. lim 共x 2 3兲 36. lim 共x 2 6兲
lim f 共x兲 3 lim f 共x兲 does not exist. x→2 x→4
x→2 x→2
Using the ␧ -␦ Definition of Limit In Exercises 37–48,
29. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of f 共x兲 x 1 is find the limit L. Then use the ␧ -␦ definition to prove that the
shown in the figure. Find such that if 0 < x 2 < , then ⱍ ⱍ limit is L.
ⱍ
f 共x兲 3 < 0.4.ⱍ 37. lim 共x 2兲 38. lim 共4x 5兲
y x→4 x→2
5
39. lim
x→4
共 1
2x 1兲 40. lim
x→3
共34 x 1兲
f
3.4
4 41. lim 3 42. lim 共1兲
x→6 x→2
3
2.6 43. lim 冪
3
x 44. lim 冪x
2 x→0 x→4
x
45. lim x 5
x→5
ⱍ ⱍ 46. lim x 3
x→3
ⱍ ⱍ
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 47. lim 共x 1兲 2 48. lim 共x 4x兲 2
1.6 2.4 x→1 x→4
1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits

Determine continuity at a point and continuity on an open interval.
Determine one-sided limits and continuity on a closed interval.
Use properties of continuity.
Understand and use the Intermediate Value Theorem.
Continuity at a Point and on an Open Interval

In mathematics, the term continuous has much the same meaning as it has in everyday
Exploration usage. Informally, to say that a function f is continuous at x c means that there is no
Informally, you might say interruption in the graph of f at c. That is, its graph is unbroken at c, and there are no
that a function is continuous holes, jumps, or gaps. Figure 1.25 identifies three values of x at which the graph of f is
on an open interval when its not continuous. At all other points in the interval 共a, b兲, the graph of f is uninterrupted
graph can be drawn with a and continuous.
pencil without lifting the
y y y
pencil from the paper. Use
a graphing utility to graph
each function on the given
f(c) is lim f(x)
interval. From the graphs, x→ c
not defined. does not exist.
which functions would you lim f(x) ≠ f (c)
x→c
say are continuous on the
interval? Do you think you
can trust the results you
obtained graphically?
Explain your reasoning.
x x x
Function Interval a c b a c b a c b
a. y x2 1 共3, 3兲 Three conditions exist for which the graph of f is not continuous at x c.
1 Figure 1.25
b. y 共3, 3兲
x2
In Figure 1.25, it appears that continuity at x c can be destroyed by any one of
sin x
c. y 共 , 兲 three conditions.
x
1. The function is not defined at x c.
x2 4
d. y 共3, 3兲 2. The limit of f 共x兲 does not exist at x c.
x2
3. The limit of f 共x兲 exists at x c, but it is not equal to f 共c兲.
If none of the three conditions is true, then the function f is called continuous at c, as
indicated in the important definition below.
Definition of Continuity
Continuity at a Point
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION A function f is continuous at c when these three conditions are met.
For more information on the
1. f 共c兲 is defined.
concept of continuity, see the
article “Leibniz and the Spell of 2. lim f 共x兲 exists.
x→c
the Continuous” by Hardy Grant 3. lim f 共x兲 f 共c兲
in The College Mathematics x→c
Journal. To view this article, Continuity on an Open Interval

go to MathArticles.com. A function is continuous on an open interval 冇a, b冈 when the function is
continuous at each point in the interval. A function that is continuous on the
entire real number line 共 , 兲 is everywhere continuous.
1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits 71
y
Consider an open interval I that contains a real number c. If a function f is
defined on I (except possibly at c), and f is not continuous at c, then f is said to
have a discontinuity at c. Discontinuities fall into two categories: removable and
nonremovable. A discontinuity at c is called removable when f can be made continuous
by appropriately defining (or redefining) f 共c兲. For instance, the functions shown in
Figures 1.26(a) and (c) have removable discontinuities at c and the function shown in
Figure 1.26(b) has a nonremovable discontinuity at c.
x Continuity of a Function
a c b
(a) Removable discontinuity Discuss the continuity of each function.
x 1, x 0
y a. f 共x兲
1
x
b. g共x兲
x2 1
x1
c. h共x兲冦x 2
1, x > 0
d. y sin x
Solution
a. The domain of f is all nonzero real numbers. From Theorem 1.3, you can conclude
that f is continuous at every x-value in its domain. At x 0, f has a nonremovable
discontinuity, as shown in Figure 1.27(a). In other words, there is no way to define
f 共0兲 so as to make the function continuous at x 0.
b. The domain of g is all real numbers except x 1. From Theorem 1.3, you can
x conclude that g is continuous at every x-value in its domain. At x 1, the function
a c b has a removable discontinuity, as shown in Figure 1.27(b). By defining g共1兲 as 2, the
(b) Nonremovable discontinuity “redefined” function is continuous for all real numbers.
c. The domain of h is all real numbers. The function h is continuous on 共 , 0兲 and
y
共0, 兲, and, because
lim h共x兲 1
x→0
h is continuous on the entire real number line, as shown in Figure 1.27(c).

d. The domain of y is all real numbers. From Theorem 1.6, you can conclude that the
function is continuous on its entire domain, 共 , 兲, as shown in Figure 1.27(d).
y y
x
3 3
a c b 1
f(x) =
x (1, 2)
(c) Removable discontinuity 2 2
g(x) = x − 1
Figure 1.26 2
1 1 x −1
x x
−1 1 2 3 −1 1 2 3
−1 −1
(a) Nonremovable discontinuity at x 0 (b) Removable discontinuity at x 1
REMARK Some people may y y
refer to the function in Example

3 y = sin x
1(a) as “discontinuous.” We 1
have found that this terminology 2
can be confusing. Rather than x + 1, x ≤ 0
h(x) = x
saying that the function is 1 x 2 + 1, x > 0
π 3π
discontinuous, we prefer to x
2 2
say that it has a discontinuity −1 1 2 3
−1
at x 0. −1
(c) Continuous on entire real number line (d) Continuous on entire real number line
Figure 1.27
y
One-Sided Limits and Continuity on a Closed Interval
To understand continuity on a closed interval, you first need to look at a different type
of limit called a one-sided limit. For instance, the limit from the right (or right-hand
L f (x) limit) means that x approaches c from values greater than c [see Figure 1.28(a)]. This
x limit is denoted as
c x
c<x
(a) Limit as x approaches c from the right. lim f 共x兲 L. Limit from the right
x→c
y
Similarly, the limit from the left (or left-hand limit) means that x approaches c from
values less than c [see Figure 1.28(b)]. This limit is denoted as
f (x)
L
x
x c lim f 共x兲 L. Limit from the left
c>x x→c
(b) Limit as x approaches c from the left.

Figure 1.28 One-sided limits are useful in taking limits of functions involving radicals. For instance,
if n is an even integer, then
n x 0.
lim 冪
x→0
y
A One-Sided Limit
3
f (x) = 4 − x2
Find the limit of f 共x兲冪4 x 2 as x approaches 2 from the right.
Solution As shown in Figure 1.29, the limit as x approaches 2 from the right is
lim 冪4 x2 0.
1 x→2
x One-sided limits can be used to investigate the behavior of step functions. One
−2 −1 1 2
common type of step function is the greatest integer function 冀x冁, defined as
−1
The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches 2 冀x冁 greatest integer n such that n x. Greatest integer function
from the right is 0.
Figure 1.29
For instance, 冀2.5冁 2 and 冀2.5冁 3.
The Greatest Integer Function

Find the limit of the greatest integer function y
f(x) = [[x]]
f 共x兲冀x冁 as x approaches 0 from the left and
2
from the right.
Solution As shown in Figure 1.30, the limit as 1
x approaches 0 from the left is
x
lim 冀x冁 1 −2 −1 1 2 3
x→0
and the limit as x approaches 0 from the right is

lim 冀x冁 0. −2
x→0
The greatest integer function has a discontinuity Greatest integer function

at zero because the left- and right-hand limits at Figure 1.30
zero are different. By similar reasoning, you
can see that the greatest integer function has a discontinuity at any integer n.
When the limit from the left is not equal to the limit from the right, the (two-sided)
limit does not exist. The next theorem makes this more explicit. The proof of this
theorem follows directly from the definition of a one-sided limit.
THEOREM 1.10 The Existence of a Limit

Let f be a function, and let c and L be real numbers. The limit of f 共x兲 as x
approaches c is L if and only if
lim f 共x兲 L and lim f 共x兲 L.
x→c x→c
The concept of a one-sided limit allows you to extend the definition of continuity
to closed intervals. Basically, a function is continuous on a closed interval when it is
continuous in the interior of the interval and exhibits one-sided continuity at the
endpoints. This is stated formally in the next definition.
y
Definition of Continuity on a Closed Interval
A function f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b] when f is continuous
on the open interval 共a, b兲 and
lim f 共x兲 f 共a兲
x→a
and
lim f 共x兲 f 共b兲.
x→b
x The function f is continuous from the right at a and continuous from the left
a b at b (see Figure 1.31).
Continuous function on a closed interval
Figure 1.31
Similar definitions can be made to cover continuity on intervals of the form 共a, b兴
and 关a, b兲 that are neither open nor closed, or on infinite intervals. For example,
f 共x兲冪x
is continuous on the infinite interval 关0, 兲, and the function
g共x兲冪2 x
is continuous on the infinite interval 共 , 2兴.
Continuity on a Closed Interval

Discuss the continuity of
f 共x兲冪1 x 2.
y Solution The domain of f is the closed interval 关1, 1兴. At all points in the open
interval 共1, 1兲, the continuity of f follows from Theorems 1.4 and 1.5. Moreover,
f (x) = 1− x2
1 because
lim 冪1 x 2 0 f 共1兲 Continuous from the right
x→1
and
x
−1 1
lim 冪1 x 2 0 f 共1兲 Continuous from the left
x→1
f is continuous on 关1, 1兴. you can conclude that f is continuous on the closed interval 关1, 1兴, as shown in
Figure 1.32 Figure 1.32.
Testing for Continuity

Describe the interval(s) on which each function is continuous.
冦 sin 1 , x 0
冦
1
x sin , x 0
a. f 共x兲 tan x b. g共x兲 x c. h共x兲 x
0, x0 0, x0
Solution
a. The tangent function f 共x兲 tan x is undefined at

x n , n is an integer.
2
At all other points, f is continuous. So, f 共x兲 tan x is continuous on the open
intervals
3 3
. . ., 冢 2
, , , , ,
2 2 2 冣冢
2 2
,. . . 冣冢冣
as shown in Figure 1.34(a).
b. Because y 1兾x is continuous except at x 0 and the sine function is continuous
for all real values of x, it follows from Theorem 1.12 that
1
y sin
x
is continuous at all real values except x 0. At x 0, the limit of g共x兲 does not exist
(see Example 5, Section 1.2). So, g is continuous on the intervals 共 , 0兲 and
共0, 兲, as shown in Figure 1.34(b).
c. This function is similar to the function in part (b) except that the oscillations are
damped by the factor x. Using the Squeeze Theorem, you obtain
1
ⱍxⱍ x sin
x ⱍ ⱍ
x, x0
and you can conclude that

lim h共x兲 0.
x→0
So, h is continuous on the entire real number line, as shown in Figure 1.34(c).
y y y
4
y = ⎪x⎪
1
3 1
2
1
x x x
−π π −1 1 −1 1
−3 −1
−1
−4
sin 1x , x ≠ 0 1
x sin x , x ≠ 0
g(x) = h(x) =
f (x) = tan x 0, x=0 y = −⎪x⎪ 0, x=0
(a) f is continuous on each open interval in (b) g is continuous on 共 , 0兲 and 共0, 兲. (c) h is continuous on the entire real number line.
its domain.
Figure 1.34
冦xx 1,1,
Limits and Continuity In Exercises 1–6, use the graph to 3
x < 1
determine the limit, and discuss the continuity of the function. 19. lim f 共x兲, where f 共x兲
x→1 x 1
(a) limⴙ f 冇x冈 (b) limⴚ f 冇x冈 (c) lim f 冇x冈
lim f 共x兲, where f 共x兲冦
x, x 1
x→c x→c x→c 20.
x→1 1 x, x > 1
1. y 2. y
21. lim cot x 22. lim sec x
x→ x→ 兾2
5 2
23. lim 共5冀x冁 7兲 24. lim共2x 冀x冁兲
4 c = −2 x→4 x→2
3
(4, 3) 1
2
−2
x 25. lim 共2 冀x冁兲
x→3
26. lim 1
x→1 冢决 2x冴冣
1 c=4 −1
x
1 2 3 4 5 −2
Continuity of a Function In Exercises 27–30, discuss the
−1 (−2, −2) continuity of each function.
y y
3. 4. 1 x2 1
c = −3 27. f 共x兲 28. f 共x兲
4
5 x2 4 x1
(− 3, 4)
4 y y
(− 3, 3) 3
(3, 1) 3 3
2
x 2 2
2 4 6 1 1
x
(3, 0) −5 − 4 − 3 −2 − 1 x x
c=3 −3 −1 1 3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
y y −2
5. 6. −3
(2, 3) −3
4
2 c = −1
冦
1 c=2 3 x, x < 1
29. f 共x兲 2冀x冁 x 30. f 共x兲 2,
1
x 2 x1
1 2 3 4 5 6 (−1, 2) 2x 1, x > 1
−1
−2 (2, − 3) x y y
−3
−3 (− 1, 0) 1
3 3
2 2
Finding a Limit In Exercises 7–26, find the limit (if it 1 1
exists). If it does not exist, explain why. x x
−3 − 2 − 1 1 2 3 −3 −2 1 2 3
1 2
7. lim 8. lim −2
x8
x→8 x2
x→2
−3 −3
x5 4x
9. lim 2 10. lim 2
x→5 x 25 x→4 x 16
Continuity on a Closed Interval In Exercises 31–34,
x 冪x 2 discuss the continuity of the function on the closed interval.
11. lim 12. lim
x→3 冪x2 9 x→4 x4
Function Interval
13. lim
x ⱍⱍ 14. lim ⱍx 10ⱍ 31. g共x兲冪49 x 2 关7, 7兴
x→0 x x→10 x 10
1 1 32. f 共t兲 3 冪9 t 2 关3, 3兴

x x 3 x, x 0
冦
x
15. lim
x 33. f 共x兲 1 关1, 4兴
x→0 3 2 x, x > 0
共x x兲2 x x 共x 2 x兲 1
16. lim
x 34. g共x兲 2 关1, 2兴
x→0 x 4
冦
x2
, x 3 Removable and Nonremovable Discontinuities In
2
17. lim f 共x兲, where f 共x兲 Exercises 35–60, find the x-values (if any) at which f is not
x→3 12 2x
, x > 3 continuous. Which of the discontinuities are removable?
3
6 4
35. f 共x兲 36. f 共x兲
18. lim f 共x兲, where f 共x兲
x→3 冦
x2 4x 6, x < 3
x2 4x 2, x 3
x x6
37. f 共x兲 x2 9 38. f 共x兲 x 2 4x 4
1 1 71. f 共x兲 tan x 72. f 共x兲 sin x

4 x2 x2 1 x
x g共x兲 g共x兲 x2
2
41. f 共x兲 3x cos x 42. f 共x兲 cos
2
x x Finding Discontinuities In Exercises 73–76, use a graphing
43. f 共x兲 44. f 共x兲 utility to graph the function. Use the graph to determine any
x x2
x 4
2
x-values at which the function is not continuous.
x x5
x2 1 x 2 25 73. f 共x兲冀x冁 x 74. h共x兲
1
x2 2x 15
x2 x2
47. f 共x兲 48. f 共x兲 x2 3x, x > 4
x 2 3x 10
ⱍx 7ⱍ
x2 x 6
ⱍx 5ⱍ
75. g共x兲冦 2x 5, x 4
冦
x7 x5 cos x 1
, x < 0
76. f 共x兲
冦x,x , xx > 11
x
51. f 共x兲 2 5x, x 0
52. f 共x兲冦
2x 3, x < 1 Testing for Continuity In Exercises 77–84, describe the
x , 2
x 1 interval(s) on which the function is continuous.
冦3 x,
1
2x 1, x 2
53. f 共x兲 x x1
x > 2 77. f 共x兲 78. f 共x兲
x2 x 2 冪x
54. f 共x兲冦2x,

x 4x 1,
2
x 2
x > 2
79. f 共x兲 3 冪x
x
80. f 共x兲 x冪x 3
1
tan x, ⱍxⱍ < 1 81. f 共x兲 sec 82. f 共x兲 cos
55. f 共x兲冦 4
ⱍxⱍ 1
4 x
冦
x, x2 1
2x 4, x 3
csc x , ⱍx 3ⱍ 2 83. f 共x兲 x 1
, x1
84. f 共x兲冦1,
56. f 共x兲
2,
冦 6
ⱍx 3ⱍ > 2
2, x1 x3
x Writing In Exercises 85 and 86, use a graphing utility to

57. f 共x兲 csc 2x 58. f 共x兲 tan graph the function on the interval [ⴚ4, 4]. Does the graph of
2
the function appear to be continuous on this interval? Is the
59. f 共x兲冀x 8冁 60. f 共x兲 5 冀x冁
function continuous on [ⴚ4, 4]? Write a short paragraph about
Making a Function Continuous In Exercises 61–66, find the importance of examining a function analytically as well as
the constant a, or the constants a and b, such that the function graphically.
is continuous on the entire real number line. sin x x3 8
x x2
冦ax3x , 4, x 1
冦ax3x , 5, x 1
2 3
x < 1 x > 1
Writing In Exercises 87–90, explain why the function has a
冦
4 sin x zero in the given interval.
冦axx , , x 2
3
, x < 0
63. f 共x兲 2
64. g共x兲 x
x > 2 Function Interval
a 2x, x 0
87. f 共x兲关1, 2兴
1 4
12 x x 4 3
冦
2, x 1
65. f 共x兲 ax b, 1 < x < 3 88. f 共x兲 x3 5x 3 关0, 1兴
2, x 3 89. f 共x兲 x 2 cos x
2
关0, 兴
冦
x2 a2 x
66. g 共x兲 x a
, xa
5
90. f 共x兲 tan
x 10 冢冣关1, 4兴
8, xa
Using the Intermediate Value Theorem In Exercises
Continuity of a Composite Function In Exercises 67–72, 91–94, use the Intermediate Value Theorem and a graphing
discuss the continuity of the composite function h冇x冈 ⴝ f 冇 g冇x冈冈. utility to approximate the zero of the function in the interval
[0, 1]. Repeatedly “zoom in” on the graph of the function to
67. f 共x兲 x 2 68. f 共x兲 5x 1 approximate the zero accurate to two decimal places. Use the
g共x兲 x 1 g共x兲 x 3 zero or root feature of the graphing utility to approximate the
1 1 zero accurate to four decimal places.
x6 冪x 91. f 共x兲 x3 x 1
g共x兲 x2 5 g共x兲 x 1 92. f 共x兲 x 4 x 2 3x 1
1.5 Infinite Limits 83
1.5 Infinite Limits

Determine infinite limits from the left and from the right.
Find and sketch the vertical asymptotes of the graph of a function.
Infinite Limits
y
Consider the function f 共x兲 3兾共x 2兲. From Figure 1.39 and the table, you can see
6 3 →∞ that f 共x兲 decreases without bound as x approaches 2 from the left, and f 共x兲 increases
x−2 without bound as x approaches 2 from the right.
4 as x → 2 +
2
x
−6 −4 4 6
−2 x 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.5
3 → −∞
−4
x−2 3 f 共x兲 6 30 300 3000 ? 3000 300 30 6
as x → 2 − f (x) =
x−2
−6
f 共x兲 decreases without bound. f 共x兲 increases without bound.

f 共x兲 increases and decreases without
bound as x approaches 2.
Figure 1.39
This behavior is denoted as
3
lim f 共x兲 decreases without bound as x approaches 2 from the left.
x→2 x2
and
3
lim . f 共x兲 increases without bound as x approaches 2 from the right.
x→2 x2
The symbols and refer to positive infinity and negative infinity, respectively.
These symbols do not represent real numbers. They are convenient symbols used to
describe unbounded conditions more concisely. A limit in which f 共x兲 increases or
decreases without bound as x approaches c is called an infinite limit.
Definition of Infinite Limits

Let f be a function that is defined at every real number in some open interval
y
containing c (except possibly at c itself). The statement
lim f 共x兲
lim f (x) = ∞ x→c
x→c
means that for each M > 0 there exists a > 0 such that f 共x兲 > M whenever
0 < ⱍx cⱍ < (see Figure 1.40). Similarly, the statement
M
δ δ lim f 共x兲
x→c
means that for each N < 0 there exists a > 0 such that f 共x兲 < N whenever
x 0 < ⱍx cⱍ < .
c
To define the infinite limit from the left, replace 0 < ⱍx cⱍ < by
Infinite limits c < x < c. To define the infinite limit from the right, replace
Figure 1.40 0 < ⱍx cⱍ < by c < x < c .
Be sure you see that the equal sign in the statement lim f 共x兲 does not mean
that the limit exists! On the contrary, it tells you how the limit fails to exist by denoting
the unbounded behavior of f 共x兲 as x approaches c.
1.5 Infinite Limits 85
Vertical Asymptotes
If it were possible to extend the graphs in Figure 1.41 toward positive and negative
infinity, you would see that each graph becomes arbitrarily close to the vertical line
x 1. This line is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f. (You will study other types
of asymptotes in Sections 3.5 and 3.6.)
Definition of Vertical Asymptote

REMARK If the graph of If f 共x兲 approaches infinity (or negative infinity) as x approaches c from the right
a function f has a vertical or the left, then the line x c is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f.
asymptote at x c, then f is
not continuous at c.
In Example 1, note that each of the functions is a quotient and that the vertical
asymptote occurs at a number at which the denominator is 0 (and the numerator is not
0). The next theorem generalizes this observation.
THEOREM 1.14 Vertical Asymptotes

y Let f and g be continuous on an open interval containing c. If f 共c兲 0, g共c兲 0,
and there exists an open interval containing c such that g共x兲 0 for all x c in
1
f (x) =
2(x + 1)
2 the interval, then the graph of the function
f 共x兲
h 共x兲
g共x兲
x
−1 1
has a vertical asymptote at x c.
−1
A proof of this theorem is given in Appendix A.
−2 See LarsonCalculus.com for Bruce Edwards’s video of this proof.
(a)
y Finding Vertical Asymptotes

f (x) = x2 +1 4 See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
x2 − 1
2
a. When x 1, the denominator of
1
x f 共x兲
−4 −2 2 4 2共x 1兲
is 0 and the numerator is not 0. So, by Theorem 1.14, you can conclude that x 1
is a vertical asymptote, as shown in Figure 1.43(a).
b. By factoring the denominator as
(b)
x2 1 x2 1
f 共x兲
y x 2 1 共x 1兲共x 1兲
f (x) = cot x
6 you can see that the denominator is 0 at x 1 and x 1. Also, because the
4 numerator is not 0 at these two points, you can apply Theorem 1.14 to conclude that
2 the graph of f has two vertical asymptotes, as shown in Figure 1.43(b).
x c. By writing the cotangent function in the form
− 2π π 2π
cos x
−4
f 共x兲 cot x
sin x
−6
you can apply Theorem 1.14 to conclude that vertical asymptotes occur at all values
(c) of x such that sin x 0 and cos x 0, as shown in Figure 1.43(c). So, the graph of
Functions with vertical asymptotes this function has infinitely many vertical asymptotes. These asymptotes occur at
Figure 1.43 x n , where n is an integer.
Theorem 1.14 requires that the value of the numerator at x c be nonzero. When
both the numerator and the denominator are 0 at x c, you obtain the indeterminate
form 0兾0, and you cannot determine the limit behavior at x c without further
investigation, as illustrated in Example 3.
x 2 + 2x − 8 A Rational Function with Common Factors

f (x) =
x2 − 4
y
Determine all vertical asymptotes of the graph of
x 2 2x 8
Vertical 4 f 共x兲 .
Undefined x2 4
asymptote when x = 2
at x = −2 2 Solution Begin by simplifying the expression, as shown.
x 2 2x 8
x f 共x兲
−4 2 x2 4
−2 共x 4兲共x 2兲

共x 2兲共x 2兲
f 共x兲 increases and decreases without x4
bound as x approaches 2. , x2
x2
Figure 1.44
At all x-values other than x 2, the graph of f coincides with the graph of
g共x兲共x 4兲兾共x 2兲. So, you can apply Theorem 1.14 to g to conclude that there is
a vertical asymptote at x 2, as shown in Figure 1.44. From the graph, you can see
that
x 2 2x 8 x 2 2x 8
lim and lim .
x→2 x2 4 x→2 x2 4
Note that x 2 is not a vertical asymptote.
Determining Infinite Limits

Find each limit.
x 2 3x x 2 3x
lim and lim
x 2 − 3x x→1 x1 x→1 x1
f (x) =
x−1
6
Solution Because the denominator is 0 when x 1 (and the numerator is not zero),
you know that the graph of
x 2 3x
−4 f 共x兲
6
x1
has a vertical asymptote at x 1. This means that each of the given limits is either
or . You can determine the result by analyzing f at values of x close to 1, or by
−6 using a graphing utility. From the graph of f shown in Figure 1.45, you can see that the
f has a vertical asymptote at x 1. graph approaches from the left of x 1 and approaches from the right of
Figure 1.45 x 1. So, you can conclude that
x 2 3x
lim The limit from the left is infinity.
x→1 x1
and
x2 3x
lim . The limit from the right is negative infinity.
x→1 x1
TECHNOLOGY PITFALL When using a graphing utility, be careful to interpret

correctly the graph of a function with a vertical asymptote—some graphing utilities
have difficulty drawing this type of graph.
Determining Infinite Limits from a Graph In Exercises Finding Vertical Asymptotes In Exercises 13–28, find the
1–4, determine whether f 冇x冈 approaches ⴥ or ⴚⴥ as x vertical asymptotes (if any) of the graph of the function.
approaches ⴚ2 from the left and from the right.
1 2
ⱍ ⱍ
x 1 x2 共x 3兲3
1. f 共x兲 2 2 2. f 共x兲
x 4 x2 x2 3x
y y x 4
2
x2 9
6 3 t1 3s 4
17. g共t兲 18. h共s兲
4
2 t2 1 s2 16
3 x3 8
2 x 19. f 共x兲 20. g共x兲
−1 1 x2 x 2 x2
x
−2 −2 4x 2 4x 24
2 4
−3 21. f 共x兲
−2 x4 2x 3 9x 2 18x
x x x2 9
3. f 共x兲 tan 4. f 共x兲 sec 22. h共x兲
4 4 x 3x 2 x 3
3
x2 2x 15
y y 23. f 共x兲
x3 5x2 x 5
3
t 2 2t
2 24. h共t兲
1 1 t 4 16
x x 25. f 共x兲 csc x 26. f 共x兲 tan x
−6 −2 2 6 −6 −2 2 6
t tan
27. s共t兲 28. g共兲
sin t
Vertical Asymptote or Removable Discontinuity In

Determining Infinite Limits In Exercises 5–8, determine
Exercises 29–32, determine whether the graph of the function
whether f 冇x冈 approaches ⴥ or ⴚⴥ as x approaches 4 from the
has a vertical asymptote or a removable discontinuity at
left and from the right.
x ⴝ ⴚ1. Graph the function using a graphing utility to confirm
1 1 your answer.
x4 x4 x2 1 x 2 2x 8
1 29. f 共x兲 30. f 共x兲
7. f 共x兲
1
8. f 共x兲 x1 x1
共x 4兲2 共x 4兲2
x2 1 sin共x 1兲
Numerical and Graphical Analysis In Exercises 9–12, x1 x1
determine whether f 冇x冈 approaches ⴥ or ⴚⴥ as x approaches
Finding a One-Sided Limit In Exercises 33–48, find the
ⴚ3 from the left and from the right by completing the table.
one-sided limit (if it exists).
Use a graphing utility to graph the function to confirm your
answer. 1 1
33. lim 34. lim
x→1 x1 x→1 共x 1兲2
x 3.5 3.1 3.01 3.001 3 x x2
35. lim 36. lim
f 共x兲 ? x→2 x2 x→2 x 4
2
x3 6x 2 x 1
37. lim 2 38. lim
x 2.999 2.99 2.9 2.5 x→3 x x 6 x→ 共1兾2兲 4x 2 4x 3
f 共x兲 39. lim 1

x→0
冢 1
x 冣 40. lim 6
x→0 冢 x1 冣 3
x
9. f 共x兲
1
10. f 共x兲
x
x 9
41. lim
x→4 冢x 2

2
x4 冣 42. lim 冢 cot 冣
x→3
x
3 2
x2 9 2
2 2
x2 43. lim 44. lim
11. f 共x兲 x→0 sin x x→ 共兾2兲 cos x
x2 9
冪x x2
x 45. lim 46. lim
12. f 共x兲 cot x→ csc x x→0 cot x
3
3.5 Limits at Infinity 195
3.5 Limits at Infinity

Determine (finite) limits at infinity.
Determine the horizontal asymptotes, if any, of the graph of a function.
Determine infinite limits at infinity.
Limits at Infinity
y
This section discusses the “end behavior” of a function on an infinite interval. Consider
3x 2
f(x) = the graph of
4 x2 + 1
3x 2
f 共x兲
2
x2 1
f (x) → 3 f(x) → 3
as x → −∞ as x → ∞
as shown in Figure 3.32. Graphically, you can see that the values of f 共x兲 appear to
approach 3 as x increases without bound or decreases without bound. You can come to
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 the same conclusions numerically, as shown in the table.
The limit of f 共x兲 as x approaches
or is 3.
x decreases without bound. x increases without bound.
Figure 3.32
100 10 1 →
→
Sabemos que es 3 porque si x 0 1 10 100
dividimos numerador y f 共x兲 3
→
2.9997 2.9703 1.5 0 1.5 2.9703 2.9997 →3
denominador por la x de mayor
potencia, x2, queda:
f 共x兲 approaches 3. f 共x兲 approaches 3.
The table suggests that the value of f 共x兲 approaches 3 as x increases without bound
共x → 兲. Similarly, f 共x兲 approaches 3 as x decreases without bound 共x → 兲. These
limits at infinity are denoted by
lim f 共x兲 3 Limit at negative infinity
x→
REMARK The statement and
lim f 共x兲 L or
x→
lim f 共x兲 3. Limit at positive infinity
lim f 共x兲 L means that the x→
x→
limit exists and the limit is To say that a statement is true as x increases without bound means that for some
equal to L. (large) real number M, the statement is true for all x in the interval 再x: x > M冎. The next
definition uses this concept.
Definition of Limits at Infinity

Let L be a real number.
y
1. The statement lim f 共x兲 L means that for each > 0 there exists an
x→
lim f(x) = L
x →∞
M > 0 such that ⱍ f 共x兲 Lⱍ < whenever x > M.
2. The statement lim f 共x兲 L means that for each > 0 there exists an
x→
N < 0 such that ⱍ f 共x兲 Lⱍ < whenever x < N.
ε
L
ε
The definition of a limit at infinity is shown in Figure 3.33. In this figure, note that
x
M for a given positive number , there exists a positive number M such that, for x > M,
the graph of f will lie between the horizontal lines
f 共x兲 is within units of L as x → .
Figure 3.33 y L and y L .
196 Chapter 3 Applications of Differentiation
Horizontal Asymptotes
Exploration
In Figure 3.33, the graph of f approaches the line y L as x increases without bound.
Use a graphing utility to
The line y L is called a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f.
graph
2x 2 4x 6
f 共x兲 . Definition of a Horizontal Asymptote
3x 2 2x 16
The line y L is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of f when
Describe all the important
features of the graph. Can lim f 共x兲 L or lim f 共x兲 L.
x→ x→
you find a single viewing
window that shows all of
these features clearly?
Note that from this definition, it follows that the graph of a function of x can have
Explain your reasoning.
at most two horizontal asymptotes—one to the right and one to the left.
What are the horizontal
Limits at infinity have many of the same properties of limits discussed in
asymptotes of the graph?
Section 1.3. For example, if lim f 共x兲 and lim g共x兲 both exist, then
How far to the right do you x→ x→
have to move on the graph lim 关 f 共x兲 g共x兲兴 lim f 共x兲 lim g共x兲
x→ x→ x→
so that the graph is within
0.001 unit of its horizontal and
asymptote? Explain your lim 关 f 共x兲g共x兲兴关 lim f 共x兲兴关 lim g共x兲兴.
reasoning. x→ x→ x→
Similar properties hold for limits at .

When evaluating limits at infinity, the next theorem is helpful.
THEOREM 3.10 Limits at Infinity

If r is a positive rational number and c is any real number, then
c
lim 0.
x→ xr
Furthermore, if x r is defined when x < 0, then
c
lim 0.
x→ xr
A proof of this theorem is given in Appendix A.
See LarsonCalculus.com for Bruce Edwards’s video of this proof.
Finding a Limit at Infinity
10
y Find the limit: lim 5
x→ 冢 2
x2
. 冣
Solution Using Theorem 3.10, you can write
8
f(x) = 5 − 22
x
6
lim 5
x→ 冢 2
x2 冣
lim 5 lim 2
x→
2
x→ x
Property of limits
4 50
5.
So, the line y 5 is a horizontal asymptote to the right. By finding the limit
x
−6 −4 −2 2 4 6
lim
x→ 冢5 x2 冣 2
Limit as x → .
y 5 is a horizontal asymptote. you can see that y 5 is also a horizontal asymptote to the left. The graph of the
Figure 3.34 function is shown in Figure 3.34.
Finding a Limit at Infinity

2x 1
Find the limit: lim .
x→ x1
Solution Note that both the numerator and the denominator approach infinity as x
approaches infinity.
lim 共2x 1兲 →
x→
2x 1
lim
x→ x1
lim 共x 1兲 →
x→

This results in , an indeterminate form. To resolve this problem, you can divide both

the numerator and the denominator by x. After dividing, the limit may be evaluated
REMARK When you
encounter an indeterminate form as shown.
such as the one in Example 2, 2x 1
you should divide the numerator
2x 1 x
and denominator by the highest lim lim Divide numerator and denominator by x.
x→ x 1 x→ x 1
power of x in the denominator.
x
1
2
y x
lim Simplify.
x→ 1
6 1
x
5
1
4 lim 2 lim
f(x) = 2x − 1 x→ x x→
3 x+1 Take limits of numerator and denominator.
1
lim 1 lim
x→ x→ x
1
20
Apply Theorem 3.10.
−5 − 4 − 3 − 2 1 2 3
x 10
−1 2
So, the line y 2 is a horizontal asymptote to the right. By taking the limit as x → ,
y 2 is a horizontal asymptote. you can see that y 2 is also a horizontal asymptote to the left. The graph of the
Figure 3.35 function is shown in Figure 3.35.
TECHNOLOGY You can test the reasonableness of the limit found in Example 2
by evaluating f 共x兲 for a few large positive values of x. For instance,
f 共100兲 ⬇ 1.9703, f 共1000兲 ⬇ 1.9970, 3
and f 共10,000兲 ⬇ 1.9997.
Another way to test the reasonableness of the
limit is to use a graphing utility. For instance,
in Figure 3.36, the graph of
2x 1
f 共x兲 0 80
x1 0
is shown with the horizontal line y 2. Note As x increases, the graph of f moves
closer and closer to the line y 2.
that as x increases, the graph of f moves closer
Figure 3.36
and closer to its horizontal asymptote.
A Comparison of Three Rational Functions

See LarsonCalculus.com for an interactive version of this type of example.
Find each limit.

2x 5 2x 2 5 2x 3 5
a. lim b. lim c. lim
x→ 3x 2 1 x→ 3x 2 1 x→ 3x 2 1
Solution In each case, attempting to evaluate the limit produces the indeterminate
form 兾 .
a. Divide both the numerator and the denominator by x 2 .
2x 5 共2兾x兲共5兾x 2兲 0 0 0
lim lim 0
x→ 3x 1
2 x→ 3 共1兾x 2兲 30 3
b. Divide both the numerator and the denominator by x 2.
2x 2 5 2 共5兾x 2兲 2 0 2
lim lim
MARIA GAETANA AGNESI x→ 3x 1
2 x→ 3 共1兾x 2兲 30 3
(1718–1799)
c. Divide both the numerator and the denominator by x 2.
Agnesi was one of a handful
of women to receive credit for 2x 3 5 2x 共5兾x 2兲
lim lim
significant contributions to x→ 3x 1
2 x→ 3 共1兾x 2兲 3
mathematics before the twentieth
century. In her early twenties, she You can conclude that the limit does not exist because the numerator increases
wrote the first text that included without bound while the denominator approaches 3.
both differential and integral
calculus. By age 30, she was an
honorary member of the faculty Example 3 suggests the guidelines below for finding limits at infinity of rational
at the University of Bologna.
functions. Use these guidelines to check the results in Example 3.
more of this biography.
For more information on the
contributions of women to GUIDELINES FOR FINDING LIMITS AT ±ⴥ OF RATIONAL
mathematics, see the article “Why FUNCTIONS
Women Succeed in Mathematics”
by Mona Fabricant, Sylvia Svitak, 1. If the degree of the numerator is less than the degree of the denominator, then
and Patricia Clark Kenschaft in the limit of the rational function is 0.
Mathematics Teacher.To view this 2. If the degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the denominator, then
article, go to MathArticles.com.
the limit of the rational function is the ratio of the leading coefficients.
3. If the degree of the numerator is greater than the degree of the denominator,
then the limit of the rational function does not exist.
y The guidelines for finding limits at infinity of rational functions seem reasonable
when you consider that for large values of x, the highest-power term of the rational
2
f(x) = 1 function is the most “influential” in determining the limit. For instance,
x2 + 1
1
lim
x→ x2 1
x
is 0 because the denominator overpowers the numerator as x increases or decreases
−2 −1 1 2 without bound, as shown in Figure 3.37.
lim f (x) = 0 lim f (x) = 0 The function shown in Figure 3.37 is a special case of a type of curve studied by
x → −∞ x→∞
the Italian mathematician Maria Gaetana Agnesi. The general form of this function is
f has a horizontal asymptote at y 0.
Figure 3.37 8a 3
f 共x兲 Witch of Agnesi
x 4a 2
2
and, through a mistranslation of the Italian word vertéré, the curve has come to be
known as the Witch of Agnesi. Agnesi’s work with this curve first appeared in a
comprehensive text on calculus that was published in 1748.
The Granger Collection, New York
In Figure 3.37, you can see that the function

1
f 共x兲
x2 1
approaches the same horizontal asymptote to the right and to the left. This is always true
of rational functions. Functions that are not rational, however, may approach different
horizontal asymptotes to the right and to the left. This is demonstrated in Example 4.
A Function with Two Horizontal Asymptotes

Find each limit.
3x 2 3x 2
a. lim b. lim
x→ 冪2x 2 1 x→ 冪2x 2 1
Solution
a. For x > 0, you can write x 冪x 2. So, dividing both the numerator and the
denominator by x produces
3x 2 2 2
3 3
3x 2 x x x

冪2x 2 1 冪2x 2 1
冪x 2 冪 2x 2 1
x2 冪2 x1 2
and you can take the limit as follows.

2
y y= 3 , 3
3x 2 x 30 3
2 lim lim
x→ 冪2x 2 1 冪2 0 冪2
冪2 x1
Horizontal x→
4
asymptote
2
to the right
b. For x < 0, you can write x 冪x 2. So, dividing both the numerator and the
x denominator by x produces
−6 −4 −2 2 4
3x 2 2 2
3 3
3x − 2 3x 2 x x x
y=− 3 ,
f(x) =
冪2x 2 1 冪2x 2 1
冪冪
2 −4 2x 2 + 1 2x 1
2
1
Horizontal 冪x 2 2 2
asymptote
x2 x
to the left and you can take the limit as follows.
Functions that are not rational may
2
have different right and left horizontal 3
asymptotes. 3x 2 x 30 3
lim lim
x→ 冪2x 2 1 冪2 0 冪2
冪2 x1
Figure 3.38 x→
2
2 The graph of f 共x兲共3x 2兲兾冪2x 2 1 is shown in Figure 3.38.
TECHNOLOGY PITFALL If you use a graphing utility to estimate a limit,

be sure that you also confirm the estimate analytically—the pictures shown by a
−8 8
graphing utility can be misleading. For instance, Figure 3.39 shows one view of the
graph of
2x 3 1000x 2 x
−1 y .
x 3 1000x 2 x 1000
The horizontal asymptote appears to be
the line y 1, but it is actually the line From this view, one could be convinced that the graph has y 1 as a horizontal
y 2. asymptote. An analytical approach shows that the horizontal asymptote is actually
Figure 3.39 y 2. Confirm this by enlarging the viewing window on the graphing utility.
Infinite Limits at Infinity

Many functions do not approach a finite limit as x increases (or decreases) without bound.
For instance, no polynomial function has a finite limit at infinity. The next definition is
used to describe the behavior of polynomial and other functions at infinity.
Definition of Infinite Limits at Infinity

REMARK Determining Let f be a function defined on the interval 共a, 兲.
whether a function has an
1. The statement lim f 共x兲 means that for each positive number M, there
infinite limit at infinity is useful x→
in analyzing the “end behavior” is a corresponding number N > 0 such that f 共x兲 > M whenever x > N.
of its graph. You will see 2. The statement lim f 共x兲 means that for each negative number M,
x→
examples of this in Section 3.6 there is a corresponding number N > 0 such that f 共x兲 < M whenever x > N.
on curve sketching.
Similar definitions can be given for the statements
lim f 共x兲 and lim f 共x兲 .
x→ x→
Finding Infinite Limits at Infinity

y
Find each limit.
3 a. lim x 3 b. lim x3
x→ x→
2 Solution
f(x) = x 3
1 a. As x increases without bound, x 3 also increases without bound. So, you can write
x lim x 3 .
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x→
−1 b. As x decreases without bound, x 3 also decreases without bound. So, you can write
−2 lim x3 .
x→
−3
The graph of f 共x兲 x 3 in Figure 3.42 illustrates these two results. These results agree
with the Leading Coefficient Test for polynomial functions as described in Section P.3.
Figure 3.42
Finding Infinite Limits at Infinity

Find each limit.
y 2x 2 4x 2x 2 4x
a. lim b. lim
x→ x 1 x→ x 1
2x 2 − 4x 6
f(x) =
x+1 Solution One way to evaluate each of these limits is to use long division to rewrite
3
x the improper rational function as the sum of a polynomial and a rational function.
− 12 − 9 −6 −3 3 6 9 12
2x 2 4x
−3
−6
y = 2x − 6
a. lim
x→ x 1
lim 2x 6
x→
6
x1
冢冣
2x 2 4x
b. lim
x→ x 1
lim 2x 6
x→
6
x1
冢冣
The statements above can be interpreted as saying that as x approaches ± , the
function f 共x兲共2x 2 4x兲兾共x 1兲 behaves like the function g共x兲 2x 6. In
Section 3.6, you will see that this is graphically described by saying that the line
Figure 3.43 y 2x 6 is a slant asymptote of the graph of f, as shown in Figure 3.43.
Matching In Exercises 1–6, match the function with one of Finding Limits at Infinity In Exercises 13 and 14, find
the graphs [(a), (b), (c), (d), (e), or (f)] using horizontal lim h冇x冈, if possible.
x→
asymptotes as an aid.
13. f 共x兲 5x 3 3x 2 10x 14. f 共x兲 4x 2 2x 5
(a) y (b) y
f 共x兲 f 共x兲
(a) h共x兲 (a) h共x兲
3 3 x2 x
2
f 共x兲 f 共x兲
1 (b) h共x兲 (b) h共x兲
x3 x2
1 x
−3 −1 1 2 3 f 共x兲 f 共x兲
x (c) h共x兲 (c) h共x兲
−2 −1 1 2 x4 x3
−1 −3
Finding Limits at Infinity In Exercises 15–18, find each
(c) y (d) y limit, if possible.
3 3 x2 2 3 2x
15. (a) lim 16. (a) lim
2 x→ x3 1 x→ 3x 3 1
1 1
x2 2 3 2x
x x (b) lim (b) lim
−3 −2 − 1 1 2 3 1 2 3 x→ x 2 1 x→ 3x 1
−1
−2 x2 2 3 2 x2
(c) lim (c) lim
−3 −3 x→ x 1 x→ 3x 1
5 2 x 3兾2 5x3兾2
y y 17. (a) lim 18. (a) lim
(e) (f) x→ 3x 2 4 x→ 4x 2 1
8 4 5 2x3兾2 5x3兾2
(b) lim (b) lim
6 3 x→ 3x 3兾2 4 x→ 4x 1 3兾2
2
4 5 2x 3兾2 5x3兾2
1 (c) lim (c) lim
2 x→ 3x 4 x→ 4冪x 1
x
x −3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−6 − 4 − 2 2 4 Finding a Limit In Exercises 19–38, find the limit.
−2
2x 2
1. f 共x兲 2 2. f 共x兲
2x
19. lim 4
x→ 冢 3
x 冣 20. lim
x→ 冢5x 3x 冣
x 2 冪x 2 2 2x 1 4x2 5
21. lim 22. lim
x x2 x→ 3x 2 x→ x2 3
3. f 共x兲 2 4. f 共x兲 2 4
x 2 x 1 x 5x3 1
23. lim 24. lim
4 sin x 2x 3x 5
2
x→ x 12 x→ 10x 3x2 7
3
x2 1 x2 1 5x 2 x3 4
25. lim 26. lim
x→ x 3 x→ x2 1
Numerical and Graphical Analysis In Exercises 7–12,
use a graphing utility to complete the table and estimate the x x
27. lim 28. lim
limit as x approaches infinity. Then use a graphing utility to x→ 冪x 2 x x→ 冪x 2 1
graph the function and estimate the limit graphically. 2x 1 5x2 2
29. lim 30. lim
x→ 冪x 2 x x→ 冪x2 3
x 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 冪x2 1 冪x 4 1
31. lim 32. lim
x→ 2x 1 x→ x3 1
f 共x兲
x1 2x
33. lim 34. lim
4x 3 2x 2 x→ 共x2 1兲1兾3 x→ 共x6 1兲1兾3
2x 1 x1 1 1
35. lim 36. lim cos
6x 10 x→ 2x sin x x→ x
冪4x 2 5 冪2x2 1 sin 2x x cos x
37. lim 38. lim
1 3 x→ x x→ x
11. f 共x兲 5 2 12. f 共x兲 4 2
x 1 x 2
Horizontal Asymptotes In Exercises 39–42, use a

graphing utility to graph the function and identify any WRITING ABOUT CONCEPTS (continued)
horizontal asymptotes. 57. Using Symmetry to Find Limits If f is a continuous
function such that lim f 共x兲 5, find, if possible,
39. f 共x兲
x ⱍⱍ 40. f 共x兲 ⱍ3x 2ⱍ x→
lim f 共x兲 for each specified condition.
x1 x2 x→
3x 冪9x 2 2 (a) The graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

冪x 2 2 2x 1 (b) The graph of f is symmetric with respect to the origin.
Finding a Limit In Exercises 43 and 44, find the limit.

冇Hint: Let x ⴝ 1/ t and find the limit as t → 0ⴙ.冈 58. A Function and Its Derivative The graph of a function
f is shown below. To print an enlarged copy of the graph, go to
1 1 MathGraphs.com.
43. lim x sin 44. lim x tan
x→ x x→ x
y
Finding a Limit In Exercises 45–48, find the limit. (Hint: 6
Treat the expression as a fraction whose denominator is 1, and
rationalize the numerator.) Use a graphing utility to verify 4
your result.
2
45. lim
x→
共x 冪x 2 3 兲 46. lim 共x 冪x 2 x 兲
x→
f
x
47. lim
x→
共3x 冪9x 2 x 兲 48. lim 共4x 冪16x 2 x 兲
x→
−4 −2 2 4
−2
Numerical, Graphical, and Analytic Analysis In

(a) Sketch f.
Exercises 49–52, use a graphing utility to complete the table
and estimate the limit as x approaches infinity. Then use a (b) Use the graphs to estimate lim f 共x兲 and lim f共x兲.
x→ x→
graphing utility to graph the function and estimate the limit. (c) Explain the answers you gave in part (b).
Finally, find the limit analytically and compare your results
with the estimates. Sketching a Graph In Exercises 59–74, sketch the graph
of the equation using extrema, intercepts, symmetry, and
x 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 asymptotes. Then use a graphing utility to verify your result.
f 共x兲 x x4
59. y 60. y
1x x3
49. f 共x兲 x 冪x共x 1兲 50. f 共x兲 x 2 x冪x共x 1兲 x1 2x
61. y 62. y
x2 4 9 x2
1 x1
51. f 共x兲 x sin 52. f 共x兲 x2 2x 2
2x x冪x 63. y 64. y
x 16
2
x 4
2
WRITING ABOUT CONCEPTS 65. xy 2 9 66. x 2y 9

Writing In Exercises 53 and 54, describe in your own 3x 3x
67. y 68. y
words what the statement means. x1 1 x2
3 1
53. lim f 共x兲 4 54. lim f 共x兲 2 69. y 2 70. y 1
x→ x→ x2 x
55. Sketching a Graph Sketch a graph of a differentiable 2 4
71. y 3 72. y 1
function f that satisfies the following conditions and has x x2
x 2 as its only critical number. x3 x
73. y 74. y
冪x 2 4 冪x 2 4
f共x兲 < 0 for x < 2
f共x兲 > 0 for x > 2 Analyzing a Graph Using Technology In Exercises
lim f 共x兲 6 75–82, use a computer algebra system to analyze the graph of
x→
the function. Label any extrema and/or asymptotes that exist.
lim f 共x兲 6
x→
5 1
75. f 共x兲 9 76. f 共x兲
56. Points of Inflection Is it possible to sketch a graph of x2 x2 x 2
a function that satisfies the conditions of Exercise 55 and x2 x1
has no points of inflection? Explain. 77. f 共x兲 78. f 共x兲
x 2 4x 3 x2 x 1

A. The Domain of The Function

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3 Functions and Their Graphs 21

The Domain and Range of a Function

A Function Defined by More than One Equation

function behaves as in Example 2(a). For Domain: all real x

A function from X to Y is one-to-one when to each y-value in the range there

The Graph of a Function

(a) Not a function of x (b) A function of x (c) A function of x

Identity function Squaring function Cubing function Square root function

Absolute value function Rational function Sine function Cosine function

(a) Vertical shift upward (b) Horizontal shift to the left

(c) Reflection (d) Shift left, reflect, and shift upward

Each of the graphs in Figure P.28 is a transformation of the graph of y ⫽ x 2. The

Basic Types of Transformations 冇c > 0冈

Classifications and Combinations of Functions

an > 0 an < 0 an > 0 an < 0

Up to Up to Down Down Down

function at the given value(s) of the independent variable. 30. f 共x兲 ⫽ 2

(c) f 冢␲3 冣 (d) f 共␲兲 (c) f 冢23␲冣 (d)

Distance (in miles)

1.2 Finding Limits Graphically and Numerically

x 1.75 1.9 1.99 1.999 2 2.001 2.01 2.1 2.25

Then use a graphing utility to estimate the limit graphically.

Estimating a Limit Numerically

x f 共x兲 approaches 2. f 共x兲 approaches 2.

Limits That Fail to Exist

Different Right and Left Behavior

Show that the limit lim ⱍxⱍ does not exist.

Negative x-values Positive x-values

lim f 共x兲 does not exist.

TECHNOLOGY PITFALL When you use a graphing utility to investigate the

Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 1–6, 冪10 x 4 关x兾共x 1兲兴 共2兾3兲

sin x 19. lim ⱍx 2ⱍ 20. lim

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 3 6

x 0.1 0.01 0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 1

(b) lim f 共x兲 6

32. Finding a ␦ for a Given ␧ The graph of

1.4 Continuity and One-Sided Limits

Continuity at a Point and on an Open Interval

Journal. To view this article, Continuity on an Open Interval

h is continuous on the entire real number line, as shown in Figure 1.27(c).

(a) Nonremovable discontinuity at x 0 (b) Removable discontinuity at x 1

REMARK Some people may y y

refer to the function in Example

(b) Limit as x approaches c from the left.

The Greatest Integer Function

and the limit as x approaches 0 from the right is

The greatest integer function has a discontinuity Greatest integer function

THEOREM 1.10 The Existence of a Limit

Continuity on a Closed Interval

Testing for Continuity

and you can conclude that

1 1 71. f 共x兲 tan x 72. f 共x兲 sin x

54. f 共x兲 冦2x,

x Writing In Exercises 85 and 86, use a graphing utility to

1.5 Infinite Limits

f 共x兲 decreases without bound. f 共x兲 increases without bound.

Definition of Infinite Limits

Definition of Vertical Asymptote

THEOREM 1.14 Vertical Asymptotes

y Finding Vertical Asymptotes

x 2 + 2x − 8 A Rational Function with Common Factors

Determining Infinite Limits

Estimating a Limit Numerically In Exercises 1–6, 冪10 x 4 关x兾共x 1兲兴共2兾3兲

54. f 共x兲冦2x,

f 共x兲 39. lim 1

2 The graph of f 共x兲共3x 2兲兾冪2x 2 1 is shown in Figure 3.38.