Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology Faculty of Education and Social Sciences

Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology
Faculty of Education and Social Sciences

Department of Language and Literature Education
Telephone: (056) 30282 P O Box 190

Fax No: (056) 30153 KAKAMEGA
E-mail:fessdean@gmail.com Kenya
Website: www.mmust.ac.ke
COS 100: COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1
WRITTEN BY:
1 COS 100 Module

Author: Hazel Adisa Kubebea
Tobias Omondi
Reviewed by: Teresa A. Okoth
Illustrator:
Layout:
Publisher: Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology
Copyright © Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology
2015
All Rights Reserved
Published By:
MMUST PRESS
2 COS 100 Module

FOREWORD
The need for a modular system of study in the University in general and in Communication Skills
in particular has been necessitated by two issues. The first issue concerns the increased demand
for higher education in Kenya that requires universities to broaden access and inclusion to a
greater range of students. This is driven by the twin agendas of increasing economic
competitiveness on the national and world economic stage and promoting greater social equality
by extending access to students from under-represented groups. In addition, the increasing
importance attached to the ‘knowledge economy’ and to ‘lifelong learning’ is encouraging more
mature-age, working students to return to formal education to enhance their professional
knowledge and skills. These changes in access have necessitated a move to more adaptable
curricular: modularity and flexibility in course structures and delivery. Thus, universities are
having to actively implement systems and approaches in teaching and learning environments; for
example, by means of electronic platforms and applications for course delivery, teaching and
learning support.
Secondly, all first year students in the university need to be ‘academically literate’, that is, they
need to develop and apply with immediate effect a range of academic communication skills to
enable them to participate effectively in the academic community they are entering. Academic
communication skills are the interpersonal, study, literacy and research skills that students require
for effective engagement not only within their discipline, but also with the wider academic
community that a university represents: These skills include the ability to manage time and
resources, engage in academic debate and discussion, argue a position, locate library resources
and work in groups. All these are premised upon an understanding of the functions of a university
and the nature of knowledge and its generation and representation.
It is in this light that I consider the publication of this module – Communication Skills 1 – very
timely. The module covers; the foundations of communication, studying in the university
academic environment, searching and using information sources, reading techniques, critical
thinking and preparing and sitting examinations, in a systematic and interactive way that
encourages self-directed study.
I am confident that students will find this module valuable and responsive to their patterns of
study and participation.
Prof. Eng. Fred Otieno
Vice Chancellor
3 COS 100 Module

LEAD AUTHOR
Hazel Adisa Kubebea is a Senior lecturer in the Department of Language

and Literature Education at Masinde Muliro University of Science and
Technology. She has over 20 years teaching experience at the university.
Her special area of interest is applied linguistics as manifested in Second
Language acquisition, Error Analysis, Discourse Analysis, English for
Specific Purposes and Course/Syllabus Design. She has taught
Communication Skills to First Year students in different academic
disciplines.
Module Writing Team

MODULE WRITING TEAM
MODULE AUTHORS
1. Hazel Kubebea
2. Dr. Bob Mbori
3. Tobias Omondi
4. Prof. Egara Kabaji
5. Susan Choge
6. Rose Opiyo
MODULE REVIEW TEAM
MODULE EDITORIAL TEAM
1. Teresa Okoth
2. Priscillah Jeptoo
MODULE DESIGN TEAM
1. Jared Mudanya
2. Lucky Mwachi
4 COS 100 Module

Preface
There is a common adage that says that if the dinosaurs were clever enough to accept change and adjust,
then they wouldn’t be extinct. Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology is awake to this
reality. Modern technology has necessitated the change from traditional methods of delivery of
pedagogical content. Learning is no longer confined to the traditional classroom as we know it. It is
therefore with great pleasure that I introduce you to this module. The module is one of the first four
prepared for university wide courses.
The publication of this module is therefore a ground breaking event that will see the University develop
learning modules in all teaching subjects. This will enable us to extend educational services to all parts of
the country, continent and the world. This module has been conceptualized as a self-contained resource
that will enable the learner to actively engage the content of this subject.
In this module, there are a number of self-evaluating tasks, activities and assignments, which you should
attempt as you study this course. These activities, tasks and assignments are intended to make your study
of this subject more fulfilling and meaningful. They will support your learning and open up your mind to
more critical interpretation of issues as well as enable you to acquire competences you require in today’s
world. Make sure you attempt all questions and follow all the steps given in order to get the best out of
the module. The lecturers will always be at hand to guide you.
You will notice that this module lays emphasis on mind stimulating tasks, activities and assignments.
There are those activities to be done individually and others to be done in groups. Group activities and
tasks should help you learn from others and share your knowledge with them. This should build
teamwork and cooperation, which is one of the goals of good education.
As a centre for excellence, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology has taken this direction
in order to be in tandem with world trends. To integrate ICT in delivering educational content is the way
to go.
The preparation of this module was painstakingly undertaken by our professionals and has undergone
various reviews for the purpose of making sure it is of high quality. I would like to acknowledge the core
team that spearheaded this initiative. To all of them, I say you are the real pacesetters of our University.
Egara Kabaji is a Professor of Literary Communication and Deputy Vice Chancellor (Planning,
Research and Innovation) ekabaji@mmust.ac.ke
5 COS 100 Module

Contents
PAGE
Introduction
• About the Course ………………………………
• How to use the Module ……………………………… 7

TOPIC 1: Introduction to Communication: ……………………………………… 10
Sub-topic 1: The communication process
Sub-topic 2: Types of Communication
Sub-topic 3: Channels of Communication
Sub-topic 4: Barriers to Communication
Sub-topic 5: Communication Ethics and Etiquette
TOPIC 2: Study Skills………………………………………….............….....……. 22

Sub-topic 1: The University academic environment
Sub-topic 2: Note taking and listening skills
Sub-topic 3: Effective discussion
Sub-topic 4: Platforms for academic discourse
TOPIC 3: Library Skills ………………………………………………………………… 24
Sub-topic 1: The library and its organization

Sub-topic 2: Library resources and materials
Sub-topic 3: Searching for reading materials
Sub-topic 4: Previewing reading materials
Sub-topic 5: Acknowledging sources of Information
Topic 4: Reading Skills………………………………………………………………… 39
Sub-topic 1: Types of Reading Skills

Sub-topic 2: Extracting Information and Summary Writing
Sub-topic 3: Recognizing Text Readability
Sub-topic 4: Reading Techniques
Topic 5: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving in Communication………......... 48

Sub-topic 1: Critical and Creative Thinking Processes
Sub-topic 2: Evaluating Ideas
6 COS 100 Module

Sub-topic 3: Recognizing Fallacies
Sub-topic 4: Identifying Thinking Preferences
Sub-topic 5: Culture and Thought Processes
Topic 6: Examination Skills ………………………………………………………. 48

Sub-topic 1: The Examination
Sub-topic 2: Understanding Examination questions
Sub-topic 3: Preparing for Examination
Sub-topic 4: Examination Ethics
7 COS 100 Module

COURSE DESCRIPTION:
Advance Organiser
Face-to-face Interaction
TOPIC 1: Introduction to Communication: ………………………………………

Sub-topic 1: The communication process
Sub-topic 3: Special needs communication 6 hours
TOPIC 2: Study Skills………………………………………….............….....…….

Sub-topic 2: Note taking and listening skills
Sub-topic 3: Effective discussion 6 hours
Sub-topic 4: Platforms for academic discourse
• Face-to-face Interaction
• CAT 1
TOPIC 3: Library Skills …………………………………………………………………

Sub-topic 3: Searching for reading materials 9 hours
Topic 4: Reading Skills…………………………………………………………………
Sub-topic 1: Types of Reading Skills:

Sub-topic 2: Extracting Information and Summary Writing 9 hours
Sub-topic 3: Recognizing Text Readability
Sub-topic 4: Reading Techniques
• Face-to-face Interaction
• CAT 2
Topic 5.: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving…………………………………….

Sub-topic 2: Evaluating Ideas 6 hours-
8 COS 100 Module
Topic 6: Examination Skills ……………………………………………………….

Sub-topic 3: Preparing for Examination 6 hours
Face-to-face Interaction 3 hours
End-of-Semester Examination
9 COS 100 Module

ABOUT THE COURSE
Welcome to the course COS 100: Communication Skills 1. The Course is offered during the 1st
Semester of your first year at University. It is housed in the Department of Language and
Literature Education. This course aims to equip you with requisite communication skills to become an
efficient and effective communicator. The Course also enables you to deal with the rigours of
academic communication in your specific discipline and introduces you to the academic
discourses. The communication competencies acquired should enable you to manage your
academic assignments, reports and to engage meaningfully beyond the classroom.
MODE OF DELIVERY
There will two blended modes of learning: online e-learning and a face-to-face interaction with
the course lecturers; group presentations and library visits.
MODE OF EVALUATION
This course will be evaluated formatively (CAT) and summative (end of Semester Examination).
Both CATs and End-of-Semester examination have the same weighting (50% each) constituting
100%. Individual lecturers will give tests, quizzes and assignments.
COURSE AIM
The aim of this course is to introduce, create awareness and indicate the importance of
communication skills in the academic life of learners at tertiary level.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
a) Describe the communication process.

b) Explain the role of interpersonal communication.
c) Demonstrate an understanding of academic communication.
d) Outline the stages of note-taking and summary writing.
e) Apply the knowledge acquired in using the library.
f) Extract relevant information and effectively use it in academic work
g) Cite and acknowledge sources of reference. Recognise and appreciate various reading
strategies.
h) Demonstrate ability to listen effectively.
i) Use critical thinking skills to solve academic problems
j) Effectively apply various examination strategies
10 COS 100 Module

TOPIC ONE
INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION
This topic introduces you to a brief definition of the concept of Communication

and explains to you the types of communication. It also expounds on the
different channels of communication.
TOPIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

a. Define and explain the term communication.
b. State the communication channels.
c. Identify distinctive characteristics between oral, written and electronic
communication.
d. Identify different ways individuals express themselves in accepted norms
and modes.
e. Express yourself in accepted and appropriate manner.
f. Explain the different barriers of communication,
Topic overview
Sub-topic 1: The Communication Process
Sub-topic 4: Special needs communication
Sub-topic 1: The Communication Process

Communication is any process in which people share information, ideas and feelings. It
involves not only the spoken and written word but also body language, personal
mannerism and style. Thus, communication is anything that adds meaning to a given
message.
Cutcheon, et. al. (1994:20) defines communication as “the process of sending and
receiving messages and it occurs whenever we express ourselves in manner that is clearly
11 COS 100 Module

understood”. Thus, the code of the sender and the speaker must be common for
communication to take place.
It is the process by which people exchange information or express their thoughts and
feelings. Communication happens around us all the time. We are part of it, it is the
negotiation of a shared meaning, and the presence of meaning indicates that
communication must have taken place.
For instance, when a work of visual arts painting has meaning for us, then some form of
communication must have taken place. The artist in this case is a “sender” and we are the
“receivers”. The painting of drawing is one channel. If an object has special meaning for
us, communication takes place.
Negotiation is used in the action of communication. Through negotiation, we are sharing

our understanding, trying to understand others, asking questions and solving problems.
Figure 1 below illustrates the communication process.
Sender/Receiver C
C
O
O
N
N
T
T
E
E
X
X
T
T Sender/Receiver
Fig. 1: Simple Communication Process
(Adapted from Payne, J., 2001:16; Application Communication for Personal and Professional
Contexts)
Write a one paragraph story illustrating the above communication

process diagram.
A more complex communication process diagram would include elements such as channels of
communication, message, feedback etc.
12 COS 100 Module

There are certain key terms that any definition of the communication process must bear in mind.
These are discussed below:
(a) Source- This is the originator of information. The originator has to choose a correct channel
through which he/she will communicate. Therefore, he/she must adhere to all requirements
of that channel of communication.
(b) Channel- The source has two options (oral or written). The choice of which depends on a
number of factors.
(c) Message-
What is it that the source wants to communicate? This is the aim of initiating the
communication. The source must present his message very clearly by adhering to the
principles of the channel of communication he/she selects.
(d) Encoding
Is the process wherein the sender selects and organizes the message using appropriate words
and non verbal signals.
(e)Receiver-
This is the person(s) to whom the message is sent (listeners or readers). The role of the
receiver in the communication process is to decode the message that has been sent by the
source. He/she therefore, does the following:
• Gives feedback (if needed)
• Adopts the message i.e does what the source wanted him/her to do.
(f) Decoding
The receiver interprets the message transmitted by the sender
(g)Feedback
This is the reaction from the receiver. It guides the source in the manner to proceed (oral)
or makes him/her know that the message has been communicated successfully or not.
If one communicates effectively, he/she becomes an effective communicator. What are the
characteristics of such a person?
What makes a good communicator?
• They provide positive feedback.
• They listen carefully and ask questions to clarify the message.
• They also have empathy, thinking from the other persons point of view
• They will encourage the speaker to provide more detail.
• They are clear in expressing their own point of view and position without dominating the
conversation.
We should all strive to be effective communicators.
The description of communication process provided is an ideal situation. In some cases,

however, communication does not always go as planned due to certain barriers.
13 COS 100 Module

Barriers to Effective Communication:
These are the obstacles that hinder the communication process. These barriers include anything
that gets in the way of clear communication. The free flow of communication can breakdown
because of the various linguistic, physical, psychological ad cultural barriers.
1. Language barriers
Language is the medium of all forms of communication whether oral or written language
problems arise at different levels. These include:-
a) Language itself. This is whereby the sender and the receiver do not share or have a
common language.
b) Phonological level: Phonology refers to the study of sound system of a language. In

oral communication, learning the sound system of a language is very important, if not,
the sender would not be effective in pronouncing words in the language of
communication. Therefore, one should make an effort to learn the sound system of the
language he/she is communicating in.
c) Syntactic level: This is the study of the arrangement and structure of sentences of a
language. In written communication the writer has to effectively understand the grammar
aspects of language such as:- tense, plural formation/singularity, subject- verb agreement,
sentence structure and sentence types in terms of their functions. This knowledge will
help the writer to effectively communicate in written form.
d) Semantic level: This is the study of meaning. Meaning is important in both orla and
written communication. Some words have multiple meanings. Some words used may
trigger strong negative feelings against the speaker or the content of speech. This may
lead
2. Psychological barriers:
These are the thoughts and feelings that distract people from listening to what is said. They
include the mental characteristics of an individual that hinders one form encoding or decoding
messages in a communication. They interfere with the audience’s concentration and ability to
14 COS 100 Module

hear a speaker’s presentation. They may include having a negative attitude towards the speaker,
bad mood, anxiety, stereo types etc. Psychological barriers affect almost everybody. However,
individuals can overcome Psychological barriers by:
- Relaxing
- Seeking psychological counseling
- Seeking advice etc.
3. Physical barriers.
These include noise (consist of any sound that prevents a person from being heard) It interfers
with a speakers ability to send messages and with the audiences ability to receive them. Others
include destructive sights, unusual behavior e.g. Speech mannerisms, poor & filthy
environment, uncomfortable sitting arrangement etc.
4. Social – cultural barriers.
Cultural differences poses serious barriers in the communication process e.g. seniors vs. juniors,
male vs. females, children vs. Adults etc.
There are different types of communication namely:
a) Intrapersonal Communication
This is the communication that occurs within you. It involves thoughts, feelings and the way you
look at yourself. Since this type of communication is centered in the self, you are the only
sender-receiver. The message is made up of your thoughts and feelings. The channels are your
brain, which processes what you are thinking and feeling. Feedback is there in the sense that as
you talk to yourself, you discard certain ideas and replace them with others. Both staff and
students go through this process and it can have positive or negative results depending on the
deposition of the individuals.
b) Interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication takes places when you communicate on one-to –one basis usually
in an informal unstructured setting. This kind of communication is between two or more people.
It uses all the elements of the communication process. For example, in a conversation between
15 COS 100 Module
friends each functions as a sender-receiver. This channel uses mostly sight and sound to
communicate.
Refer to this link (page 4-5) for more information on Interpersonal Communication:
http://www.advalue-project.eu/content_files/EN/33/AdValue_Communication_skills_EN.pdf
c) Small-group communication
This kind of communication occurs when a small number of people meet in a more formal
setting than people involved in interpersonal communication. There are several sender-receivers
in this type of communication and the process is more complicated than in interpersonal
communication. There are more channels of communication and this may cause confusion as
many people are sending and receiving messages. Small-group communication also makes use of
sight and sound.
Activity
Compare and contrast small group and interpersonal communication
d) Public communication
In public communication, the sender (the speaker) sends a message (the speech) to audiences.
The channels are the same as interpersonal and small group communication but more
exaggerated. The voice is louder and gestures are more expansive because the audience is bigger.
Additional visual channels such as slides or the computer programme power point may be used
by the speaker.
e) Mass communication
This kind of communication involves highly structured messages and large audiences. The
messages are created by many people, for example, in newspapers, magazines and television. For
instance, in a television show, there is a producer, writers, directors, technical staff and actors or
other people presenting the show.
16 COS 100 Module

Mass communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of feedback. While the
feedback may be an immediate reaction to the news item, the communicator does not get it
immediately it is expressed. Part of the reason for this is that there is little exchange between the
sender and the receiver.
There are various forms of feedback:
Evaluation
Making a judgment about the worth, goodness, or appropriateness of the sender’s statement.
Interpretation
Paraphrasing – attempting to explain what the sender’s statement means.
Support
Attempting to assist or support the sender.
Probing
Attempting to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point.
Understanding
Attempting to discover completely what the sender means by his/her statement.
Naveed, (2015)
All or part may apply in a mass communication set up.
You have been informed that Mary and John had conflicting ideas on boy-girl
relationships at University. Think about the channels they would use to explore this topic.
Why would you consider the identified channels as the most effective?
Sub-topic 3: Channels of communication
Communication being a day to day activity is a process incomplete without a channel. The
channel is a vital link in communication. It is important to know the channels that make
communication effective.
17 COS 100 Module

Definition of Channels of Communication
Channels are means used to transmit messages from senders to receiver, they are the media,
methods by which messages move from the source to the receiver of the message.
The Channel is a medium or carrier of the messages. The channel is the route travelled by a
message: the means it uses to reach the senders and receives.
According to Longman Dictionary of contemporary English, a channel is a system or method

that you use to send or obtain information, goods and permission. Payne (2001:8) describes the
channel of communication as a means used to transmit the message from sender to receiver.
Just as television programmes broadcast over many channels, messages can be transmitted
through many channels.
Verbal / Oral Communication
These includes face to face conversation, taking over the phone, radio broadcast, interviews,
group discussions, meetings, conference, seminars, announcements and speeches.
Advantages
1. Saves time for example, phoning to call a quick meeting or give quick instructions
2. Saves money especially when it is not over the phone
3. Speech is a more powerful means of persuasion and control. Use it often.
4. Has variety in that with the help of tonal variation, pitch and voice intensity, the speaker can
convey several meanings.
5. Verbal messages are considered more reliable by many employees as they provide
opportunity for feedback and clarification
6. The speaker can immediately find out how the message is being received ( favourable or
antagonizing receiver)
7. It helps promote friendly relations and sometimes takes place informally.
8. Very useful communicating to n groups, assemblies or meetings.
Disadvantages
18 COS 100 Module

1. Impossible if the communicator and the receiver are far from each and there is no mechanical
means to connect them.
2. Not suitable for lengthy messages because there is likelihood of some vital information being
missed.
3. Verbal messages cannot be retained for long and there are no records to refer to in future (if
unrecorded).
4. Verbal messages have no legal validity unless taped or recorded and made part of a
permanent record.
Tips for oral communication

Pronounce the words clearly. Repetition affects the flow of presentation.
To emphasize the importance of a particular thought, words have to be pronounced by
changing their tones.
Avoid fillers while speaking. They, ie ('um', 'ah', etc.) could be irritating for listeners.
Do not interrupt the speaker while in a face-to-face communication process
Listen carefully
Make an eye contact with the listeners to keep their attention.
Asking questions in order to obtain information is an important aspect.
Consider body language. The listener either gets positively or negatively influenced by
the body language of the speaker.
Non-verbal communication
It is information that is communicated without using words.
Much of non-verbal communication is unintentional. People are not even aware they are sending
messages. Non-verbal communication includes perception, status, appearance, body movement
and gestures. Also certain aspects of human beings, such as job titles, status, gender use of
language, dressing, accent, attitude and gesticulation may communicate various signals to others.
By analyzing non-verbal cues, we can enhance our understanding or what is really being said
when people talk.
Only 7% of communication is verbal the other 93% is non-verbal. Hypels and Weavers (1969)
maintain that out of 93 % of communication, 55% is through facial expression, postures and
gestures and only 38% is through tone of voice. Non-verbal communication therefore helps us to
19 COS 100 Module

define the nature of each relationship we share with someone else. It therefore implies that we
should carefully evaluate the context within which the non-verbal communication occurs.
Activity
Draw a pie chart to reflect the information in the paragraph above.
Written Communication
This is communication by means of written symbols (either printed or handwritten). There is a

writer and the reader who share information through written forms. Due to this, it is more
demanding as it is only through what is written that communication takes place. The writer has
to be an effective communicator by observing the following:
Grammatical rules of the language eg tense, plurals, sentence structure, paragraphing etc.
Language use-style and diction
Text organization and development (making an outline, using cohesive devices, grouping
information etc).
The process of writing (pre writing, drafting, editing and proof reading)
Principles of academic writing (quoting and referencing)
There are a number of writing exercises that you will be involved in at this institution
(1) Term papers
(2) Essay answers
(3) Seminar/conference papers/projects/thesis/dissertations
(4) Functional writing
Visual Communication
Visual communication is the communication that appeals to our sense of sight. Most verbal
communication is visual and includes tables, charts, diagrams, photographs, Darts, and rubbish.
Stop and reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of visual communication.

Compare your answers with the ones given below. Can you add more?
Advantages
20 COS 100 Module

1. It is ure and instantaneous.
2. It can beused to transmit very elementary and simple ideas.
3. It is best used in combination with other media.
4. It is used to hold the attention of listeners.
5. It provides information in the visual channel and helps the audience remember what the
speaker has said.
6. It provides a speaker with another means for supporting or illustrating content.
7. Visual communication adds an attention-grasping element to the speech/verbal component.
8. It gives the speaker a chance to move around and demonstrate.
9. It assists the audience in remembering the information.
Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to interpret meaning for example nodding of the head may mean different things
to different people.
2. It cannot be used to judge people’s behaviour since sometimes one is not aware of displaying
them.
Types of Visual support communication
a. The chalkboard
This is the most accessible visual support communication because it is found in most classrooms.
b. The actual objects (Realia)

This involves using the actual thing you are talking about, especially if the object is not familiar
e.g. a real mango or orange
c. Models
These are replicates of actual objects used when the object used is too large to be displayed or
too small to be seen or accessible to the human eye or human mind eg. a building or amoeba
(parasite).
d. Posters, diagrams and charts
21 COS 100 Module

A poster consists of lettering or pictures or both. A diagram may range from a simple
organizational chart to a complex three dimensional object. It is valuable in showing how
something works.
An organization chart shows the relationship among the elements of an organization, such as
departments in a company, the branches of federal government. A flip chart is a series of pictures
words, diagrams and so forth.
Made up of several pages that you flip through

Used when you have a complicated subject that needs several illustrations or when
you want to emphasize several points in your speech.
e. Tables and graphs
Are easy to prepare and can be used to condense a lot of information into a useful,
understandable form.
Can be done using computers
Tables are columns of figures arranged in an order that enables the viewer to easily pick out the
information needed.
Graphs are statistical materials presented in a visual form that helps viewers see similarities,
difference or relationships or trends, bar, pie and line are the three commonly used graphs.
f. Audio-Visual combination
A combination of sight and sound
Makes use of telecast, short filling in the blank, video tapes
Used by most organizations to educate their workers and popularize their
products.
For effective use in an organization, it is necessary to make it short, attractive,
interesting, clear, timely and precise.
Not possible in areas with no electricity connectivity as the equipment used rely
on electric power.
g. Electronic Technology
They include telephone, pagers, cellular phones and email.
Uses air waves, sound waves twisted copper wires, glass fibres and cables
22 COS 100 Module

Television messages are received through air waves and cables. Radio messages
move through sound computer images (and sound, if there is any travel through
light waves and sometimes both light and sound waves)
Electronic mail, as a channel of communication has revolutionized the way people
work and communicate. Millions of people now depend on E-mail software to
communicate with each other by sending and receiving electronic messages
through the internet
The advantages of electronic technology include:

Provides an easier means of communication
Has no limitation of time and distance
Advancement in literacy levels due to the need for technological skills to use some of the
gadgets have led many to train to use them appropriately.
The disadvantages are:

It creates more communication often about minor/unimportant things, just because people
are accessible.
Technology disrupts much of face-to face meetings and affects quality of that
communication e.g. interpersonal.
h. The voice
Every one of us has a voice that is uniquely his or her own. People are often judged by their
voice print than by their fingerprints. People believe that they can deduce a person’s age, race
and even his or her most character defining traits.
The production of sound in the voice is straight forward. People take in air and expel it, first
across their teeth and tongue The voice is a significant medium of emotional expression. It can
disclose happiness, sadness anger and contempt..
Advantages
1. It aids in verbal communication and without it this type of communication cannot take
place.
2. Through the voice people make judgment of various characteristics as mentioned above.
23 COS 100 Module

Disadvantages
1. It is easy to manipulate in an attempt to project a certain image. To disguise for example,

the voice can be made louder or softer, its pitch can be made higher or lower, and its rate
can be accelerated or slowed down.
2. May not be audible at times causing listeners to strain their hearing thus the need to use
microphones.
Communication can also be categorised into formal and informal.
Formal communication
Formal communication follows prescribed channels of communication within an organization.
Messages between members of an organization with equal power are labelled horizontal
communication.
Informal communication
Informal communication is any interaction that does not generally follow the formal structure of
the organization but emerges out of natural social interaction among organization members. The
messages do not follow official lines. Such informal interactions are referred to as grapevine
communication. The grapevine travels quickly because the different messages are not restricted
by structural constraints. Rumours are a good example of grapevine. For instance, it is not easy
to tell the origin of a rumour within an organization.
Sub-topic 4: Special needs communication

Special needs communication refers to the different channels used by special groups, such as
those with impaired vision and hearing.
24 COS 100 Module

What is the name of this equipment?
What do you think it is used for?
Braille is used by the visually impaired and while sign language is used by the hearing impaired.
Braille is a form of printing for with raised parts that can be read touching the paper with fingers.
Sign language is used to translate verbal or written messages in a code that the deaf can
understand. It is done by people who have undergone special training. Every word has a symbol
of sign. Body movements play a vital role in sign language.

Welcome to an interesting topic that touches our lives in a special way. Communication ethics and
etiquette affect all of us in that it can make us break the case on interaction between people at individual
or group level. It makes us aware that we have to take responsibility for the words we utter and the
actions we perform consciously or unconsciously.
The areas covered in this sub-topic include the concept of ethics, the concept of Etiquette, and
the whistle blower.
The Concept of Ethics

Ethics is about what is expected as the correct way or norm that things are done. In
communication, it refers to the expected norm or manner of saying or doing things. This means
that a person must be responsible for his actions and words.
25 COS 100 Module

Ethics is about owning up our actions which must be accepted by society. In Kenya we have the
certificate of good conduct. We also have the ethics and Anti-corruption Commission to make
sure people conduct themselves in an appropriate manner. The National Cohesion and
Integration Commission (NCIC) checks on what people say in public. For example, one can be
charged in a court of law for hate speech which is an action against expected norms of society.
Ethics ensures that:

the information given is the most needed.
There is objective and impartial presentation of facts
There is no false evidence
There is no appeal to the emotions of your listeners at the expense of logical reasoning.
One cannot pretend to be an authority on a subject.
Activity
If during an examination you saw your friend cheating, would you inform the
invigilator? Why or why not?
The concept of Etiquette in communication
Etiquette is the actual practice of ethics. It implies behaving in an appropriate and expected
manner.
It involves the way we say or do certain actions. For example, a mother may tell a girl to sit
properly. It includes even the way we dress, walk, talk, eat, sit, and behave towards other people
in particular situations. Etiquette identifies you and makes people to identify you with certain
actions or behaviour.
Activity
Your friend is drunk and disorderly in a public meeting. How would you save him
from embarrassment?
26 COS 100 Module

The Whistle Blower
This is the person who points out what is wrong or out of norm in a certain situation. The whistle
blower is that person who is brave to point out unethical behaviour in society.
For example, in Kenya, Mr. John Githongo blew the whistle on the Goldenberg scandal.
Activity
1. Give an example of situations which may put you in a dilemma because of an

unethical issue.
2. Give the advantages and disadvantages of whistle blowing?
Thank you for following this module this far. It is our sincere hope that the
introductory section has enabled you to understand the concept of
communication as well as the different types and channels of communication.
Let us try to evaluate our learning this far.
Learning outcomes Sure Not

Sure
1. I can now define communication.
2. I can now state the different types of communication
3. I can now explain the meaning of humour and interpersonal

communication.
4. As I interact with other people, I am aware of those with

special needs.
5. I am now aware of the role of ethics and etiquette in

communication.
6. I can recognise those who have challenges in seeing and
27 COS 100 Module

hearing during the communication process.
7. I am aware that while communicating I must observe ethics

and etiquette in my speech and actions.
SUMMARY OF THE TOPIC
This topic dealt with the following issues on communication:
a. That communication can only be defined according to context of use.

b. That there is a difference between written, oral and non-verbal communication
c. That interpersonal communication is important in conveying a message.
d. Some categories of people require specialised forms of communication.
e. Everyday communication is largely non-verbal.
f. Communication involves a set of ethics that make interaction between people easier.
Self check
a. What is communication?
b. Describe the communication process.
c. Explain the importance of written, oral and non verbal communication in message
delivery.
d. Why is it difficult to give one definition for communication?
e. What differences exist between written, oral and non-verbal communication?
f. Explain human and interpersonal communication
Score board
21-25 - Excellent
28 COS 100 Module

15-20 - very Good
11-14 - Good
6-10 - Fair
0-5 - Go through the topics again
Further Reading
Baker, A (2002) Improve Your Communication Skill. London: Kogan Page.
Muchiri, M. N (1992) Communication Skills: A Study Course for Universities and Colleges.
Taylor, J. (2001) Communication at Work. London: Kogan
Tubbs, S (2008). Human Communication. New York: McGraw Hill.
Congratulations! You can proceed to the next topic.
29 COS 100 Module

TOPIC TWO
STUDY SKILLS
Welcome to topic two: Study Skills. In order to perform and excel in your
studies, you need skills that make your academic work easy and enjoyable. In
this topic, we examine the general study suggestions in the university academic
environment, effective discussion, note taking skills, listening skills and platforms
for academic discourse.
Topic Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:-
a. Explain the academic environment

b. Acquire note taking skills to cope with lectures
c. Budget and use time and other resources at the university.
d. Acquire better habits of listening.
e. Participate in academic discourse.
Topic overview
TOPI
Sub-topic 1: The university academic environment
Sub-topic 2: Note taking and Listening skills
Sub-topic 4: Platforms of academic discourse
30 COS 100 Module

General study suggestions
There is a difference between being in school and being at the university. To succeed at the
university, you must learn your academic environment and adjust appropriately as a student.
Budgeting your time

At school, the institution has a timetable for all daily activities throughout the week. At
university, only lecture hours are put on the timetable. The rest of the time depends on you to
plan and use wisely. This means that you need to budget your time appropriately in a time table
using the following:
a. Time for lectures as per time table
b. Time for private or personal study
c. Time for leisure such as sports
You must be sincere and know when you study best. There are two types of learners:-
a. The owls who work best in the late hours of night.

b. The nightingales who work and concentrate best during the day time and cannot read at
night.
When you know yourself, you will plan the time to suit the hours you are most productive for
private study.
Budgeting time is better done by preparing a personal study time table.

As a student you need to put in mind the following factors before setting out to prepare s a study
timetable .
a) the workload
b) the time available – lecturer time, leisure time, break time, recreation, meals etc
c) Priorities
d) the resources available e.g. books e.t.c.
Features of a good Timetable
A good timetable should display the following characteristics:-
It should have all the activities of the day of that week.
It should have the hour and amount of time allocate for each activity.
31 COS 100 Module

it should have breaks
It should allow for leisure time
It should have courses and units
It should be reasonably flexible to allow for unexpected schedule.
It should however accord more time for studies. When studying, ensure that:-
You are physically fit
Eat and sleep well
Take a break of about 20 minutes to relax in the course of studying.
Change studies/activities when boredom starts to set in.
Train yourself to concentrate on a material whether it is interesting or not.
Budgeting your resources

The resources available to learners at the university include:
a) Bookshop for buying books etc
b) Library for getting information on academic issues
c) Lectures
d) Fellow students (peer)
e) Administrative staff
f) Support staff e.g. laboratory technicians, health officers etc.
Thus, you must know who to see when you have a problem or need of using the above resources
effectively to enhance your life at the university.
Participation in academic discussion

At university, the core business is academic discourse. Academic discourse may be in the form
of:
a. Group discussions
b. Tutorial sessions
c. Seminars
d. Conferences
e. Class presentations
f. Research defences
You need to know when to join or interject during discussions, how to agree, disagree or
critically discuss during academic discussions.
32 COS 100 Module

Sub-topic 2: Listening skills and Note taking
We normally take notes during lectures, tutorial, seminars and conferences.
Note taking
During lectures, you need to take notes as you listen to the lecture. There are several reasons for
taking notes. These include:
a. To revise when preparing for examination
b. To recall or remember what was discussed during the lecture
c. As reference for further and deeper reading on the topic
d. If not clear, the writer can refer to the notes and make better ones
In order to write good notes, you must know the structure of the lecture. You must know when
the lecturer is:
a. Introducing the topic
b. Giving contents of the lecture
c. Concluding the lecture
You must know when the lecturer is giving an explanation, example, or digressing. By use of
voice or words, you will be able to get the gist of the lecture.
Notes must have the following:
a. Heading and sub-headings
b. Paragraphs
c. A numbering system
d. Highlighting important points
e. Topic sentence and supporting evidence.
f. Must be brief but clear
g. Must be easy to recall when needed.
h. Use abbreviations where possible
i. Use symbols where possible.
Listening skills
Listening is one of the language skills. It is a complete skill because it involves the human
mental and psychological capacities. Everyone listens but not all listen well. For listening to be
successful, the code of the speaker and the listener must be similar.
Barriers to listening
These are some of the factors that make listening difficult. They include:
33 COS 100 Module

a. Vocabulary level
b. Code switching
c. Faulty machines
d. Language fluency
e. Wrong choice of words (poor diction)
f. Use of words with double meaning
g. Volume of voice of speaker (audibility)
h. Distance from speaker
How to improve listening
a. Remove all barriers to listening
b. Develop a positive attitude
c. Listen for main idea and not individual words
Activity
1. Why is it important to know your academic environment?

2. With examples, explain why a student should belong to a class discussion group.
3. Write brief notes on the topic “Desertification in Kenya”
4. With examples, discuss the challenges a listener may have while listening to a lecture.
Filing
It refers to the process of organizing and arranging documents for easy and quick access by the
users/employees. This can be done using alphabets, straight numeric, terminal digit numeric or
by a category. Subject categories can also be used.
Filing system can also be set as follows;
Sit at your desk for a few minutes and figure out where you will instinctively look for
things.
Now that you know where you will naturally look for information, you must determine
whether an alphabetical, numerical, subject filing system or electronic will work best for
you.
Determine your storage needs.
Invest in a good labelling system for clarity and easy access.
34 COS 100 Module

Purchase file folders or input data in your data base for electronic system.
b) Types of filing system
A file system is a method of storing and organizing arbitrary collection of data in a form that is
human readable or collection of documents for easy access and identification. The methods
include:
(i) Alphabetical filing –This is where files are designated most commonly using
names and arranged in alphabetical order e.g. Beth Smith would be filed
before Pam Smith in this kind of system.
Advantages
It is simple to understand and use
Familiar to most people since libraries and home filing system usually use it.
The need to shift the records after purging records is reduced.
Disadvantages
Documents are frequently misfiled because of the letters.

If something is filed under a vendor first name versus last name, documents are
difficult to locate. Name changes in the companies may not be recorded properly
which may also cause confusion with this filing system.
Does not work well with very large files since chances of duplicating names are
great.
Colour coding is more difficult since you need to have 26 colours or combinations
of colours to designate all the letters of the alphabet.
Trying to remember where a letter falls in the alphabet adds to the time of filing
and retrieval of the record e.g. Does Mc come before or after Mac?
(ii) Electronic Filing System.
This is where information/data is kept and organized into an easy-to-manipulate

database of human readable names by computers. Files systems are used on data
storage devices such as hard disks or CD-ROMS to maintain the physical location of
the files.
35 COS 100 Module

A file name is usually assigned in order to secure storage location in the computer
memory. Disk file systems, Flash file systems, Tape file systems, Database file
system, Transactional file systems. Network file systems, shred disk file system and
special purpose file systems are some of the systems used by this form of filing.
Disadvantages
Data/Information/Documents are usually damaged by computers viruses if not

properly maintained.
Require skills and knowledge to understand and use.
Expensive compared to alphabetical system.
(c) General Advantages of Filing
Easy and quick accessibility of documents i.e. saves time.

Efficient and effective way of storing documents/information i.e minimizes loss of papers
and other essential documents.
Give direction to new comers who may want to use the documents.
Creates a sense of responsibility in the office.
General Disadvantages of Filing.
It is tedious especially if there are large volumes of documents to be filed.

Expensive i.e. require, some financial implications for purchasing cabinets, folders,
computer, Disks/Diskettes e.t.c.
Can expose confidential or private information of an individual.
(d) Use of Exercise Books and Foolscaps to Record Notes.
i. Advantage of using exercise books

Do not easily get lost as compared to foolscaps
Do not easily get torn like foolscaps since they have relatively outer hard cover.
Easy access notes since a book is a collection.
Disadvantages of Using Exercise Books
36 COS 100 Module

Not convenient to carry as compared to foolscaps
May discourage students while studying/reading if it is voluminous
The student suffers total loss of information in case the book gets lost or misplaced.
Advantages of Using Foolscaps
Convenient to carry i.e. not heavy hence a student can read them even when walking or
sitting in a matatu.
Do not look voluminous hence may make students fail to realize the large content.
Can be easily filed hence students do not suffer total loss in case a few are misplaced.
Disadvantages of Using Foolscaps
Can easily get lost if not properly filed.

Can easily get torn or lost whether filed or not.
A student takes more time looking for some notes or topics if not well filed
Activity: Draw the top cover of a file and put all the information on it so
that if you misplace it, you can recover it.
Study/discussion groups are also another approach to learning in tertiary institution. However,
they are informal (organized and ruled by students themselves without the lecture’s assistance).
Learning in tertiary institutions require sharing of knowledge through discussions.

Discussions can take such forms as: attempting to answer past papers questions, reading and
making notes on selected topics, taking notes during the discussion sessions, and confirming
such points from other groups etc.
For discussion groups to be successful, members need to show such characteristics

Successful discussions are those where everyone takes responsibility for making
progress. Thus, everyone must be willing to contribute in the discussion.
Have same/similar interests for effective contribution.
37 COS 100 Module

Have some order/organization. This can only come about if there is a
Chairperson and Secretary.
The Chairperson takes the lead role in directing the discussion
The Secretary writes down key points that members have agreed on.
Other members therefore will have access to these points after the
discussion session is over. Other roles can be created to make all
members feel a sense of responsibility. These include but are not
limited to: Idea generator, Computer whiz among others.
Activity: What five salient points must one have in mind when forming an
academic study group?
Sub-topic 4: Platforms of academic discourse
Platforms of academic discourse can both be formal and informal. Tutorials/Seminars are formal
while study/discussion groups are informal.
a) Tutorials
Tutorials are a teaching/learning approach that may be conducted as follows:
i. As a follow up to a previous lecture
ii. Students and lecturers exchange information throughout class presentations, asking
questions/seeking for clarifications etc.
iii. Students are in smaller groups.
iv. Tutorials can also be used as an evaluation mode to determine whether learning has
taken place.
b) Seminars/Conferences/Public/Inaugural lecture or speech

Seminars
The use of seminars is a teaching/learning approach which is occasionally organized as
follows:
38 COS 100 Module

i. Students/experts are given topics in advance and they prepare their
seminar/conference papers which they present orally (oral presentation skills)
ii. Then, there is a session for the audience to ask questions, seek for clarification,
make their comments on the presentation.
iii. The presenter revises the seminar/conference paper and submits for examination
or publication e.g. in a college journal/ professional journal.
Most courses at the university include Tutorials/Seminars. However tutorials/seminars are often
undervalued as a way of learning. As a result, they are not always used to their fullest potential.
Some of the reasons why tutorials/Seminars are not utilised effectively
(a) Large classes make it difficult to conduct seminars and tutorials.

(b) There is lack of enough personnel and space
(c) Students are not willing to participate (they are shy, lack knowledge of the subject area
and are not willing to conduct research on their own).
(d) There is lack of funds. Universities are supposed to be research institutions in addition to
teaching. Through research they generate knowledge that will be used to solve current
problems. Lack of research funds hamper this.
Conferences
A conference is a prearranged meeting for consultation or exchange of information or discussion

(especially one with a formal agenda). It is pretty general and in fact could mean something with
thousands of participants or something with just a few participants. Conferences often feature
keynote presentations delivered to all attendees, as well as multiple break-out sessions. Attendees
often expect to receive new information. It can also be referred to as a formal get-together where
people talk (or confer) about a chosen topic, a public meeting arranged for discussion, such as a
press conference or a national conference for a particular group.
Seminar
A seminar is a form of academic instruction, either at an academic institution or offered by a

commercial or professional organization. It can be a lecture or presentation delivered to an
39 COS 100 Module

audience on a particular topic or set of topics that are educational in nature. It is usually held for
groups of 10-50 individuals
It brings people together in small groups for recurring meetings, focusing each time on some
particular subject, in which everyone present is requested to actively participate. Delegates are
given information and instruction on a wide range of topics, by experts in that field. This is often
accomplished through an ongoing dialogue with a seminar leader or instructor, or through a more
formal presentation of research. It is essentially a place where assigned readings are discussed,
questions can be raised and debates can be conducted. It is relatively informal, at least compared
to the lecture system of academic instruction
The speaker gives lecture with highlights, scope, importance, benefits and limitation on the
respective topic. As the lecturer finishes, the audience asks questions. Seminars are educational
events that feature one or more subject matter experts delivering information primarily via
lecture and discussion. A seminar is often one person giving perhaps an hour-long lecture,
although there could be more than one speaker as well.
Workshop
A workshop is a series of educational and work sessions. Small groups of people meet together
over a short period of time to concentrate on a defined area of concern. It is a single, short
(although short may mean anything from 45 minutes to three full days) educational program
designed to teach or introduce to participants practical skills, techniques, or ideas which they can
then use in their work or their daily lives. Workshops have different purposes such as informing,
Problem-solving and Training. In education, a workshop is a brief intensive course, a seminar or
a series of meetings emphasizing interaction and exchange of information among a small
number of participants:
such as a writing workshop, a gathering of writers for critique and inspiration, an academic
workshop, a smaller version of an academic conference or a training workshop.
In the workshop, SIMULATION exercises related to the workshop are done. . Simulation allows
workshop participants to practice their new skills during the workshop event under the watchful
40 COS 100 Module

eye of the instructor.
Symposium
Symposium is meeting of a number of experts in a particular field at which papers are presented
by specialists on particular subjects and discussed with a view to making recommendations
concerning the problems under discussion. Symposium refers to any academic conference, or a
style of university class characterized by an openly discursive format, rather than a lecture and
question–answer format. The term symposium has come to refer to any event where multiple
speeches are made. A symposium suggests that more than one person is speaking. It is typically a
more formal or academic gathering, featuring multiple experts delivering short presentations on a
particular topic.
Hopefully, you now have a clear picture about platforms for academic discourse.
Inaugural lecture
An inaugural lecture is a public lecture that is given by a newly appointed full professor in a
university, faculty, school, college, centre giving the current and future research directions
that he/she might aspire. It is an ideal opportunity for new professors to introduce
themselves and to present an overview of their own contribution to their field to academic
peers, students and research collaborators.
It represents a significant milestone in an academic career thus providing official

recognition of their promotion to professors.
A committee of Senate on inaugural lectures organize for the date and place of the
inaugural lecture.
The inaugural lecture should normally take place within two years from the date of
promotion.
Activity: Sam is organizing an academic discourse but he is not sure what to call it.
Help him distinguish seminars, tutorials or workshops characteristics in order to
make an informed decision.
41 COS 100 Module
Sure
1 I can now prepare a realistic personal timetable
2 I now know where to find help with my academic work
3 I can now apply skills of note taking while listening to a

lecture.
4. I can now identify and get rid of listening barriers while

taking notes in a lecture.
5. I know the various academic platforms of academic

discourse
6. I am now able to choose the best filing system for my

academic needs
7. I now understand the importance of discussion groups in an

academic environment
8.
Summary of the topic

In this topic,
a. We have considered the importance of knowing your academic environment.
b. We have learnt how to listen effectively and write good notes.
c. We have also learned how to budget our time and resources effectively.
d. We have learnt how to form groups and participate in academic discussions.
e. We have also learnt how to participate in tutorials, seminars and conferences.
42 COS 100 Module

Self Check
a. What resources are available to learners at the university?
b. What factors can affect listening?
c. What factors help me to make good notes?
d. Discuss the different forums for academic discourse.
Score Board
21-25 - Excellent
15-20 - Very good
11-14 - Good
6-10 - Fair
0-5 - Go through the topic again
Well done! Proceed to the next topic
Further Reading
Longman Dictionary of contemporary English (New edition)
McCutcheon, et al (1994) Communication Matters. West Publishing Company.
O’ Brien J.A (4th edition) Management Information Systems
43 COS 100 Module

Payne. J. (2001) Applications Communication for Personal and Professional Contexts
Kansas; Clerk Publishing
Personal J.C (et al) (2003) Human Communication. The New York: Mc Graw Hill
Richard S.H. Weaver L II (6th ed.) Communication Effectively. New York: Mc Graw Hill
Scott M.D, Brydon S.R (1996) Dimension of Communication: An introduction. California

U.S.A: Mayfield Publishing Company
44 COS 100 Module

TOPIC THREE
LIBRARY SKILLS
Welcome to a brief introduction to library user skills. The library is the nerve
centre of studies at the university and therefore a student must use it in order to
perform well and with ease in courses being studied. Sometimes, students neglect to use the
library because they do not know what materials it contains and/or is not familiar with the
Library and lacks confidence to make full use of it.
Topic Objectives
• Make the fullest use of the library.

• Locate a book in the library.
• Identify materials in different sections of the library.
• Cite in text and write references for scholarly papers.
Topic overview
TOPI Sub-topic 1: The library and its organization
Sub-topic 3: Searching for reading materials

A library is a place where a collection of different types of reading materials are arranged
systematically and disseminated to users. It is an information nerve centre that facilitates the
access to and use of information in form of books, non book materials and computerised data
bases. A library is used for difernt purposes.
45 COS 100 Module

Why students use the library
To conduct research
For extra reading to supplement lectures
To read daily newspapers and magazines
To study
To compile research work
For internet services
For inter library loan services
The MMUST Library; Phase One
Activity: What reasons make you visit the library?
Types of libraries
There are various types of libraries dotted all over the world.
Libraries are categorized by the purpose they serve. The main types are summarized as follows:-
1. Public libraries serve the general public at all levels

The aim of public libraries is to provide information over the whole range of human
knowledge, promote culture and play a positive part in encouraging an active use of
leisure and recreational time. Examples of public libraries are the Kenya National Library
Services (KNLS) and the Macmillan Library.
2. Academic libraries: Academic libraries are found in various institutions of learning but
with similar aims. Institutions of higher learning such as the universities, colleges and
polytechnics. The main aim of academic libraries is to support learning, teaching and
46 COS 100 Module

research activities, In primary and secondary schools, the academic libraries form the
basis for wide reading and references. The purposes, services, equipment and other
physical facilities of these libraries are determined by the nature of the curriculum and
size of the faculty and students.
3. National libraries: The main function of a national library is to ensure that all the
publications of a particular country are acquired and persevered for posterity. The law
requires that publishers deposit copies of all materials published in the country with the
national library. National libraries also purchases books published in other countries.
Other functions of a national library are: Production of a current bibliography, Research
and development in librarianship and information studies etc. Examples of national
libraries are the British Library, Kenya National Library Services (which serves both as a
public as well as a national library).
4. Special libraries: These are libraries that serve specific subject fields. They include
libraries in government ministries, parastatals, research institutes, industrial and
commercial concerns and international bodies. Examples include ICIPE, KIE, AMREF,
UNESCO and Bankers’ Institute Libraries.
5. Digital libraries: These are mainly accessed through computers with internet facilities.
They store up to date information of diversified fields. Organized academic institutions
provide such facilities but some charge a fee for the services. At Kenyatta University,
such services are provided at the Kenyatta Virtual University (KVU) and the Cyber
Cafés. The digital material is also available on the Web.
Library Classification Systems
Although most libraries, especially big ones, look like forests of books, finding your way in these
forests is very easy if you know the way the “trees” in them are arranged. Libraries use definite
internationally acknowledged methods for arranging their materials. These are called library
classification or index systems. They are designed to render the exercise of locating books in the
shelves systematic and easy. The purpose of classification in the library is to group document on
47 COS 100 Module

the same subject (likeness) together in one class; and to provide formal orderly access to the
shelves.
There are many classification systems but only two will be discussed briefly. These are the most
common systems you are likely to come across in a number of libraries. They are:
a) The Library of Congress System

b) The Dewey Decimal System
The library of Congress Classification System
This classification scheme derives its name from the library of congress from where it was
devised. It consists of twenty one major classes represented by letters of the alphabet. The
classes are as follows:-
Library of Congress main classes
A. General works
B. Philosophy –Religion
C. History – Auxiliary Sciences
D. History (Except America)
E. F History of the Americas
F. Geography – Anthropology
G. Social Science
H. Political Science
I. Law
J. Education
K. Music
L. Fine Arts
M. Language and Literature
N. Science
O. Medicine
P. Agriculture
Q. Technology
R. Military Science
S. Naval Science
T. Bibliographic and Library Science ( Source: AMREF 1994:4338)
48 COS 100 Module

Each class of the main classes is further divided into subclasses that represent the disciplines
(major branches of knowledge). This is done by introducing an additional letter to the main one.
The following is an example of classification for a subclass in Science:
Q Science
QA Mathematics
QB Astronomy
QC Physics
QD Chemistry
QE Geology
QH Natural History (general) Biology (general)
QK Botany
QL Zoology
QM Human anatomy
QP Physiology
QR micro biology
Each subclass is also subdivided further into divisions that represent the components of the
subclass. This is done by introducing an Arabic number to the subclass. For examples: QA 76
Mathematics.
Each book in the library of Congress Classification will have the following information:
Class number (letters of the alphabet) ie PE
Then book number 1175
Copy number .A3
Year of publication eg. 2012
Thus PE.1175.A3.2012
Dewey Decimal classification System
It gets its name from its inventor, Melvil Dewey, who was a US educator. It employs the decimal
system (or base ten system in which numbers are expressed by combinations of the ten digits
ranging from 0 to 9. The scheme arranges library materials into ten classes using Arabic
numerals in the range 000-900.
The main general classes are summarized below:
Dewey decimal classification Main Classes
49 COS 100 Module

000-Generalities
100-Philosophy and related disciplines
200-Religion
300- Social Science
400- Language
500 – Pure Science
600- Technology
700- The Arts
800- Literature
900- General Geography and history and their auxiliaries
Source: AMREF (1994:214)
The general classes are made more specific by dividing them into ten subclasses. Examples of
such classes for pure sciences are as follows
500- Pure Sciences

510- Mathematics
520- Physics
540- Chemistry
550- Earth Science
560 – Palentology, paleazology
570- Life Science
580- Botanical Science
590- Zoological Science
For practical purposes, each subclass is further divided into smaller divisions. An example of
some of the divisions in Physics (530) is given below:
530- Physics
539- Modern Physics
539.7- Atomic and Nuclear Physics
539.72 Particle Physics
Sections of the library
Any library will have several sections that enable the library user to locate the necessary reading
materials. We shall identify different sections of the library and briefly state its importance to the
library user.
1. Lending/General circulation section:
50 COS 100 Module

This section contains books arranged on shelves in a given order. These books may be borrowed
or read within the library. If borrowed, the borrower must use a borrower’s card and has to keep
the book for a maximum of a specified period of time. He may renew a book after the expiry of
the given period in case it is not needed by another borrower. These books may also be read
within the library and must be left on reading tables for re-shelving by the library staff. If a
borrower wishes to borrow a book that has been borrowed, he/she should get a reservation form
and he/she will be informed as soon as the book is returned to the library. However, if you
urgently need that book, it can be recalled.
2. Short loan section:
This section contains books in short supply but on high demand. Such books can be given out for
a limited period of time and must be read within the library. A part from books, this section also
contains past papers, publications and selected handouts.
3. Reference section-
This section contains materials which the library users are not allowed to take away form the
library. They include: encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, yearbooks, extracts from books,
journals. Other publications of which the library does not have many copies but which are on
high demand are also kept in the reference section of the library.
4. Periodicals section:
5. These are of two types namely:
(a) Current/loose periodical section- contains materials that are published at periodical
intervals e.g. daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, and half yearly. These include newspapers,
magazines, journals, extracts, etc
(b) Bound periodical section-Contains periodicals that have been bound for purpose of
durability. Binding may be of two types: Time and series. Newspapers and Magazines are
usually bound on the basis of time while journal and abstracts are usually bond by series.
6. Africana section/National Collection:

The section is normally used by lecturers and post graduate students. It contains rare
books, theses and dissertations.
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7. Children’s section:
The section stocks books that are relevant to the needs of the children
8. Acquisition section:
This is where new books and magazines are received and kept before being given to a
call number.
Accessing Call Materials/Library Materails
Library users normally have any of the following information when searching for reading
materials.
The name of the author
The title of the material
The general subject area
Because a reader may have just one of the above three pieces of information, then the library
staff prepares three cards that have the following information:
The name of the author
The call number of the book
The title of the book
Publication details
The subject area
Depending on which information is emphasized, then we have 3 cards: subject card, title card
and author card. (Visit the library and find out the content of the cards)
For ease of accessing the above information on cards, the library staff stores these cards in
catalogues thus: subject catalogue, title catalogue and author catalogue.
A catalogue is an itemized list. It is an accumulative listing of the books and other materials in
the library with descriptive information about each of them. The following are the steps you
would follow to locate a book by its author, title and subject using catalogue.
Locating a book using the author catalogue
The following are the main steps:
a) Consider the name of the author depending on the type of the author. This may be a
personal or corporate author. If the author is personal, the surname comes first, followed
by the forenames. For example, Mwangi, Jane. In the case of corporate author, names of
52 COS 100 Module

institutions and organizations are entered in a direct order. Examples are: Government
Ministries; African Development Bank, etc.
ii) Find the author card in the appropriate drawer
iii) Copy the call number of the book
iv) Locate the book on the shelf using the call number
Locating a book by its title
1. Use the first word of title to find title card in the title or author/title catalogue. The
articles ‘a, an’ the” are ignored when they occur before the title. e.g. A Dictionary of
Computers- ignore “a”
2. Find the title card in the appropriate drawer
3. Copy the call number of the book
4. By using the call number, proceed to the appropriate bay and locate the book on the
shelves using the call number.
Locating a book using the subject area;

1. Use the first letter of the subject area to find the subject title, for example,
A-Agriculture
B-Biology
C-Chemistry
Z-Zoology
2. Find the card in the appropriate subject drawer
3. Copy the call number of the book.
4. By using the call number of the book, proceed to the appropriate shelf and locate the
book.
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In summary, call numbers can be accessed in the following way:
Check for the call number in the correct catalogue/computer.

Write down the call number.
Trace the correct shelf using the class number. Eg PE….
If not there:
Check along the shelves-left and right
Check on the trolleys and reading tables.
Check in the short loan section
Reserve the book by filling in the reservation from the issue counter i.e. title,
author, call number etc

These are many types of reading materials in a library. A reader must employ certain strategies
in order to identify and locate relevant reading materials in a library. This is done by previewing
a text, by studying the front matter, the back matter and the book itself.
The following factors will help you to judge the worth and relevance of a given publication.
The Front matter:

These are the preliminary pages-they are usually numbered in lower case roman so that extra
materials can, if necessary be added e.g a new edition. On the front matter look at the following:
1. Statement of such things as aim, scope and methodology in the preface or foreword
2. Relevance and comprehensiveness of the work as shown by its table of contents
3. Authoritativeness of the work, going by the bibliography (if provided)
4. Your first impression of the book’s quality (logic, depth, style, in formativeness etc)
based on a sample of pages.
5. Others are: the title of the book, publication details ( publisher, year etc)
6. Copyright notice-the familiar (c) copyright notice was introduced by the Universal
Copyright Convention (the UCC). It protects the work of the creators. Copyright is a
statutory privilege extended to creators of works that are fixed in a tangible medium
of expression. Copyright involves five separate rights: 1. The right to reproduce or
copy the work. 2. The right to prepare derivative works. 3. The right to distribute
copies of the work to the public. 4. In the case of audio visual work, the right to
perform the work publicly. 5. In the case of literary, musical, dramatic or
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choreographic work, or a pictorial, graphic or sculptural work, the right to display the
work publicly.
7. ISBN: International Standard Book Number.
This is an international identification number that may be used to identify a book or
article internationally.
An example ISBN Number of a book
The Back matter

The back matter includes the following:
a) Appendix-refers to that part which contains information that is relevant to topic
but does not appear in the actual text e.g. questionnaire, large maps/diagrams etc
b) Bibliography –refers to a list of sources an author used in writing up his work.
c) Glossary – refers to a list of explanations of technical words and sciencitific terms
that one has used in his book.
d) The blurb-refers to the back page that has information on the author, what the
book is about and other people’s comments on the worth of the book.
e) Index-refers to that part which shows the place with sub titles used in a (text
book) along with the pages on which they appear.
Evidence outside the Publication

Evidence outside the book basically consists of other people’s opinion of the publication. This
may include your lecturer’s views (He/she may have told you which authors or journals are most
dependable in your subject area. You may also be guided by such things as:
a. The author’s reputation
b. Critical reviews in respected journals
c. The publisher’s reputation for high quality work
d. The Librarians
e. Evidence within the book consisting of what you can see yourself as you hold it in
your hands. E.g. You have to evaluate the library materials based on the
following:
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The book itself
Check out for the following information:
a. The layout of the book
b. The examples, quotations or explanation in it
c. The headings and sub-headings
d. Summaries of topics
e. Suggested study questions
f. The diagrams, pictures, figures, graphs
Sub-topic 5: Acknowledging Sources of Information
Research work requires, on the part of the student, the use of outside sources as well as one’s
competence in interpretation and analysis. One quality that you need as a scholar is intellectual
honesty in academic matters. This means that you have to give credit to other people whenever
you use their ideas or information. It is, therefore, important to know how to indicate your
sources of information whether within the text or at the end of your work.
Why do you cite sources of information?
1. The citation of outside sources will increase the authority of your ideas by persuading
your readers that you do have special knowledge of your subject.
2. They will give your sources the credit that is due to them
3. The citations will direct your readers to the appropriate materials, if what you say
stimulates them to explore the subject further.
4. To avoid the academic offence of plagiarism. Plagiarism is the failure to give credit for
materials used; it refers to the unacknowledged use of another’s words, ideas or
information. Academic work demands that sources of ideas or information, even if the
words have been paraphrased or summarized are duly acknowledged. Plagiarism is both
an academic as well as a criminal offence punishable by law of copyright all over the
world.
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Activity : How do you accurately represent the words and ideas of others?
Quotations, Paraphrase, Summary

A quotation means that the exact wording, spelling, capitalization and punctuation are
used as in the original source. Direct quotation should be used sparingly in a research
paper, but if they have to be used, for instance, when the reputation of a source is
important then they should be brief enough to give you room to use your own words
as much as possible. You have to use quotation marks to show the part of your text
that is borrowed.
Quotations are of two types:
1. Shorter than three or four lines incorporated in the body of the text and enclosed within
single quotation marks.
2. More than four lines indented and single spaced (block quotation). This does not require
quotation marks.
You can change quotations for various reasons:
1. To emphasize particular words. You therefore underline or italicize these words

2. To delete unnecessary information or to make the quotation conform grammatically to
your sentence through the use of ellipsis (three spaced dots….). The omission should not
destroy the original meaning (that is, if you do not want to quote every word of a
sentence, you leave out the words you do not need, putting three dots in the space left.
However, if the words you would like to leave out come at the end of the sentence, you
must put four dots in that space one to represent the usual full stop at the end of the
sentence.
In some cases, you may find that the materials you would like to quote has been quoted by your
author from another source. In such a case, you should use single quotation marks (‘……..’) for
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ordinary quoting and double quotation marks (“…..”) for quoting material quoted by your author
from another source.
What must you acknowledge in your paper? A quotation, someone else’s opinion, illustrations,
photographs, charts etc.
Paraphrasing and Summarizing

Writers use information from other sources but present it in their own words, (that is, you use
your own words to express the borrowed idea)
The words, ideas and information from other sources can be within the text (intext), at the
bottom of the page (footnotes) or at the end of the chapter (endnotes).
The footnote and endnote referencing techniques are becoming more and more unpopular and
are used less often. More recent documentation styles combine in-text citation with a separate list
of references at the end of the text(that is, parenthetical citation keyed to a list of references.) In
this system, immediately or before quoting, paraphrasing or summarizing you indicate the
author’s surname, year of publication and the page number. The year of publication and page
number are enclosed within brackets (parenthesis). The other bibliographic details are listed at
the end of the text (references)
For example: Dwivedi (2006;6) observes that “the basis of behavioural science research is to
build a theory in order to explain human behavior in its totality.” Note that page numbers are
only indicated for direct quotes. For a paraphrased quote, only the surname and year of
publication are indicated.
This would be within the text. At the end of the paper under bibliography or references you
would include the other bibliographic details:
Dwivedi, R. S (2006) Research Methods in Behavioural Sciences. New Delhi: Macmillan India
Ltd
Useful abbreviations in referencing:

Op.cit abbreviation for opera citato, ‘in the work cited’- it is used when the same work is
cited but other references come between them E.g Mugenda and Mugenda op.cit p. 168
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Ibid (Latin Ibidem) means in the same place or exactly the same reference. E.g if you
cited Mugenda and Mugenda (1999:61) with information relating to intervening variables
and then cite the same source on p.117, the citation can be shortened as Ibid.P.117
Loc. cit-abbreviation for loco citato ‘in the place cited’-this is used to mean ‘same
place’ cited and follows a citation that is exactly the same as the one before and
appearing on the same page.
et. Al -Latin for ‘and others’) used for books written by more than three
authors(sometimes more than four). The surname of the first author is written followed
by the abbreviation et.al.
Bibliography
A bibliography is a list of sources, cited or not cited, that have been used in writing an essay.
References are a list of sources cited in your work. Bibliographies can be select bibliographies if
not all the works cited or not, are included. This could be intentional or not by the author. In
referencing:
1. The sources are given at the end of the essay

2. The sources are arranged in alphabetical order.
3. If the author has published more than one book in the same year, differentiate them with
letters for example: Eshiwani (1983a) such dates are also similarly cited in the text.
4. If in the alphabetical order, the name of an author follows one another, use a dash after
the first instead of writing the full name. For example:
Eshiwan (1983a), (1984)
In citing a reference, the following parts should be included: author, title of the book (source) or
article, city of publication, the publishers and the date of publication. The organization of these
parts and the publications involved depend on the type of style of referencing techniques being
used.
Referencing
Referencing is a standardized method of acknowledging sources of information and ideas that

you have used in your assignment in a way that uniquely identifies their source. There are many
59 COS 100 Module

acceptable forms of referencing. (* We are going to provide a brief guide to the APA referencing
style)
Why references?
Referencing is necessary to avoid plagiarism; to enable the reader to verify quotations; and to
enable the readers follow up and read more fully the cited author’s argument.
Steps involved in referencing
• Note down the full bibliographical details including the page number(s) from which the
information is taken. In the case of a book “bibliographic details” refer to: author/editor,
year of publication, title, edition, volume number, place of publication and publisher. In
the case of a journal article it refers to: author of article, year of publication, title of
article, journal/serial title, volume number, issue number and page number on which the
article appears. In the case of electronic information they are: author/editor, year of
publication, article title, journal title, the type of medium ( e.g CD-ROM, motion picture,
etc), pages of length (e.g 6-14) “Retrieved” statement (e.g WWW address, supplier and
name of electronic database, email address etc) and access date. *not all of the details
will necessarily be applicable or even available.
• Insert the citation at the appropriate place within the text of the document
• Provide a reference list at the end of the document.
For a book:
Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:
Author/editor(s)
Year or publication
Title of book
Edition of book (if needed)
Place of publication
Publisher
Types of Bibliographic entries
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Start: Author (surname) the initials, year of publication (in brackets) fullstop Title(underlined or
italicized) fullstop. City or publication (colon) publisher.
The second line in a refence as well as all subsequent lines are indented as you will see below.
Note that all content words in a title are in capital letters, functional words in small letters unless
they come at the beginning of the title.. For example Child Abuse and Protection
Book with a single author
Goddard, C.R. (1996) Child Abuse and Child Protection: A Guided for Health, Education and
Welfare Workers. South Melbourne: Churchill Livingstone
Book with two authors:
Koskoff, V. D. & Goldhurst, R. (1968). The Dark Side of the House. New York: Dial Press
Book with more than 3 or 4 authors
Write the surname of the author and his/her initials followed by the abbreviation et.al.(Latin for
“and others)
Albert, E. M. et.al (1969). Great Traditions in Ethics. New York: VNR
Articles or Chapters in a book: (a book may contain chapters or articles each written by different
authors. Such a book will instead have editors)
Bibliographic details are arranged in the sequence:
Author of chapter, year of publication, chapter title, editor(s) of book, title of book, article or
chapter pages, place of publication, publisher.
Author of the chapter (surname plus initials), year of publication. Title of the chapter. The editors
are then introduced with the word (“in “). The title of the book, pages covered by the chapter (in
brackets indicated with pp) fullstop. City of publication.Publisher.
61 COS 100 Module

Pollard, B. (1976). “Advertising and Public Relations” In Fisher, H.D. and Merrill (eds)
International and Intercultural Communication. (pp283-286) New York: Hastings
House Publishers.
Piaget, J. (1970). “The Stages of the Intellectual Development of the Child.” In Mussen, P.H.,
Congor J.J & Kagan J. (Eds) Reading in Child Development and Personality. (pp.291-
302) New York: Harper and Row.
Journal article
Bibliographic details are arranged in the following sequences:
Author of journal article, year of publication, article title, title of journal, volume of journal, issue
number of journal (if available), article pages.
Author or the article (surname, initials) year(in brackets) title of the article. Title of the journal
Volume (underlined) issue number (in brackets) common pages without pp.
Note that in journal referencing, it is the name of the journal that is underlined or italicised and
NOT the title of the journal article eg Journal of Information Technology
Example:
Wharton, N. (1996). Health and Safety in Outdoor Activity Centres. Journal of Adventure.
Education and Outdoor Leadership. 12(4),8-9.
Magazines and newspaper article
Author of article (surname, initials) year (in brackets) full stop. Title of article. Title of
newspaper/magazine, pages (indicated with pp)
Examples
Ayodo, H. (2009). “Kenyan Tops Biochemistry Class at US Varsity” The Standard, pp33.
NOTE: There are other styles used for referencing by diffferent institutions for
example; MLA, Chicago.
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In the library, we have librarians-professional people trained in the science of making library
materials and information about them readily available to readers. The Library assistants-are at
the issue desk. They can put a book on call. That is, they will hold for you a book borrowed (that
you need) when it is returned.
The library skills-used effectively –will enable you to spend more of your time using the
materials rather than looking for it.
Activity
1. *What is an e-mail, fax, and internet? What are the benefits of these resources in
education?Let us evaluate what we have learnt:As a learner, why do you need to visit the
library?
2. List and explain the different sections of the library and their contents
3. Why is it important to know the classification system of your library?
4. During the lesson on bibliography, examples of different authors were given using the
different references. Write a conventional bibliographic entry.
5. Describe how you would access a call material in the library.
LEARNING OUTCOME

Sure
1 I can now find a book in any part of the library.
2 I now know how to cite and effectively acknowledge other
people’s work in my written work.
3 I can now find suitable books on a given topic with ease as I

preview the texts before sitting down to read the contents.
63 COS 100 Module

4. I can locate a call material in the library using the
information from a catalogue
a. In this topic we have learned how to use the library with ease.
b. We have also learned how to acknowledge other people’s work in our essay writing
c. We also learnt how to cite other people’s work in text and how to reference that
information source.
d. We discussed how the judge the worth of a book by looking at its various sections
Self check
a. Why should I use a library?
b. What are the different sections of the library?
c. How should I acknowledge other people’s work in my written work?
d. How can I find a suitable book in the library on a given topic?
Score board
21-25 - Excellent
15-20 - Very good
11-14 - Good
6-10 - Fair
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Congratulations! You may proceed to the next topic.
Further reading

Mc Cutcheon, et al (1994:20) Communication Matters West Publishing Company.
Payne. J. (2001) Applications Communication for personal and professional contexts Clerk
Publishing, Kansas, USA
Richard S.H. Weaver L II (6th ed) Communication effectively, Mc Graw Hill, New York
Scott M.D, Brydon S.R (1996) Dimension of Communication; An introduction Mayfield
Publishing Company, California U.S.A
65 COS 100 Module

TOPIC FOUR
READING SKILLS
Welcome to the Reading Skills Unit. Reading is a very important activity

especially for a university student. Most of the academic knowledge acquired or recreated,
comes from reading or is influenced by it. Reading widely will help you as a student to interact
with great minds of all times from different backgrounds and cultures. Reading is a very versatile
activity because it can take place almost anywhere, in a classroom, library, house, vehicle, etc.
As a university student, you need to develop good reading techniques and habits in order to be an
effective and efficient reader.
OBJECTIVES OF THE UNIT

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:-
a. Identify different types of reading
b. Learn how to be an efficient reader
c. Explain discourse makers and their functions
d. Use reading techniques when faced with a difficult text.
Sub-topic 1: Types of Reading Skills
Definition of reading
Reading is one of the language skills. It is a process where one looks and understands what has
been written. It is a process which involves focusing on the meaning created by a combination of
words. It is a communication process between the reader and the writer. Thus the reader and the
writer have dialogue through the printed medium.
4.2 What is active Reading?
It means that the reader is able to accept and reject or discriminate what he/she reads. By
engaging the writer in dialogue, the reader is able to argue and reflect on what is read.
This depends largely on
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1. The type of reading that the reader is doing
2. The level of reading
Therefore, the reading process involves both the acquisition of meaning intended by the writer
and the reader’s own contribution in the form of interpretation, evaluation and reflection on the
meanings. (this means that if you are competent in the language in which you are reading, it will
be easier for you to understand what the writer is saying than if you are not. If you are familiar
with the topic being discussed or with a related topic, your understanding of the content will be
greatly enhanced.
All students pursuing courses beyond high school have to grapple with new and unfamiliar
concepts, specialized vocabulary and terse or complex writing styles. In addition, the style and
vocabulary vary from one subject to another. This means that different mental processes are
called for as you move from one content area to another.
As a university student you are expected to work independently, to keep up with assignments and
lectures and pass your examinations without any prodding from your lecturers. The reading you
will be expected to do is academic reading or study type of reading. It involves problem solving.
You must therefore learn to analyze what is said in books, explore, discover and make adequate
use of reference materials and glean information from all types of printed and non printed media.
This type of reading involves educating yourself.
The process of reading has the following characteristics.
1. It is both a physical and mental activity
2. It requires attention and thought.
3. It involves the participation (of the reader) emotionally and intellectually. (Emotional –
feelings the reader attaches to what he reads-though it will depend on the type of book
being read)
4. It involves interpretation of the written words or printed symbols.
Which factors determine the meaning that a reader may put on a piece of writing include;
1. The reader’s background knowledge or experience
2. Emotional appeal of the subject
3. The reader’s intellectual ability.
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4.3. Purpose of Reading
1. For pleasure (entertainment) for many people reading is a good pastime activity. Indeed
in Europe the rise of the novel was partly as a result of the rise of the middle class which
needed something long to read during their leisure time. Today, many people find
popular writings and magazines quite handy during their free time. When we read for
pleasure or relaxation, our reading habits are sporadic; we read when we have time either
during a lunch break or in the evening or during the weekend. The materials read for
pleasure are: novels, cartoons, magazines, sections of newspapers etc.
2. To acquire knowledge and information- this is the foremost reason for reading. Reading
is an important activity in acquiring knowledge. A widely read person knows more than
anyone can learn through direct experience in one’s lifetime. In the olden days there was
the assumption that knowledge and age are related-that the older one is the more
knowledgeable he is. (This is necessarily not true nowadays-for one can be older but
limited in his/her narrow experience and knowledge in life.
3. For academic purposes (or for study) it is the reading expected at the university.
University students, lectures and other scholars are expected to be avid readers-often
referred to as academicians. (Avid-very enthusiastic about something you do regularly).
Students are expected to master knowledge in their subjects, conduct library research,
analyze information and report on it in form of term papers. This way, you create further
reading materials and hence knowledge. In this type of reading, we set aside time for it,
we take trouble to prepare ourselves physically, mentally and emotionally and we create
an environment around ourselves that is conducive to reading. Materials that can be read
for academic information are: textbooks, reference books, general and specialist journals
magazines and special sections of newspapers.
4. For success in life-The rate at which one progresses in his profession usually depends
on how knowledgeable he is in the field.
5. For instructions or directions-We are living in the ‘do it yourself age’. Manufactures of
goods of all sorts carefully prepare operational manuals and package them with the
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goods. It is necessary that the users who will use these goods are able to read and follow
instructions for maximum benefits.
4.3 What is reading efficiency?

Reading efficiency is the key to successful study. When you are able concentrate on the
ideas and thoughts expressed rather than on the words, when you have developed the
habit of approaching every reading task with a specific purpose in mind, when you can
read critically and analytically, adjusting your reading to suit the difficult to the text and
understand fully what the writer is saying, then you will be considered an efficient reader.
One’s achievement in reading can be evaluated in terms of:
a. How much he/she has covered
b. What percentage of that material has been learnt (or can be remembered)
The first aspect in reading efficiently is speed. In fast reading, one should be able to see and
comprehend a lot in a short time. However, according to Donders (1981) , the average number of
words a reader can read in a minute depends on what he is reading (reading material). It differs
from easy to difficult reading materials.
The second aspect is recognition span i.e the number of words a reader is able to cover in one
eye fixation. When reading, one makes stops and pauses or makes sweeping movements between
successive pauses. It is during these stops that the eye actually reads. The number of words that
your eye covers in each of such stops is what is called ‘recognition span’ or ‘eye span’ or reading
span’. Therefore, a word by word reader is a slow reader. The length of the pause or fixation
becomes an important factor in reading.
What is required in effective reading? (Something that is effective works well and produces the
result that was intended.
a. Concentration –the reader must read actively. By active reading we mean that the
reader’s mind must be engaged. Ensure that you are reading in a non distractive physical
environment.
b. As you read you should be able to understand what you are reading and be able to
express the ideas in your own words
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c. Be discriminative-a good reader cannot swallow everything said by the writer. Accept
and reject. Get only what you need. This discrimination is the whole mark of analytical
and critical reading.
d. Read for a purpose –No one takes a book to read without a reason. As a reader you
should know why you are reading. Formulate questions and search for answers as you
read.
e. Speed in reading is determined by the materials being read and the purpose of reading
that material
4.4 Types of reading

1. Skimming – It is the reading technique that one uses to get the main idea or gist of a
text within a very short time. When skimming you need to read the topic sentences
only. The topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph. You can skim
through a long text or even a book in just a few minutes and get emphasis on time.
This technique can be used when you are trying to decide if a book in the library or
bookshop is right for you.
Some ways of skimming:
• Look at the title page. It gives the general impression of the book
• Study the table of contents to obtain a general sense of the book’s structure: use it
as you would use a road map before taking a trip.
• Read the preface, in it the author normally explains his intentions
• Check the index if the book has one
• From the general knowledge of the book, read a line here and there, study the
illustrations have a check at the summaries, graphs and inspect the conclusion at
the end of the chapters.
• After this general survey you can start to study the different chapters of the book,
reading a paragraph or two, sometimes several pages in sequence
• Know the author. Is he an authority?
• Year of publication. Is it a recent edition or an old one?
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1. Scanning- It involves looking for particular information. It only means retrieving
information relevant for your purpose. When scanning, we only try to locate specific
information and often we do not follow the linearity of the passage to do so. We simply
let our eyes wonder over the text until we find the information we are looking for.
2. Inference- it involves using context to work out meaning, the reader guesses the
meaning of unfamiliar words by using the context in which they are used. When dealing
with a new text, it is better not to explain the difficult words to the learners. They should
be encouraged to make a guess at the meaning of the words they do not know rather than
look them up in a dictionary.
3. Extensive reading-it involves reading widely. It usually involves long texts or books
with many pages. The objectives of extensive reading are: to promote enjoyment of
reading, to provide various experiences, and to provide wide exposure to written English
in use. The reading is individualized with students choosing the books they want to read.
If the student finds the book too difficult to enjoy, the extensive reading procedure
requires that the book be changed.
4. Intensive reading-It calls for a deep understanding of what is written. It is
accompanied by high level of making notes. It is the type of reading a university student
engages in when studying.
Sub-topic 2: Extracting Information and Summary Writing
4.5 TEXT READABILITY

This is the extent to which it is possible to read a text and comprehend its contents. It
refers of the relative simplicity or difficulty in understanding, interpreting, evaluating or
applying information in a text.
Factors determining text readability

1. The language level. This includes new words and other technical or scientific terms
which one is not familiar with. It may also refer to sentence structures, stylistic
devices, register, idiomatic expressions used etc.
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2. Content- This refers to the subject matter. It could be elementary or advanced
depending on the level of education of the reader.
3. Layout- This is the arrangement or structure of the text in terms of chapters, units,
paragraphs and even sentences.
4. Print size- The font size is important. Very small print is uncomfortable and tiring to
read.
4.6 How to comprehend a difficult text

Below are some strategies that a reader can use to comprehend a difficult text.
4.6.1 Vocabulary- One can understand new words, difficult items, and phrases or
expressions without using a dictionary. This can be done by-looking at the context
clues, getting synonyms, using predictions and using predictions and using
inference.
Predictions- this is when one reads to confirm expectations. This technique is

highly motivating and gives one a purpose for reading. Inference – this is reading
beyond what you can see in print on pages. It calls for reasoning, reaching an
opinion, making conclusions. It is important when answering questions on
meanings or words, phrases as used in the passage in the passage and also
identification of the connotations of different sentences.
4.6.2 SQ3R reading technique – this is a special skill useful in reading. The
abbreviation stands for the steps that one reader follows while using this method
of reading. These are:
a. Survey- Glance over the titles, chapter headings to establish the subject of the text.
Read the whole of the first paragraph, in case of a passage. Read the first sentence in
each subsequent paragraph. Read the whole of the last paragraph. In case of a book,
read chapter summaries or conclusions.
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b. Question- Turn the first heading into a question. This will arouse your curiosity and
thereby increase your comprehension. In case of passages or even some books, you
could also look at the question in the text.
c. Read – Read the text –go over it-to establish the subject matter, the writer’s
approach and get the general gist. Try to obtain quick answers for the questions as
you raised in (b) above
d. Revise – At this stage you get into active reading and search for information and
answers to specific questions. You ought to make notes.
e. Recall/Recite - Having read and revised, now look away from the text and try to
recall and recite the answers to the questions raised or thought about. If you can
recite, you know what is in the book, if you can’t glance over the sections again.
4.7 TOPIC AND SUPPORTING SENTENCES

A topic sentence can be at text or paragraph level in a written text. The topic
sentence is the one that tells or gives the reader the main idea of the text or paragraph.
It enables the reader to know what the writer intends to or say in the paragraph or
text.
The supporting sentence on the other hand gives additional information to the topic
sentence.
The supporting sentence gives evidence of the idea expressed in the topic sentence. It
can be in the form of additional information, example or an explanation in support of
the topic sentence. It can also be in the form of tables, charts, and diagrams etc that
explain or expand on the idea or ideas introduced in the topic sentence. An example
of a passage is given below:-
All human being have teeth. However when they are born, they do not possess teeth. Also when
they grow old, most human beings loose the teeth and cannot chew food such as meat and maize.
• Topic sentence: all human beings have teeth.
• Supporting sentence: However ………….. They do posses teeth.
4.8 Discourse Makers
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Discourse makers are sometimes referred to as sign makers or signaling. This is because
the words, phrases or clauses are used to predict a speaker or writer’s intention. Thus for
a speaker or writer, the discourse maker helps the listener or reader to keep in a step with
the message they want to pass across. Below are examples of discourse makers and their
function either in written or spoken discourse.
Discourse Makers Function
First, second and third - Listing
First - Beginning
Next - Listening
For example - Exemplification
Howeverbut - Contradiction
In conclusion, Finally, Lastly - Concluding
This is to say - Explanation
In addition to that - Explanation
Even though - Contradiction
Activity
a. Why is reading important to any leaner?
b. What is required to be an effective reader?
c. Choose a text and pick out the words that signal or predict what the writer wants to say.
d. In a given paragraph how would you identify the topic sentence?
e. What would you use to determine text readability?

Sure
1 I can now read a book and write short notes on it
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2 I can now read a text and get maximum information using
SQ3R techniques
3 I can now identify discourse makers in a text
4. I can now pick out the topic sentence in a text and show
supporting sentences.
a. In this topic we have learned the importance and purpose of reading for a university student
b. We have also learned to identify the topic sentence and discourse makers in a text.
c. We also have learned to be more effective and efficient readers by using SQ3R technique.
Self Check
a. Why should I read books?
b. How do I predict what the writer is about to say in a text?
c. How can I know the main idea in a text?
SCORE BOARD
21-25 - Excellent
15-20 - very good
11-14 - Good
6-10 - Fair
Well done!! You have qualified to proceed to the next topic

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Further reading
Godia G. (2005) Public Relations and Effective Communication. A Hand book for SchoolHead
Teachers. Preview Printers and Stations.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (New edition)

Mc Cutcheon, et al (1994:20) Communication Matters. West Publishing Company.
Personal J.C (et al) (2003) Human Communication, the Mc Graw Hill Companies New York:
USA
Richard S.H. Weaver L II (6th ed) Communication effectively, Mc Graw Hill: New York
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TOPIC FIVE
CRITICAL THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
This topic introduces you to critical thinking and problem solving. A university
student must be a critical thinker. Critical thinking is directed at those who wish
to develop the habit of thinking and reading intelligently. During your reading or
discussion, you should examine what you read or hear with a critical mind. You should have
your own thoughts, ideas, opinions and feelings about issues or ideas that you read and hear.
Your ideas which make you look at issues critically can help in solving some of the problems
you or others face. Critical thinking leads to creativity in solving emerging problems. This unit
will help you to acquire the necessary skills for critical analysis and expression and learn to
apply this to problems and issues systematically through critical thinking.
LESSON OBJECTIVES

a. Examine your ideas and other peoples’ ideas critically.
b. Identify areas of departure from the norm in the critical thinking
process.
c. Provide new horizons and solutions to problems
d. Identify cultural biases in the thought process.
...................................
Topic overview
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Sub-topic 1: Critical and Creative Thinking Process
Critical and creative thinking processes are important in knowledge creation and problem
solving. The two are related but they are not the same. Let us look at each one of them.
Critical thinking is defined in a variety of ways. It has been argued that critical thinking is the
use of cognitive skills or strategies that enable us to achieve desirable outcome in our attempt to
solve a problem. It is also used to describe thinking that is purposeful, reasoned and goal
directed.
Some people argue that it is the capacity to work with complex ideas. It involves using evidence
to justify a reasonable position. But more importantly critical thinking can be viewed as some
form of learning through which new knowledge, in the form of the judgment, is generated in the
process.
From the above definition, we may deduce the following facts about critical thinking and what it
entails:
1. It uses cognitive skills or strategies
2. It aims at a desirable outcome
3. It is purposeful
4. It is reasoned
5. It is goal directed
6. Interrogates complex ideas
7. Relies on evidence
8. It is a form of learning
Let us now look at the components of critical thinking process. Critical thinking takes place
through the following processes:
1. Identifying and challenging assumptions.
2. Recognizing the importance of context.
3. Imagining and exploring alternatives.
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4. Developing reflective skepticism.
Characteristics of a Critical Thinker

A critical thinker exudes the following characteristics:
1. Habitually inquisitive,
2. Well-informed, t
3. Trustful of reason,
4. Open-minded,
5. Flexible,
6. Fair-minded in evaluation,
7. Honest in facing personal biases,
8. Prudent in making judgments,
9. Willing to reconsider
10. Orderly in dealing with complex matters
11. Diligent in seeking relevant information
12. Reasonable in the selection of criteria
13. Focused in inquiry
14. Persistent in seeking results
Creative Thinking
Creative thinking is the ability to generate new, varied and unique ideas. Creative thinking
involves the following skills:
1. Flexibility
2. Originality
3. Fluency
4. Elaboration,
5. Brainstorming,
6. Modification
7. Imagery
8. Associative thinking
9. Attribute Listing
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10. Metaphorical Thinking,
In essence therefore creativity involves departing from the facts, finding new ways and making
unusual associations. It implies seeing unexpected solutions to problems and sensing difficulties.
It involves making intelligent guesses and formulating hypotheses about issues. Creativity
involves calling into question the assumptions underlying our customary, habitual ways of
thinking and acting and then being ready to think and act differently on the basis of the critical
questioning.
Attributes of Creative Thinkers

• Consider rejecting standardized formats for problem solving.
• Have an interest in a wide range of related and divergent fields.
• Take multiple perspectives on a problem.
• Use trial-and-error methods in their experimentation.
• Have a future orientation.
• Have self-confidence and trust in their own judgment.
The process of creative thinking may involve asking a number of questions;
Creative Thinking Questions

• What would exist that does not exist now?
• What would be happening that does not happen now?
• What decisions would be made and executed?
• What accomplishments would be in place that are not now?
• What patterns of behavior that currently in place would be eliminated?
The following table shows the differences between critical and creative thinking processes:
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Critical thinking Creative thinking
Analytic Generative
Convergent Divergent
Vertical lateral
Probability Possibility
Judgment Suspended judgment
Hypothesis testing Hypothesis forming
Objective Subjective
Answer An answer
Closed Open ended
Linear Associative
Reasoning Speculating
Logic Intuition
Yes but Yes and
Source: Adapted from Fisher, R. (2002). Creative minds: Building communities of learning in
the creative age. Paper presented at the Teaching Qualities Initiative Conference, Hong Kong.
Activity
a. With examples, explain the concept of critical thinking.
b. Compare and contrast critical thinking and creative writing
Steps of critical thinking process

• Observe determine what information is available gather information from a variety of
sources
• Ascertain what information currently exists explore the different perspectives identify
similarities or contradictions?
• Break down the information into the main themes or arguments
• Evaluate the value of the information
• Prioritize important information and differentiate opinion from fact
• Question consider possible alternatives develop new hypotheses
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Applying the critical thinking process to tasks that provide students with a clear context (for
example, future workplace) can assist their analysis. This would include:
• written essays analyzing a problem within the workplace
• problem based learning
• case studies
• simulations
• work integrated learning through placement or practicum.
Evaluating ideas entails measuring the worth or appropriateness of the ideas. It commences when
you have collected lots of ideas. For example, in researching on a topic, you can get many ideas
on it. You need to critically examine the ideas and information and pick out the most appropriate
ones for your topic of research. The diagram below poses some questions for effective evaluation
of a topic.
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Why should we evaluate ideas?
• Critical evaluation of ideas, arguments, and points of view is important for the
development of students as autonomous thinkers. It is only through this critical
evaluation that students can distinguish among competing claims for truth and determine
which arguments and points of views they can trust and those of which they should be
skeptical.
• Evaluation helps in organizing ideas in a way that will help you to come out with a
conclusion.
• Enables us to look at the pros and cons of a particular decision
• Compare suggestions against specific criteria
• Create a prioritized list of ideas.
• Enables participants to voice their opinions about the value or effectiveness of different
suggestions
• It lays the foundation for students’ progressing to staking their own claims in an
intellectually rigorous fashion.
• Enables learner to analyze and critically evaluate arguments thus helps them to develop a
sound framework to test their own arguments and advance their own points of view.
• The ability to weigh alternatives, make decisions, and evaluate contradictory evidence is
crucial to scholastic endeavors and adult life more generally—to personal happiness,
professional success, and civic engagement.
To achieve this and related objectives, instruction must incorporate intellectual challenge and
activity; opportunities for creative or original work; finding and using information and
translating that information into coherent communication; and opportunities to produce original
work rather than simply recalling information
General guidelines and rules to consider when evaluating ideas
1. Use affirmative judgment-Instead of pointing out all the ideas in which you don’t see merit,
focus on the ideas that are potentially valuable. Look for the good. Don’t point out the bad.
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2. Be brave: Consider novelty when evaluating ideas. It’s too easy to fall back on the safe ideas
you’ve tried before or that you know have been done before. Innovation doesn’t come from same
old, same old ideas. They come from bold, fresh, new, novel ideas. Learn how to play in the
uncomfortable zone and focus on looking for the novel ideas.
3. Stay on target-.As you evaluate ideas, remember what you’re trying to accomplish. What was
the original objective? Keep that in mind when you’re reviewing ideas. Otherwise, it’s easy to go
off on targets without getting what you want.
4. Keep focused.-It’s easy to see one idea and latch onto it, excluding all of the other great ideas
that you generated. Watch out! Force yourself to be patient enough to explore each and every
idea and ponder it’s strengths before moving on to evaluate the next idea.
Stop and reflect on various techniques and approaches used in

evaluating and generating creative ideas
Check if you have these techniques in your list.

1. Simple Rating Technique.
The simple rating method technique is useful for the initial sorting of large numbers of ideas, and
is very useful for quick initial screening of ideas. It can be done in a number of ways for instance
through sticky dot voting where each participant gets 3 – 6 sticky dots and places them on the
ideas which they feel are ‘interesting’ and/or ‘might work’.
2. Brainstorming
Brainstorming combines a relaxed, informal approach to problem solving with lateral thinking. It
encourages people to come up with thoughts and ideas that can, at first, seem a bit crazy. Some
of these ideas can be crafted into original, creative solutions to a problem, while others can spark
even more ideas. This helps to get people unstuck by ‘jolting’ them out of their normal ways of
thinking. During brainstorming, people should avoid criticizing or rewarding ideas. You're trying
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to open up possibilities and break down incorrect assumptions about the problem's limits.
Judgment and analysis at this stage stunts idea generation and limit creativity.
Why Use Brainstorming?
• Brainstorming provides a free and open environment that encourages everyone to participate. It
allows quirky ideas to be welcomed and built upon, and all participants are encouraged to
contribute fully, helping them develop a rich array of creative solutions.
• Brainstorming brings team members’ diverse experience into play. It increases the richness of
ideas explored, which means that you can often find better solutions to the problems that you
face.
• Brainstorming is fun, it helps team members bond, as they solve problems in a positive,
rewarding environment.
• It enhances group committed .People will be more involved in developing their own ideas
Points to note
Evaluation of ideas can occur individually, in peers and in a group .
In communication, we transfer information to other people. Sometimes the information that we

may transfer is incorrectly structured information and makes to draw conclusions based on that
incorrect information structure. Such conclusions lack of validity, or more generally, a lack of
soundness and create fallacies.
Statements that lack validity are described as fallacies. The word “fallacy” has its origin in the
Latin language and generally means “to deceive.”
Fallacies are based on faulty logic and bad assumptions and replace sound reasoning and
legitimate evidence in discussions and dialogues between people.
A story is told of a dog that said: Cats have four legs. I have four legs, therefore I am a cat. Such
story presents a fallacious argument.
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The use of threats in communicant may be considered as a fallacious. For example, the use of a
statement like; ‘If you do not get saved you will die,’ is fallacious since even if you do not get
saved you will still die.
If for example, a person uses words like “You have killed me” when they are speaking to you,
then you should not be afraid, they are alive.
A fallacy may be based on emotion. The fallacy stems from the fact that emotions do not change
the facts but rather cloud our judgement of a situation.
In other cases, a conclusion may be made based n the origin of something. Such genetic fallacy
also hides the true facts of a situation. A number of racial or ethnic stereotyping falls under
genetic fallacy.
There are cases where we wish to communicate that something is true. Such thinking tends to be
warped and is relative to our preferences. The genesis of such fallacy is wishful thinking.
The “domino fallacy, operates on prediction. There is the belief that dire consequences result
from a specific action. For example, “If children eat eggs, they become dump.”
When a conclusion is made based on what has not happened, such a fallacy appeals to our lack
of information. For example, “I am dead.”
Sometimes, a conclusion is made based on a set of members from a particular group. Conclusion
made to refer to the whole group will be fallacious since in a number of cases the information
availed is insufficient. For example, “The girls who have not gone to school make the most
obedient wives.”
When a conclusion is made by focusing on a person’s character rather than the content of a
person’s argument, then the fallacy may be considered as ‘attacking the man. The Latin phrase
for this fallacy is argumentum ad hominem. For example, “Can anything good come out of
Galilee?”
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Different types of ad hominem include name calling, discrediting a person’s motives and turning
the tables of the person you are interacting with. There are cases where jokes are used as
diversionary so as to draw negative conclusions.
One way to avoid irrational thought patterns is to identify other alternative ways to think
through a problem.
Activity: From your own experience state an occasion when you felt was being
fallacious to you.
Sub-topic 4: Identifying author purpose and point of view
As explained in Sub-topic 1, critical thinking involves making reasoned judgments and using
criteria to judge the quality of a piece of oral or written presentation. One of the skills in critical
thinking involves identifying and evaluating an author’s purpose and point of view. In the
University, your ability to identify and evaluate an author’s purpose and line of argument is very
crucial as this will enable you understand and analyze the ideas and synthesize the arguments in
a variety of competing information sources before you make an informed conclusion.
Author’s purpose and point of view in communication.

It is important for you to recognize that every author has a purpose and a particular point of
view. For example the purpose of the author may be to:
Provide or obtain information;
Share the excitement of an event;
Persuade or influence the audience or provoke debate;
Create or enter a personal would;
Stimulate imagination;
Convey important myths;
Strategies of how to figure out the author’s purpose and point of view
1. Start with question ‘Why’
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‘Why did the author present this piece’ the core question you should ask yourself to help
you identify the author’s purpose. To this end, you should read various types of non-
fiction (advertisement, opinion article, news article) and identify a purpose of each.
2. Study the text structure
Authors use different structures – sequence problem and solution, compare and contrast
for different purposes. For example, one author may use sequence to explain an event,
while another author uses compare and contrast to put that event into perspective.
Therefore, identifying how the author organizes and structures the text (words, phrases,
clauses, sentences, paragraphs) is crucial in understanding the author’s purpose and point
of view.
3. Get to the Heart
Often when authors communicate, they are trying to get you to feel in a certain way.
After your interaction with a text, stop and ask yourself, ‘How do you feel? And how did
the author get you to feel this way. Search for the specific indicators of the author’s
personal thinking, such as examples of the author’s content and vocabulary.
4. The Audience of a text
Think about the intended audience of a Text and reflect on how this might affect how the
author chooses what to include and what to leave out.
Activity
Consider the following title of books and explain how they are reflective of the authors’
point of view.
1. Anthills of the Savannah – Chinua Achebe
2. The Beautiful Ones are Not Yet Born – Ayi Kwei Armah
3. Animal Farm – George Orwell

Culture refers to the shared knowledge and schemes created by a set of people for perceiving,
interpreting, expressing, and responding to the social realities around them. It is the product of
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people’s interaction with others and with their environments. Culture is therefore the growth of a
group identity fostered by social patterns unique to the group. It involves both tangible aspects
such as artifacts and tools and intangible ones such as of a social group. Culture therefore is the
collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one category of people
from another.
Thinking is an internal mental process which allows human beings to consider something
carefully, model their world and subdue it for purposes of meeting their goals, order and express
their desires and actualizing their plans. The thinking process produces thoughts. Therefore
thought process refers to the mental activity a human being engages in the production of
thoughts. Thought are ideas or abstract reality which occurs to a person in the thinking process
Relationship between culture and thought processes
Though man comes to possess the thought processes and culture differently, the two interact
constantly throughout a person’s life. In many situations, culture influences thought process.
Human thought is realized through language. On its part language is the product of culture.
Therefore any human being’s thought processes and communication are influenced by their
cultures. There are different perspectives of the relation between culture and thinking.
Strong perspective. That the culture of the speaker influences his thought processes and
communication. The evidence for this is the existence of different words for the same things and
concepts in different languages. Some languages lack certain vocabulary because the culture of
this language do not have the concept or item. For instance, the Eskimos have a rich vocabulary
related to snow while the language of the people in the tropics where there is no snow, may not
have any vocabulary related to snow. In Kenya, the Luo language may have more vocabulary of
fish than the Maasai language. This shows that people respond not to the world as it is, but to the
world as they believe it to be. Culture equips us with cultural competence in communication.
Weak perspective: that culture and thought processes are intertwined. That thought and culture
are distinct but interdependent. That culture does not always influence our thoughts.
Modes of thought processes: As stated earlier one’s cultural background could influence
not only the content of one’s thoughts (beliefs) and his/her the information processing
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strategies used to know the world. Below are two modes of culturally influenced thought
behaviours.
Holistic mode: Is found in cultures in which people perceive things from wholes to parts. This
mode is used mainly in oriental and many African cultures i.e Chinese and Japanese
Analytic mode: Is found in cultures in which people perceive things from parts to wholes e. in
most European cultures,
Activity: J. S Mbithi says that Africans believe “I am because we are and since we are,
therefore I am” as compared to westerners who believe, “I am because I am and since I am
therefore I am” Bring out the cultural aspects of the above statements.

Sure
1 I can now distinguish between creative and critical thinking.
2 I can now merge different perspectives into a reasoned
conclusion.
3 I can now identify different fallacies in communication.
4. I can recognize cultural biases in the thought process
a. In this topic we have learned the importance and purpose of reading for a university student
b. we have also learned to identify the topic sentence and discourse makers in a text.
c. We also have learned to be more effective and efficient learners by using SQ3R technique.
Self Check
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a. Why should I know something about the author of a book before borrowing it from the
library?
b. How do I recognize fallacies from a text?
c. How does the cultural background of an author influence his perspectives in handling content?
SCORE BOARD
21-25 - Excellent
15-20 - very good
11-14 - Good
6-10 - Fair
Further reading
Godia G. (2005) Public Relations and Effective communication. A Hand book for SchoolHead

Personal J.C (et al) (2003) Human Communication, the Mc Graw Hill Companies New York,
USA
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Hofstede, G. (1984). National cultures and corporate cultures. In L.A. Samovar & R.E. Porter
(Eds.), Communication Between Cultures. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Angeline Lillard (1999). Developing a Cultural Theory of Mind: The Ciao Approach. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, Vol. 8 ( 20), pp. 57-61
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TOPIC SIX
EXAMINATION SKILLS
This topic takes you through the process of preparing for and sitting for an
examination. It guides you through the importance of an exam, the types of
examinations and gives you suggestions on how to answer the different types of
examination questions. It also takes you through the stages a person goes through while
preparing for examinations.
LESSON OBJECTIVES

a. Explain the importance of taking an examination.
b. Distinguish different types of examinations.
c. Identify instruction words for examination questions.
d. Recognize the different stages of preparation for examination.
e. Observe ethical conduct during examinations
Topic overview
Topic Sub-topic 1: The Examination
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Examination is a way of measuring how much the student has learned during a given period (The
teaching/learning process leads to change in behavior of the learner i..e at the start of the course,
the learner will able lacking some abilities but at the end of the course, the learner will be
expected to have acquired/learned new abilities).
However, it is an established fact that not all learners will show change in behavior at the end of
a teaching/learning session/period. Therefore, the question is, “What leads to lack of
learning/change in behavior?
Educationists and psychologists have given a number of reasons for lack of change in behavior.
However, the one they have emphasized most is lack of understanding strategies for preparing
and sitting examinations.
The Importance of a Test or Exam in the University
It helps to find out whether the learner has covered the content
It grades the learner
It helps to find out what the students knows about the subject matter.
It is a measurable way of finding out whether the objectives were attained.
It motivates the teacher and the learner
It is used for promotion to the next step on year in case of university students.
It is used for selection to the next step e.g. from class eight to form one or higher learning
colleges.
Selection for a job and also for certification
(a) Strategies for preparing and sitting examinations

In tertiary institutions, preparation for examination can be put in the following
stages:
i. At the beginning of a course
Preparation for examination starts at the beginning of a course. Therefore, the
activities you should be engaged in at the beginning of a course are:
Understand the scope of the course; this can be done by having a course outline.
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The mode of evaluation and the format that questions will take.
The general expectations that you need to meet e.g. take away assignments C.A.T.s,
exams, pass mark e.t.c
Having a good and comprehensive reading list
(ii) During the Course
This is the period when the students’ gathers knowledge as the teaching/learning process takes
place. It should be noted that both the lecturer and student have different roles to play in this
process. However, the emphasis is on the activities that the student engages in:
(a) Listening and note-taking

Is one of the teaching/learning approaches.
When a student listens effectively, some of the lecture points are understood.
However, what is not clear, the student should take note on them for future
reference (revision).
Guidelines of taking notes
There is no one “best” style of taking notes from a lecture.
The best method will vary according to the following.
• The student’s preferences

• The nature of the lecture topic
• The nature of visual aids used
• The lecturer’s style of presentation/delivery
However, regardless of your preferred style of note-taking, there are some general principles of
note-taking that are emphasized:
• Prepare yourself for lectures by going over previous notes, reading and making your own
notes on the present topic
• Listen actively for main points and minor details e.g. steps in an argument, summaries in
exposition. These are essential for note-taking.
• All notes should have a structure:
Title and sub-titles
Introduction
Development
Conclusion
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• When in doubt leave blank spaces for confirmation (form fellow students, text books,
lecturers).
• Use abbreviations or short forms since notes should be brief; and selective.
Barriers to effective listening and note-taking
The above principles on note-taking may not be achieved due to a number of barriers:
• Factual barriers
The listener may find the topic difficult to follow. This may be as a result of:
Not having prior preparation on the topic (due to laziness, lack of reading materials and
internet facilities)
The speaker not being effective in his/her lectures delivery (inaudible, disorganized, lack
of visual aids, lack of mastery of the topic).
• Semantic barrier
o These occur when the terminology used in unfamiliar to the listener.
• Mental barriers
o The attitude of the listeners towards the subject or the presenter.
• Physical barriers
o These are distracters in the environment. For example
• size of the class
Voice projection equipment
The weather
b) Academic problem solving
At tertiary levels of learning, students are tested as lectures go on (C.A.T). Therefore, it
is important to understand steps in solving academic problems.
- Psychologists and Educationists suggest the following steps when solving academic
problems.
• Identifying the nature of the problem. What is it that the assignment requires?
• Analyzing the problem. An academic problem could have various sections/parts or
could be approached from various perspectives e.g. giving merits and demerits.
• Identifying correct steps to follow in solving the problem e.g. an experiment, field
work, discussion
• Collecting relevant materials to be used in solving, the problem. E.g. making notes,
getting equipment for the experiment
• Planning how to solve the problem .i.e. making an outline of the solution to the
problem (sections/parts of the problem need to have a plan and the order of
presentation of the solution.
• Presenting the solution is a conventional manner e.g. essay answers (Title,
introduction, development, conclusion).
96 COS 100 Module

c) Critical thinking
Ideally universities produce graduates that were independent minded (critical
thinkers). Psychologists and educationalists have suggested the following as qualities
of critical thinkers in tertiary learning institutions
(a) Solve problems as they come .e.g. they do not pile assignments and hand over
such assignments well beyond the deadline.
(b) They contribute immensely in the learning process by: Carrying out research
(c) Participating in tutorials/seminars/conferences.
They invite guest speakers and attend visiting professors/scholars presentations
(inaugural lectures).
(d) They are good listeners. They listen to other people’s contributions/views
critically and extract relevant points from such exchanges.
(e) Weigh out his/her contributions before making them.
(f) An effective problem solver – see previous notes on this:
iii) During the Revision Period

The revision period is normally the time when students are free from attending lectures and
concentrate on revision. This is normally two weeks before the main exam.
It is the time when they consolidate and organize the various academic materials. These
academic materials include:
lecture notes,
research notes,
hand-outs,
photocopies,
past papers
Activity
What do you think are the other academic materials?
, Most students take this to be the time to start preparing for examinations. Such students end up
being stressed and frustrated and they are the ones who will use unfair methods or means to
(cheat in the exam) to pass the exam.
A picture of a stressed student
Activities during Revision Period
(a) Plan his/her use of time for the whole period by preparing a revision timetable).
97 COS 100 Module

Allocate time each day and for every course, allow time for rest and leisure.
(b) Compress/summarize all the notes (sub-titles, main and minor points –
supporting details). These helps the student to mind map (get the overall picture
about the course)
(c) Form an outline that is clearly numbered and lettered. It should include:
Definitions,
key words and ideas,
theories.
(d) Test yourself and get practice e.g.
Attempt questions from past papers.
Make up likely questions and answer them.
i.
Iv The day before the Exam
You have prepared well for the exam and on the eve of the exam you should do the
following;
Check the exam time-table to confirm the venue, time of the exam and the paper.
Organize any necessary equipment
Revise your key summaries briefly
Have a good rest.
V The Exam Day

Arrive at the examination venue in good time to avoid panicking.
Organize your relevant materials.
During the exam

Read the instructions carefully (both general and specific)
Choose questions carefully ?
Make outlines for each question
Allocate time carefully depending on the marks allocated.
Write concisely, legibly and accurately as you can i.e. legibility, clarity of expression
and good organization of answers all help your examiner.
Proof – read your paper so as to correct the most glaring mistakes /errors
Ensure all you have written all your particulars thenarrange youranswer sheets
together (if you have used more than one)
In examinations, you need to read the questions and understand precisely what it asks. Certain
key words in the question indicate the method that you are to use in presenting the information,
There are certain words that appear in the examination rubrics that suggest to you how to answer
needed for any particular questions. These are called instruction words.
98 COS 100 Module

Below are highlights
Phrase Meaning
1. Account for - Give reasons for

2. Analyse - Break down the information into its constituent parts and examine
it in
detail and describe the interrelationship.
3. Appraise - Estimate the work, value or importance of
4. Argue - Use evidence to support or reject a viewpoint, opinion, position on
a topic
5. Assess - Say how important it is (judge)
6. Clarify - Present clearly, make clear
7. Comment on - Remark in, expound, explain the importance of
8. Compare - Set together to show similarities and differences, agreements and
disagreements, advantages and disadvantages.
9. Consider - Take into account, weigh advantages and disadvantages
10. Contrast - Look for differences between
11. Define - Give meaning of
12. Demonstration - Show how, prove with examples
13. Describe - Write in detail about he characteristics of
14. Differentiate - Explain the difference between, distinguish
15. Discuss - Investigate or examine by argument, debate, describe the
importance and different aspects of the subject highlighting the
“pros” and “cons” and give reasoned conclusion.
16. Evaluate - Judge the importance or success of examine different sides of the
questions and give to reach at conclusion
17. Examine - Investigate, enquire into
18. Explain - Show the meaning, give reasons for, make clear.
19. How far? - Present and evaluate evidence for and against
20. Illustrate - Explain with example, or by using diagrams, charts, figure
21. Outline - Indicate the important aspects, with minor detail
22. Relate - Show the connections between
23. State - Set out briefly the main points
24. Summarize - Bring together the main points
25. To what extent?- How true is it to say that? Give evidence
26. Trace - Follow the development of something from its origin
99 COS 100 Module

Highlights on answering questions
Analyse the assignment question and ensure you can elaborate on the key words and
instructional/’signpost’ phrases in the question.
Consider what your lecturer wants to see demonstrated in the assignment?
Write with your lecturers’ perspective in mind because they are your audience. They will
read your work and award marks
Ensure that the sources and information you are using are relevant to the question
Identify the instructional phrase(s) attached to the question.
Activity
Consider the following questions:

Compare and contrast the education in Kenya during the pre colonial and post independence
Kenya
Explain the education in Kenya during the pre colonial and post independence Kenya
Discuss the education in Kenya during the pre colonial and post independence Kenya
Analyze the education in Kenya during the pre colonial and post independence Kenya

No matter how many examinations and what level one has done it is true that examination
periods are full of apprehension, anxiety and stress. You want to show that you have learned
what you were taught. You are not sure of what the examiner will require you to do. This leads
to stress and therefore looking for possible short-cuts to passing examinations. That means
examination ethics are discarded.
Examination ethics refers to the expected and accepted behaviour that candidates display during
the preparation and actual sitting for an examination. Unethical behaviour that leads to disruption
of an examination include:
Arriving late at the examination venue.

Talking loudly in or near the venue and disrupting the atmosphere
Coming to the examination room while intoxicated or drunk
100 COS 100 Module

Carrying unauthorized material and gadgets to the examination venue or room.
Referring to the unauthorized material during the examination.
Writing notes on examination room desks.
The examination booklet also has instructions that a candidate must adhere to. When you do not
adhere to the instructions, then entering the marks becomes faulty, leading to missing marks.
Activity
Have a look at the cover of this examination booklet and arrange the instructions in
order of significance to the student and to the examiner.

Sure
1 I now know when exam preparation begins
2 I can now effectively prepare for exams
3 I can now identify the instruction words in a question
4. I can now differentiate between essays and objective

questions
a. In this topic we have learned the importance of an examination
b. We have also learned how we can prepare for and sit examinations
c. We also have also learned how to identify instructional words in each question and what each
requires us to do
d. I have appreciated the importance of unethical behaviour
101 COS 100 Module

Self Check
a. ........
b. ..........
c. .............
SCORE BOARD
21-25 - Excellent
15-20 - very good
11-14 - Good
6-10 - Fair
Further reading
Godia G. (2005) Public Relations and Effective communication. A Hand book for SchoolHead

102 COS 100 Module

Personal J.C (et al) (2003) Human Communication, the Mc Graw Hill Companies New York,
USA
103 COS 100 Module

Reading List
Godia G. (2005) Public Relations and Effective communication. A Hand book for SchoolHead Teachers.
Preview Printers and Stations.
Payne. J. (2001) Applications Communication for personal and professional contexts Clerk Publishing,
Kansas, USA
Personal J.C (et al) (2003) Human Communication, the Mc Graw Hill Companies New York, USA
Scott M.D, Brydon S.R (1996) Dimensions of Communication; An introduction Mayfield Publishing
Company, California U.S.A
104 COS 100 Module

Module Summary
Dear student, this module has taken you through COS 100: Communication Skills I. This course
prepares you to be an effective communicator with yourself, your colleagues and within your
academic environment. To this end, it has dealt with the following topics: Introduction to
Communication, Study Skills, Library Skills, Reading Skills, Critical Thinking and Problem
Solving and Examination Skills. These are considered important in the life of a student at the
university. It is our hope that you have enjoyed reading this module. More importantly, that you
have been able to attempt the evaluation questions in the module. Kindly note that the
information in this module constitutes important information on your academic life which you
will need now and even in the future. We strongly advise that you keep the information safe for
continued reference.
We wish you a pleasant academic life at the university as we welcome you to Communication
Skills II
105 COS 100 Module

Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology Faculty of Education and Social Sciences

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Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

Faculty of Education and Social Sciences

Telephone: (056) 30282 P O Box 190

COS 100: COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1

1 COS 100 Module

Publisher: Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

Copyright © Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology

All Rights Reserved

2 COS 100 Module

Prof. Eng. Fred Otieno

3 COS 100 Module

Hazel Adisa Kubebea is a Senior lecturer in the Department of Language

Module Writing Team

MODULE REVIEW TEAM

MODULE EDITORIAL TEAM

MODULE DESIGN TEAM

4 COS 100 Module

5 COS 100 Module

• About the Course ………………………………

• How to use the Module ……………………………… 7

TOPIC 2: Study Skills………………………………………….............….....……. 22

TOPIC 3: Library Skills ………………………………………………………………… 24

Sub-topic 1: The library and its organization

Topic 4: Reading Skills………………………………………………………………… 39

Sub-topic 1: Types of Reading Skills

Topic 5: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving in Communication………......... 48

6 COS 100 Module

Topic 6: Examination Skills ………………………………………………………. 48

7 COS 100 Module

TOPIC 1: Introduction to Communication: ………………………………………

TOPIC 2: Study Skills………………………………………….............….....…….

TOPIC 3: Library Skills …………………………………………………………………

Sub-topic 1: The library and its organization

Topic 4: Reading Skills…………………………………………………………………

Sub-topic 1: Types of Reading Skills:

Topic 5.: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving…………………………………….

Topic 6: Examination Skills ……………………………………………………….

Face-to-face Interaction 3 hours

9 COS 100 Module

By the end of this course, you should be able to:

a) Describe the communication process.

10 COS 100 Module

This topic introduces you to a brief definition of the concept of Communication

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

Sub-topic 5: Communication Ethics and Etiquette

Sub-topic 1: The Communication Process

11 COS 100 Module

Negotiation is used in the action of communication. Through negotiation, we are sharing

Figure 1 below illustrates the communication process.

Fig. 1: Simple Communication Process

Write a one paragraph story illustrating the above communication

12 COS 100 Module

The description of communication process provided is an ideal situation. In some cases,

13 COS 100 Module

b) Phonological level: Phonology refers to the study of sound system of a language. In

14 COS 100 Module

Sub-topic 2: Types of Communication

There are different types of communication namely:

16 COS 100 Module

There are various forms of feedback:

Paraphrasing – attempting to explain what the sender’s statement means.

Attempting to gain additional information, continue the discussion, or clarify a point.

Sub-topic 3: Channels of communication