Factor of safety is the ratio of the stress at failure to the allowable stress.

Its value may vary from one

structure to another and is also depends on the factors such as the cost of unpredictable failure in lives,
dollars, and time, the variability in material properties, degree of accuracy in considering all possible
loads applied to the structure, possible misuse of the structure, and degree of accuracy of considering
the proper response of materials during design, such as assuming elastic response although the material
might not be perfectly elastic.

The failure of a material occurs when a member or structure ceases to perform the function for which it
was designed, it includes fracture, fatigue, buckling, and yielding. Fatigue is the separation of an object
or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. Examples of it are brittle fracture and
ductile fracture. Brittle fracture tend to happen in an instant due to rapid crack propagation, on the
other hand, for ductile fracture, the presence of plastic deformation gives warning that failure is
imminent, allowing preventive measures to be taken. Fatigue is the weakening of a material caused by
cyclic loading that results in progressive, brittle and localized structural damage. An example of it is
breaking a thin steel rod or wire with your hands after bending it back and forth several times in the
same place. Buckling is the failure mode of a structural member experiencing high compressive stresses
that cause a sudden sideways deflection. An example of it are columns that are subjected to high
compressive stresses which results to buckling. Yielding or ductile failure is the failure mode that occurs
when a material is simply loaded to beyond its ultimate tensile strength. An example of it is an
overstretched spring.

Water - 1000 kg/m^3

Bricks - 1600 kg/m^3

Cement - 1440 kg/m^3

Rusting of steel beams due to moisture.

Static load depicts the sustained loading of the structure over a period of time while dynamic loads are
loads that generate shock or vibration in the structure. Three examples of static loads are weight of a
parked car in a parking lot, weight of the furniture in the second floor of a house and self-weight of a
steel beam. Three examples of dynamic loads are, people jumping in a party inside a building, moving
vehicles on a bridge and a gust of wind against a building.

Based on the graph, modulus of resilience covers the area under the curve up to the yield point only,
however, toughness covers the total area of the stress strain curve.

WELL - It is a building certification program managed by the International WELL Building Institute
(IWBI). it focuses mostly on building designs that impact occupant health and well-being. WELL
evaluates buildings on 11 concepts: air, water, nourishment, light, movement, thermal comfort, sound,
materials, mind, community, and innovation.

BEAM PLUS - it is a certification program recognized by the Hong Kong Business Environment Council
that focuses on incorporating sustainability into planning, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of a building. BEAM PLUS has five focuses for assessment: site, material, water and energy
use, indoor environmental quality, and innovation.