WACHEMOUNI

VERSI
TY
COLLEGEOFSOCI
ALSCI
ENCEANDHUMANI
TIES
DEPARTMENTOFHI
STORYANDHERI
TAGEMANAGEMENT
PRE-UNI
VERSI
TYPROGRAMMEFORTHE2014E.
CESSLEEXAMI
NEES

HI
STORYMODULEFORREMEDI
AL

PREPAREDBY
1.HABTEFI
KRE(
MAI
NHI
STORY)
2.MUHAMEDAWALMEHADI(
MAI
NHI
STORY)

EDI
TTEDBY
1.MAMOTUMI
TO(
MAI
NHI
STORYANDMAI
NTOURI
SM)
2.MULATUNI
GUSI
E(MAI
NHI
STORY)

i
 FEBRUARY,
2023
WACHEMO,
ETHI
OPI
A
Descr
ipt
ions
Thi
smodul
eint
endst
oident
if
ycor
ear
easofknowl
edget
hatwi
l
lbei
mpar
tedt
ost
udent
swhoaspi
ret
o
j
oinhi
ghereducat
ioni
nst
it
uti
onsi
nEt
hiopi
a.Focusar
eaoft
hemat
eri
ali
saccour
dingt
onat
ionalout
li
ne
andcur
ri
cul
um.
Asi
sal
way
sthecase,st
udent
swi
l
lbedeal
i
ngwi
thanci
ent
,medi
evalandmoder
nhi
stor
y
ofdi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
hewor
ld.Hi
stor
ical
l
yrel
evantt
hemesar
eal
sopar
toft
hemodul
eandst
andar
d
r
evi
ewquest
ionsar
eal
soi
ncor
por
ated.
Thi
smodul
ewi
l
lbeabasef
orESSLEbuti
tisi
ncompl
eteandi
t
needsbot
hst
udent
sandi
nst
ruct
orsdeal
i
ngwi
thot
herr
elev
antr
efer
ences.
Thi
smodul
eispr
epar
edf
orSt
udent
s,Li
ber
aryandcour
sei
nst
ruct
ors.

I
tiswr
it
tenandedi
tt
ed t
hroughgr
eatdedi
cat
ionofi
nst
ruct
orsofdepar
tmentofHi
stor
yandHer
it
age
managementandt
ir
elessf
oll
owupofcol
l
egeofSoci
alSci
enceandHumani
ti
es.

i
i
Cont
ent
s
Page
CHAPTERONE 1
1.I
NTRODUCTI
ON 1
1.
1.DEFI
NITI
ONANDUSESOFHI
STORY 1
TheI
mpor
tanceofHi
stor
y 1
1.
2Hi
stor
iogr
aphyandHi
stor
ical
Int
erpr
etat
ions 2
1.
2.1 Sour
cesofHi
stor
y 2
1.
2.2Dat
ingi
nHi
stor
y 3
1.
3Feat
ures,
int
erdependenceandachi
evement
sofmaj
orci
vi
li
zat
ions 4
1.
3.1Ci
vi
li
zat
ionsi
nAf
ri
ca 4
1.
3.2.Ci
vi
li
sat
ionsi
nAsi
a 5
1.
3.3.Anci
entCi
vi
li
sat
ionofLat
inAmer
ica 6
1.
3.4.Ci
vi
li
sat
ionsi
nEur
ope 6
Rev
iewQuest
ions 8
CHAPTERTWO 10
2.St
atef
ormat
ionandpopul
ati
onmov
ement
sint
hehor
nofAf
ri
cat
il
lsev
ent
eent
hcent
ury 10

i
i
i
 2.
1Nor
th:Punt
,Dama’
at,
Aksum andZagwe 10
2.
2Sout
handsout
hwest
:Bi
zamo,
Damot,
Enar
yaandGaf
at 13
2.
3Musl
i
m Sul
tanat
es:
Shoa,
Hady
a,Fat
agar
,Bal
i
,If
atandDawar
o 15
2.
4Int
erst
ater
elat
ions:causesoft
heconf
li
ct 17
2.
5.I
nter
nat
ionaldi
mensi
onsoft
hewar 19
2.
6Popul
ati
onMov
ement
s,Expansi
on,
andI
ntegr
ati
oni
nEt
hiopi
a 21
Rev
iewQuest
ions 25
CHAPTERTHREE 30
TheModer
nWor
ldsi
nce1500 30
3.
1.TheRenai
ssance 30
3.
2TheAgeofExpl
orat
ionsandDi
scov
eri
es 30
3.
3TheEngl
ishBour
geoi
sRev
olut
ion 31
3.
4TheFr
enchRev
olut
ion 36
3.
5Amer
icanWarofI
ndependence 44
3.
6.TheI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ionandI
tsconsequences 45
Rev
iewQuest
ions 47
CHAPTERFOUR 51
4.TheGondar
inePer
iodandI
tsSoci
oEconomi
candPol
i
tical
Dev
elopment 51
4.
1TheJesui
tandt
hei
rev
angel
izat
ioni
nEt
hiopi
a 52
4.
2Theascendancyoft
heYej
judy
nast
y 58
4.
3.Decadencewi
tht
her
uli
nghouseandt
heZemeneMesaf
int(
TheEr
aofWar
lor
ds) 59
4.
4.Pol
it
iesofShoa,
Omoandt
heGi
ber
egi
ons,
theEmi
rat
eofHar
arandShi
ekdom ofAssosa 61
Rev
iewQuest
ions 69
CHAPTERFI
VE 71
Af
ri
caandt
heout
sideWor
ldt
o1900s 71
5.
1Genesi
s,dev
elopmentandConsequencesoft
rans-At
lant
icSl
avet
rade 71
5.
2Scr
ambl
eofAf
ri
ca 74
5.
3 Col
oni
alRul
e 77
Rev
iewQuest
ions 78
CHAPTERSI
X 81
6.For
mat
ionoft
hemoder
nst
ateofEt
hiopi
a:1855-1941. 81
6.
1.At
temptatReuni
fi
cat
ionThr
ought
heUseofFor
ce,
1855-
1868 81
6.
2.Moder
nizat
ion 83
6.
3.Def
endi
ngsov
erei
gnt
yandt
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
y 103
6.
3.2I
tal
i
anAggr
essi
onagai
nstEt
hiopi
aandt
heBat
tl
eofAdwa 111
6.
3.2.TheBi
rt
hoft
heI
tal
i
anCol
onyofEr
it
rea 113

i
v
Rev
iewQuest
ions 120
CHAPTERSEVEN 125
Maj
orGl
obalDev
elopment
s 125
7.
1TheTwoWor
ldWar
s 125
7.
2TheFor
mat
ionoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsOr
gani
zat
ion(
UNO) 153
7.
3.Di
vi
sionoft
heWor
ldi
ntoEastandWestandt
heCol
dWar 156
Rev
iewQuest
ions 162
CHAPTEREI
GHT 166
Af
ri
canmov
etowar
dsi
ndependence 166
8.
1Resi
stanceandr
evol
ts 166
8.
2.Pan-
Afr
icani
sm 167
8.
3TheOr
gani
zat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
ty 169
8.4Decol
oni
zat
ionandLi
ber
ati
onst
ruggl
es 173
Ef
fect
sofCol
oni
ali
sm i
nAf
ri
ca 180
Rev
iewQuest
ions 180
CHAPTERNI
NE 183
Et
hiopi
afr
om l
i
ber
ati
ont
orev
olut
ion 183
9.
1.Hai
l
eSel
assi
e'
sComeBackandBr
it
ishDomi
nat
ion 183
9.
2TheEr
it
reanPr
obl
em 186
9.
3Opposi
ti
onsagai
nstHai
l
eSel
assi
e'
sGov
ernment 189
Rev
iewQuest
ions 210

v
 CHAPTERONE
1.I
NTRODUCTI
ON
1.
1.DEFI
NITI
ONANDUSESOFHI
STORY
Thet
erm hi
stor
y,der
ivedf
rom t
heGr
eekwor
dIst
ori
a,means“
inqui
ry”or“
anaccountofone’
sinqui
ri
es.
”
Hi
stor
yist
hest
oryofhumansi
nthepast
.Itt
ell
swhatt
heydi
dandwhathappenedt
othem.Hi
stor
iansar
e
peopl
ewhost
udyandwr
it
eaboutt
hehumanpast
.Theyt
ellust
hathi
stor
ybeganabout5,
500y
ear
sago
whenpeopl
efi
rstbegant
owr
it
e.Howev
er,
thest
oryofpeopl
ebegi
nsi
npr
ehi
stor
y.
Pr
ehi
stor
yist
hest
udyoft
hedi
stantpast
.Pr
ehi
stor
ywast
het
imebef
orepeopl
edev
elopedt
hear
tof
wr
it
ing.Ar
chaeol
ogi
stsandAnt
hropol
ogi
stshav
ewor
kedt
ofi
ndcl
uesaboutear
lyhumanl
i
fe.Onl
yasmal
l
par
tisst
udi
edoft
heseev
ent
sanddeedsoft
hepast
.Thi
ssmal
lpar
t,whi
chi
sst
udi
ed,i
sal
socal
l
ed
hi
stor
y.Unl
i
kepr
ehi
stor
y,howev
er,
thesubj
ectofhi
stor
ymai
nlydeal
swi
tht
hepast
,begi
nni
ngf
rom when
wr
it
ingandr
ecor
dingst
art
ed.Ther
efor
e,hi
stor
iansar
epeopl
ewhost
udyandwr
it
eaboutt
hehumanpast
.
Howev
er,t
heot
herdi
sci
pli
nesdoi
tint
hepr
esent
.Mani
nter
act
swi
tht
henat
uralenv
ironmentt
opr
oduce
hi
spr
imar
yneeds,
suchasf
ood,
shel
ter
,andcl
oth.I
nthepr
oduct
ionpr
ocess,
humanbei
ngsi
mpr
ovedt
he
pr
oduct
iont
ool
sandt
hequal
i
tyandquant
it
yoft
hepr
oducehi
stor
yasabodyofknowl
edgei
sanaccount
oft
hepastbasedonhi
stor
ical
fact
sandev
idence.

Hi
stor
ical
factr
efer
stoi
nfor
mat
ionorst
atementaboutt
hepastt
hati
sknownorpr
ovent
obet
rue.Hi
stor
y
i
sal
laboutpr
ovi
dingani
nter
pret
ati
onofwhathappened,
whyi
thappened,
andhowi
thappenedbasedon
sour
ces.Ther
efor
e,hi
stor
yisbot
hthef
act
soft
hepastandi
nqui
rymadei
ntot
hepastf
act
s.Thus,
hist
ory
i
snotanopi
nionornov
elwr
it
ing.I
dent
if
yinghi
stor
icalf
act
sfr
om opi
nionr
equi
rescr
it
icalt
hinki
ng.
Di
sti
ngui
shi
ngbet
weenf
actandopi
nioni
soneoft
hemosti
mpor
tantski
l
lsy
oucanl
ear
nfr
om st
udy
ing
hi
stor
y.A f
acti
sast
atementt
hatcanbepr
ovedwi
thsuppor
ti
ngi
nfor
mat
ion.Ont
heot
herhand,an
opi
nioni
swhatawr
it
erbel
i
evesbasedonhi
sorherv
iewpoi
nt.Hi
stor
ywr
it
erscankeept
hei
ropi
nionswi
th
f
act
s,butanopi
nioni
ssomet
hingt
hatcannotbepr
oved.
Asabodyofknowl
edge,Hi
stor
yisabr
anchof
soci
alsci
encet
hatdeal
swi
thwhathumanbei
ngsdi
dint
hepast
.Itst
udi
eschangesi
nthedev
elopmentof
pastsoci
eti
es’
pol
i
tical
,economi
c,soci
al,
andcul
tur
all
i
fe.
TheI
mpor
tanceofHi
stor
y
Hi
stor
yhel
psusknow aboutt
hepast
,under
standt
hepr
esent
,andf
oreseef
utur
edev
elopment
s.I
tal
so
al
l
owsust
ounder
standnat
ional
andi
nter
nat
ional
issues,
incl
udi
ngdemocr
ati
cpr
inci
plesandnat
ional
i
sm.
Hi
stor
ycanal
sohel
pusdev
elopt
henecessar
yski
l
lforcol
l
ect
ingandanal
ysi
ngi
nfor
mat
iont
oreach

1
concl
usi
ons.So,
ithel
psusl
i
veourl
i
vesasconsci
ousci
ti
zensact
ivel
ypar
ti
cipat
ingi
nshapi
ngourf
utur
e.
Hi
stor
yteachesuscr
it
icalski
l
ls.St
udy
ingHi
stor
yhel
psst
udent
stodev
elopessent
ialr
esear
chski
l
ls.
Hi
stor
yhel
psusunder
standt
hepr
esentbet
terandpr
ovi
desasenseofi
dent
it
y.I
tal
soent
ert
ainsand
makesusr
eseanabl
ecr
eat
ures.
1.
2Hi
stor
iogr
aphyandHi
stor
ical
Int
erpr
etat
ions
A.Hi
stor
iogr
aphy
Hi
stor
iogr
aphyi
sst
udy
inghow knowl
edgeoft
hepasti
sat
tai
nedandt
ransmi
tt
ed.Thewor
ld’
sol
dest
wr
it
tenHi
stor
ycomesf
rom Chi
na.Ar
chaeol
ogi
stshav
edi
scov
eredr
ecor
dsofChi
neseeHi
stor
ywr
it
ten
bef
ore1000BC.Anci
entGr
eekhi
stor
ians,not
abl
yHer
odot
usandThucy
dides,i
ntr
oducedt
heor
gani
zed
st
udyandnar
rat
ionoft
hepast
.Thet
erm’
sfi
rstusei
sat
tr
ibut
edt
oHer
odot
us(
c.484-
425BC)
,whoi
sof
ten
t
he“
fat
herofhi
stor
y”.Thucy
dideswr
otecr
it
ical
l
yandaccur
atel
y.
Hi
stor
yemer
gedasanacademi
cdi
sci
pli
nei
nthesecondhal
foft
he19t
hcent
ury
,fi
rsti
nEur
opeandt
hen
ot
herpar
tsoft
hewor
ld.Leopol
dVonRanke(
1795-
1886)
,theGer
manhi
stor
ian,
est
abl
i
shedHi
stor
yasan
i
ndependentdi
sci
pli
ne.Rankei
sconsi
der
edt
he“
fat
herofmoder
nhi
stor
iogr
aphy
”forhi
sef
for
ttot
he
sci
ent
if
icst
udyoft
hepast
.Et
hiopi
ahadani
ndi
genoust
radi
ti
onofhi
stor
ywr
it
ing.I
tmadesomechanges
f
rom t
hechr
oni
cl
etr
adi
ti
oni
ntheear
ly20t
hcent
ury
.Hi
stor
yemer
gedasanacademi
cdi
sci
pli
nei
nthe
1960s.Thi
sdecadei
svi
tal
int
hegr
owt
hofEt
hiopi
anhi
stor
iogr
aphy
.
B.Hi
stor
icalI
nter
pret
ati
on
Whathappenedi
nthepasti
sendl
ess.Thus,hi
stor
ianssel
ectt
opi
csorpr
obl
emst
heydesi
ret
ost
udy
.
Hi
stor
yisasy
stemat
icandobj
ect
ivest
udyoft
hepastasaf
iel
dofdi
sci
pli
ne.I
tisasy
stemat
icst
udy
becausehi
stor
icalst
udyf
oll
owsest
abl
i
shedr
ules,pr
ocedur
es,andst
andar
ds.Hi
stor
iansusespeci
fi
c
basi
cmet
hodsi
nwr
it
ingHi
stor
y.Thest
udyofhi
stor
yal
sor
efer
stot
heobj
ect
ivepur
sui
toft
rut
h.I
n
pr
inci
ple,hi
stor
iansar
eexpect
edt
oav
oidbi
ast
houghi
tisdi
ff
icul
tinpr
act
ice.Hi
stor
icali
nter
pret
ati
oni
s
t
hepr
ocessbywhi
chwedescr
ibe,anal
yse,ev
aluat
e,andcr
eat
eanexpl
anat
ionofpastev
ent
s.Webase
ouri
nter
pret
ati
ononpr
imar
yorsecondar
y,orbot
hsour
ces.
1.
2.1 Sour
cesofHi
stor
y
Hi
stor
yist
hest
udyoft
hepastsuppor
tedbyev
idencear
isi
ngf
rom sour
ces.Sour
cesar
epl
l
arsandwher
e
t
her
ear
enosour
ces,t
her
eisnohi
stor
y.Sour
cesar
e,t
her
efor
e,keyt
othest
udyandwr
it
ingofHi
stor
y.
Mostcommonl
y,hi
stor
iansdi
vi
desour
cesi
ntot
wobr
oadgr
oups.Thesear
epr
imar
yandsecondar
y.
Pr
imar
ysour
cesar
ethoset
hatar
econt
empor
arywi
tht
heev
ent
sunderst
udy
.Theyar
eor
igi
nalmat
eri
als
t
hathav
edi
rectr
elat
ionst
otheev
ent
stheydescr
ibe.Exampl
esofpr
imar
ysour
cesar
emonument
s,t
ool
s,
or
nament
s,ar
tef
act
s(coi
ns,f
ossi
l
s,i
nscr
ipt
ions,weapons,ut
ensi
l
s,and r
uinsofbui
l
dings)
,wr
it
ten

2
mat
eri
als(
manuscr
ipt
sorhandwr
it
tenmat
eri
als,chr
oni
cles,di
ari
es,l
ett
ers,mi
nut
es,codesofl
aws,Hol
y
Bi
ble,
Hol
y Qur
a’an,
cour
t r
ecor
ds and admi
nist
rat
ive f
il
es, t
rav
el document
s), phot
ogr
aphs,
j
ewel
l
eri
es,
cl
othes,
maps,
videoandaudi
ovi
sual
mat
eri
als.
Secondar
ysour
cesar
esour
cest
hatcont
aini
nfor
mat
iont
hati
sder
ivedf
rom pr
imar
ysour
ces.I
naddi
ti
on,
t
heypr
ovi
deuswi
thsecond-
handori
ndi
recti
nfor
mat
ion.
Thei
risagapi
nti
meandspacewi
thsour
ces.
Exampl
esofsecondar
ysour
cesar
ear
ti
cles,books,t
ext
books,j
our
nal
s,bi
ogr
aphi
es,or
alt
radi
ti
onsand
publ
i
shedst
ori
esormov
iesabouthi
stor
icalev
ent
s.Or
alt
radi
ti
onsar
ehi
stor
icalsour
cest
ransmi
tt
edby
wor
dofmout
hfr
om onegener
ati
ont
othenext
.Or
aldat
acanqual
i
fyt
heposi
ti
onofpr
imar
yorsecondar
y
sour
cesbasedont
henat
ureofi
nfor
mant
s.Hi
stor
ycanonl
ybewr
it
tenbasedondat
acol
l
ect
edf
rom t
he
abov
ement
ionedsour
ces.Howev
er,what
evert
hesour
ceofi
nfor
mat
ion,i
tshoul
dbesubj
ect
edt
ocr
it
ical
ev
aluat
ion bef
ore bei
ng used as ev
idence.Pr
imar
ysour
ces hav
eto be v
eri
fi
ed f
oror
igi
nal
i
tyand
aut
hent
ici
tyt
o av
oidf
orger
y.Secondar
y sour
ces hav
eto be exami
ned f
ort
he r
eli
abi
l
ity oft
hei
r
r
econst
ruct
ions.Or
aldat
ashoul
dbecr
oss-
checkedwi
thot
hersour
cessuchaswr
it
tendocument
sto
det
ermi
nei
tst
rut
h;becausei
tmayl
osei
tsaut
hent
ici
tyduet
odi
stor
ti
ont
hrought
ime.
1.
2.2Dat
ingi
nHi
stor
y
I
nrecor
dingt
hepast
,hi
stor
ianst
ryt
odet
ermi
net
heexactt
imewhenev
ent
soccur
red.Thati
swhatwe
cal
litdat
ing.Dat
ingi
sfi
gur
esornumer
icalst
atement
sthatexpr
esst
het
imeofhi
stor
icalev
ent
sor
pr
ocesses.Thedur
ati
oni
nti
mecoul
dbeshor
torl
ong.Ther
efor
e,hi
stor
iansdescr
ibet
heper
iodofev
ent
s
byusi
ngcer
tai
nsubdi
vi
sionsoruni
tsoft
ime.Hence,t
hef
igur
ati
veexpr
essi
onexpr
essest
heexactdat
es
onwhi
chev
ent
soccur
red.
Forexampl
e:
 Thebat
tl
eofAdwat
ookpl
aceonMar
ch1,
1896
 Et
hiopi
anRenai
ssanceDam wasi
nit
iat
edonApr
il2,
2011
Dat
ingi
nhi
stor
yisexpr
essedi
nnumer
icalst
atement
ssuchasadecade,cent
ury
,andmi
l
lenni
um.A
decader
efer
stoaper
iodoft
eny
ear
s.Acent
uryi
sonehundr
edy
ear
s,wher
easami
l
lenni
um r
efer
stoa
t
housandy
ear
s.Forexampl
e:
 They
ear
sfr
om 1900t
o1909i
sthef
ir
stdecadeoft
het
went
iet
hcent
ury
 They
ear
sfr
om 1900t
o1999i
sthet
went
iet
hcent
ury
 They
ear
sfr
om 1000t
o1999t
hei
sthesecondmi
l
lenni
um
Thepr
imar
ypur
poseofdat
ingi
nhi
stor
yist
oor
gani
sepastev
ent
saccor
dingt
othei
rsequenceof
occur
rencebyusi
ngcal
endar
s.Thi
siswhatwecal
lchr
onol
ogy
.Thet
wowi
del
yusedcal
endar
swor
ldwi
de
ar
ethe Gr
egor
ian and I
slami
c.Accor
ding t
othe Gr
egor
ian cal
endar
,ti
me i
s count
ed f
orwar
d and

3
backwar
dsf
rom t
het
imeoft
hebi
rt
hofJesusChr
ist
.Thet
imebef
oret
hebi
rt
hofChr
isti
sref
err
edt
oas
BC.(
Bef
oreChr
ist
),wher
east
het
imeaf
tert
hebi
rt
hofJesusChr
isti
sexpr
essedi
nAD(
annoDomi
ni)
,a
Lat
int
erm meani
ng“
TheYearoft
heLor
d”.Et
hiopi
ausesi
tscal
endar
,whi
chbeganonSept
ember11,of
t
heGr
egor
iancal
endar
.TheEt
hiopi
anCal
endari
ssev
ent
oei
ghty
ear
sbehi
ndt
heGr
egor
iancal
endar
.The
I
slami
cCal
endarf
oll
owst
heev
entcal
l
edt
heHi
j
rat
ocountt
imef
orwar
dsandbackwar
ds.TheHi
j
rawas
t
hef
li
ghtoft
hepr
ophetMohammedandhi
sear
lyf
oll
ower
sfr
om t
het
ownofMeccat
oMedi
nai
n622AD.
Hence,BH st
andsf
ort
hey
ear
sbef
oret
heHi
j
ra,andAH r
efer
stot
hey
ear
saf
tert
heHi
j
ra.Hi
stor
ians
somet
imesuseat
imel
i
ne.A t
imel
i
nei
sagr
aphi
crepr
esent
ati
onofev
ent
sinchr
onol
ogi
calor
deror
per
iodsofhi
stor
y.I
tisahor
izont
alorav
ert
icall
i
neupofhi
stor
icalev
ent
s.Hi
stor
icalt
imel
i
neenabl
es
qui
ckv
isual
i
sat
ionandf
ormsacl
eari
deaoft
hepassageoft
imeaboutev
ent
s.
I
naddi
ti
on,
thet
imel
i
neshowsy
ouwhenandwher
eev
ent
shappeneddur
ingt
hedi
scussi
onper
iod.Seet
he
t
imel
i
nebel
ow.Becauseoft
hel
engt
hoft
ime,hi
stor
iansor
gani
set
hehumanpasti
ntosepar
ateper
iods
af
teri
dent
if
ying si
gni
fi
cantdev
elopment
s and gi
vi
ng a l
abelt
o each per
iod.Thi
sis whatwe cal
l
per
iodi
zat
ioni
nhi
stor
y.Accor
dingl
y,hi
stor
yisconv
ent
ional
l
ydi
vi
dedi
ntoanci
ent
,medi
evalandmoder
n
hi
stor
y.
1.
3Feat
ures,
int
erdependenceandachi
evement
sofmaj
orci
vi
li
zat
ions
1.
3.1Ci
vi
li
zat
ionsi
nAf
ri
ca
Anci
entEgy
pt
Theci
vi
li
sat
ionofAnci
entEgy
ptbeganatabout3000BC.I
tfl
our
ishedi
ntheNi
l
eVal
l
ey.Accor
dingt
o
t
radi
ti
on,UpperandLowerEgy
ptwer
euni
fi
edbyMenesar
ound3200BC.Agr
icul
tur
ewast
hebasi
soft
he
Egy
pti
aneconomy
.Thesi
l
tfr
om t
heNi
l
erepl
eni
shedt
hef
ert
il
it
yoft
hesoi
landal
l
owedt
hepr
oduct
ionof
l
argeamount
sofcr
ops.TheEgy
pti
anpeasant
rypr
oducedwheatandbar
ley
.Li
vest
ockal
sof
ormedan
i
ntegr
alpar
toft
heeconomy
.
Tr
adewasanot
heri
mpor
tanteconomi
cact
ivi
tyi
ntheempi
re.TheEgy
pti
anempi
rewasal
argest
ater
uled
byanabsol
uteki
ngcal
l
edaphar
aoh.Theki
ngr
uledEgy
ptt
hroughof
fi
cial
snamedVi
zi
ers.TheVi
zi
ers
act
edasmay
ors,t
axcol
l
ect
orsandj
udges.Thephar
aohswer
eregar
dedaski
ngsandgods.Hewas
bel
i
evedt
obeani
ncar
nat
edgodandwoul
dindeedbeagodaf
terdeat
h,wat
chi
ngov
erEgy
pt’
swel
far
e.
TheEgy
pti
answer
epol
ythei
sts.Theywor
shi
ppedmanygods.Anci
entEgy
pti
ansbel
i
evei
nli
feaf
terdeat
h.
Thepr
ocessofpr
eser
vingt
hebodyi
scal
l
edmummi
fi
cat
ion.Mummi
fi
cat
ionl
aterdev
elopedi
ntoski
l
led
ar
t.As a r
esul
t,anci
entEgy
pti
ans al
so adv
anced i
n medi
cine.Egy
pti
an soci
ety was st
ruct
ured
hi
erar
chi
cal
l
y.

4
Peasant
sunder
tooki
rr
igat
ionalact
ivi
ti
es.Theyal
soconst
ruct
edpal
aces,
massi
vet
empl
esandt
ombsf
or
t
hePhar
aohs.Theset
ombsar
eknownaspy
rami
ds.Anci
entEgy
pti
ansdev
elopedt
hear
tofwr
it
ingknown
ashi
erogl
yphi
csar
ound 3000BC.I
twasacombi
nat
ionofpi
ctogr
ams,i
deogr
ams,phonogr
amsand
det
ermi
nat
ives.Next
,Egy
pti
ansi
ntr
oducedpapy
ruswhi
chwasapaper
-l
ikesubst
ance
Nubi
a
Kushwasaki
ngdom al
ongt
heNi
l
eRi
veri
nwhati
snownor
theast
ernSudan.I
texi
stedasear
lyas2000BC
and l
ast
ed unt
ilabout350AD.Agr
icul
tur
e was an i
mpor
tantbasi
sforsoci
aldi
ff
erent
iat
ion and
st
rat
if
icat
ion.TheNubi
anscul
ti
vat
edcer
eal
s,v
eget
abl
esanddat
esf
rui
t.I
naddi
ti
on,past
oral
i
sm f
ormed
anot
heri
mpor
tantbaseoft
hesubsi
stenceeconomy
.Fi
nal
l
y,t
radewasanot
heri
mpor
tantsour
ceofweal
th
andpowerf
orNubi
anst
ates.Atdi
ff
erentt
imes,Egy
ptconquer
edandr
uledl
owerNubi
a.Absol
uteki
ngs
andqueensr
uledt
heNubi
anst
ates.Nubi
anki
ngsandqueenswer
econsi
der
edl
i
ket
heEgy
pti
anphar
aohs
asdi
vi
ner
uler
s.Nubi
awasal
soknownf
ori
tsmet
alt
echnol
ogy
.Mer
oewasani
mpor
tantcent
erofmet
al
pr
oduct
ssuchasgol
d,copper
,si
l
ver
,andi
ron.Thi
sindi
cat
est
hatMer
oehadaf
lour
ishi
ngi
roni
ndust
ry.
TheKushi
tesconquer
edEgy
ptaboutt
heei
ght
hcent
uryBC.Then,atabout350AD,t
heAksumi
teki
ng,
Ezana,
inv
adedanddest
roy
edMer
oe.

1.
3.2.Ci
vi
li
sat
ionsi
nAsi
a
Mesopot
ami
a
Mesopot
ami
aincl
udedt
hear
eanoweast
ernSy
ria,
Sout
her
nTur
keyandmostpar
tsofI
raq.Theear
li
estof
t
hegr
eatr
iverv
all
eyci
vi
li
sat
ionswast
heci
vi
li
sat
ionofSumer
ianf
oundbet
weent
her
iver
sTi
gri
sand
Euphr
ates.TheSumer
iansbegant
obui
l
dthef
ir
stci
ti
esi
nthewor
ld.Sumer
iansusedmudbr
icksdr
iedi
n
t
hesuni
nthei
rbui
l
dings.Lar
get
empl
esoft
hiski
ndwer
ecal
l
edZi
ggur
ats(
steppedt
ower
s).Thesoi
lof
sout
her
nMesopot
ami
awasv
eryf
ert
il
e,andwi
thf
loodcont
rolandi
rr
igat
ion,l
argecr
opswer
epossi
ble.
TheSumer
ianki
ngshaddi
vi
neaut
hor
it
y.A ki
ngr
uledasr
epr
esent
ati
veofhi
sci
ty’
smaj
orgod.The
Sumer
ianswer
ePol
ythei
sts.Thepl
ough and t
hepot
terwheelf
ir
stappear
ed i
n Mesopot
ami
a.The
Sumer
iansmayhav
ebeent
hef
ir
stt
ousebr
onze.TheSumer
iansdev
elopedawr
it
ingsy
stem ar
ound3200
BC.Thei
rwr
it
ingsy
stem wasknownascunei
for
m.Cunei
for
m wasnotanal
phabetsy
stem.I
nst
ead,
itwas
ahi
ghl
ycompl
exsy
stem ofi
deogr
aphs.Theyal
sodev
elopedmat
hemat
ics,ast
ronomy
,medi
cineand
met
alwor
ks.
Per
sia
Per
siawasal
andt
hati
ncl
udedpar
tsoft
hear
eanowcal
l
edI
ranandAf
ghani
stan.ThePer
sianscal
l
edt
he

5
r
egi
ont
he“
LandofAr
yans”
,fr
om whi
cht
henameI
rani
scoi
ned.ThePer
sianscal
l
edt
hei
rlanguageAr
yan.
Theyest
abl
i
shedady
nast
yknownast
hePer
sianEmpi
re,
thel
argestempi
rei
ntheanci
entwor
ld.Thef
ir
st
Per
sianEmpi
re,f
oundedbyCy
rust
heGr
eatar
ound550BC,becameoneoft
hel
argestempi
resi
nhi
stor
y,
st
ret
chi
ngf
rom Eur
ope’
sBal
kanPeni
nsul
aint
heWestt
oIndi
a’
sIndusVal
l
eyi
ntheEast
.Ital
soi
ncl
uded
par
tsofNor
thAf
ri
ca.Theymadeani
mpor
tantcont
ri
but
iont
ogov
ernment
,law andr
eli
gion.Theybui
l
t
many new r
oads and dev
eloped t
he wor
ld’
sfi
rstpost
alser
vice.Thei
rrel
i
gion was known as
Zor
oast
ri
ani
sm,
foundedbyapr
ophetcal
l
edZor
oast
er
I
ndi
a
Thef
ir
stI
ndi
anCi
vi
li
sat
ionbegani
ntheI
ndusVal
l
eyi
nPaki
stanandWest
ernI
ndi
aatabout2500BCand
r
eachedi
tsapexatabout1500BC.Thepeopl
ehadt
hei
rcount
ing,measur
ing,wei
ghi
ng,andwr
it
ing
sy
stems.Theydugdi
tchesandcanal
sar
oundt
heci
ti
est
oir
ri
gat
ethei
rfar
ms.Thepeopl
etr
adedwi
thone
anot
herandal
sowi
thot
herci
vi
li
sat
ionsl
i
keMesopot
ami
a.TheI
ndusar
ti
sansusedcopperandbr
onzet
o
make t
ool
s,mi
rr
ors,pot
s,and pans and cr
aft
ed gol
d or
nament
s.The anci
entI
ndi
an soci
etywas
hi
erar
chi
cal
l
ydi
vi
dedi
ntodi
ff
erentsoci
asoci
aaccor
dingt
othei
rwor
kandbi
rt
h;i
tgoesbacksome3,
000
y
ear
s.Hi
ndur
eli
gionwasdev
elopedf
rom t
hebel
i
efsoft
heear
lyI
ndo-
Ary
ans.Buddhi
sm emer
gedf
rom
Hi
ndui
sm asar
efor
m mov
ement
.Itspr
eadout
sideofI
ndi
atoSout
hEastAsi
a,Chi
naandJapan.
Chi
na
Theci
vi
li
sat
ionofanci
entChi
naf
ir
stdev
elopedi
ntheYel
l
owRi
verRegi
onofNor
ther
nChi
nai
nthet
hir
d
mi
l
lenni
aBC.Chi
neseeci
vi
li
sat
ionexpandedov
ert
imet
opr
esent
-dayChi
na'
scent
ralandsout
her
npar
ts.
Anci
entChi
neseeci
vi
li
sat
ionr
eachedi
tshei
ghtabout3000BC.i
ntheVal
l
eyofHwangHo.Thef
ir
st
dy
nast
yinChi
nawascal
l
edt
heShangdy
nast
y(c.1700-
1122BC)
.It
sachi
evement
sincl
udedt
hecr
eat
ion
ofbr
onzev
essel
s,warchar
iot
s,andawr
it
ingsy
stem.Atabout1122BC.
,theChondy
nast
yov
ert
hrewt
he
Shangdy
nast
yandest
abl
i
shedi
tsownr
uleov
erChi
naunt
il256BC.Asar
esul
t,Chi
neseel
i
ter
arycl
assi
cs
dev
eloped,and Chi
neseephi
l
osophyemer
ged.Conf
uci
us(
551-
479BC)wast
hemosti
nfl
uent
ialand
r
espect
edphi
l
osopheri
nChi
neseehi
stor
y,andhi
steachi
ngwasConf
uci
ani
sm.Conf
uci
ani
sm t
eachest
he
i
mpor
tanceofawel
l
-or
der
edsoci
etyi
nwhi
chpar
ent
srul
ethei
rchi
l
dren;menl
eadwomenandt
he
educat
edj
udgeor
dinar
ypeopl
e.Theanci
entChi
neseeconst
ruct
edt
heGr
eatWal
lofChi
nat
okeepout
i
nvader
sfr
om cent
ralAsi
a.I
text
endsabout7,
400 Ki
l
omet
ersacr
osssout
her
n Chi
na.TheChi
nese
dev
eloped t
hei
rsy
stem ofwr
it
ing cal
l
ed l
ogogr
aphi
c,whi
ch meantt
heuseofpi
ctor
ialsy
mbol
sto
r
epr
esentwor
dsoft
heChi
neseel
anguage.
1.
3.3.Anci
entCi
vi
li
sat
ionofLat
inAmer
ica
May
a

6
The May
a wer
e Nat
ive Amer
ican peopl
e who dev
eloped a magni
fi
centci
vi
li
sat
ion i
nthe west
ern
hemi
spher
ebef
oret
hecomi
ngoft
heEur
opeans.Thi
sci
vi
li
sat
ionwasati
tspeakf
rom about250-
900AD.
TheMay
apr
oducedr
emar
kabl
ear
chi
tect
ure,pai
nti
ng,pot
ter
y,andscul
ptur
e.Theymadeout
standi
ng
achi
evement
sinast
ronomymat
hemat
icsanddev
elopedanaccur
atey
ear
lycal
endar
.Theydev
elopedan
adv
ancedf
orm ofwr
it
ing.TheMay
awor
shi
ppedmanygodsandgoddesses.TheMay
abui
l
ttal
lpy
rami
ds
ofl
i
mest
onewi
thsmal
ltempl
esont
op.TheSpani
shhadcapt
uredt
hesout
her
npar
toft
hear
eai
nthe16t
h
Cent
ury
.Spani
shdomi
nat
ionoft
heent
ir
eMay
aregi
onwascompl
etedi
nthel
ate17thCent
ury
.
I
nca
TheI
ncawer
eaSout
hAmer
icannat
ivepeopl
e.Theyr
uledoneoft
hel
argestandr
ichestempi
resi
nthe
Amer
icas.TheI
ncaEmpi
rebegant
oexpandatabout1438.I
tincl
udedpr
esent
-dayCol
ombi
a,Ecuador
,
Per
u,Bol
iv
ia,Chi
leandAr
gent
ina.I
tscapi
talwasCusco,i
nsout
her
nPer
u.TheI
ncawer
eski
l
ledi
n
engi
neer
ingandcr
aft
s.Forexampl
e,t
heybui
l
tanet
wor
kofr
oads.I
ncacr
aft
wor
ker
smadef
inear
tef
act
s
f
rom gol
d,si
l
verandot
hermat
eri
als.TheI
ncaal
sowov
efi
necot
tonandwool
l
encl
oth.Spani
shf
orces
conquer
edt
heI
ncaEmpi
reaf
ter1532.
Azt
ecs
TheAzt
ecswer
eanot
herNat
iveAmer
icanpeopl
ewhor
uledapower
fulempi
rei
nMexi
codur
i he15th
ngt
and16th cent
uri
es.Thecent
eroft
heAzt
ecci
vi
li
sat
ionwast
hev
all
eyofMexi
co.TheAzt
ecsempi
re
i
ncl
udedmanyci
ti
esandt
owns.Thel
argestci
tywast
hecapi
talTenocht
it
lan,whi
chst
oodont
hesi
teof
pr
esent
-dayMex
ico-
Cit
y.Agr
icul
tur
efor
medt
hebasi
soft
heAzt
ececonomy
.TheAzt
ecswor
shi
pped
hundr
edsofgodsandgoddesses.Theyusedaf
orm ofwr
it
ingcal
l
edpi
ctogr
aphi
cwr
it
ing.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,
t
hei
rempi
rewasdest
roy
edbyt
heSpani
ardsi
n1521.
1.
3.4.Ci
vi
li
sat
ionsi
nEur
ope
Anci
entGr
eekCi
vi
li
sat
ion
Anci
entGr
eece,whi
chemer
gedabout2500y
ear
sago,wast
hebi
rt
hpl
aceofwest
ernci
vi
li
sat
ion.Gr
eeks'
cul
tur
edev
elopedchi
efl
yinsmal
lci
ty-
stat
escal
l
edPol
is.Aci
ty-
stat
econsi
stsofaci
tyort
ownandt
he
sur
roundi
ngv
il
lagesandf
arml
and.Thebest
-knownci
ty-
stat
eswer
eAt
hensandSpar
ta.Theci
ty-
stat
es
nev
erbecameuni
tedi
ntoanat
ion.Howev
er,t
heyal
lhadacommonl
anguage,r
eli
gionandcul
tur
e.The
Gr
eekscal
l
edt
hemsel
vesHel
l
ensandt
hei
rlandHel
l
as.Gr
eekcul
tur
alachi
evement
swer
eout
standi
ngi
n
t
hecl
assi
cal
per
iodandwer
etheanci
entl
egacyt
oEur
opeandt
hewor
ld.
Someoft
heaccompl
i
shment
swer
e:
 Ar
chi
tect
ure.Thet
empl
eofAt
henai
nAt
hens(
thePar
thenon)i
sthef
inestexampl
e.
 Li
ter
atur
eandDr
ama.TheGr
eeksi
nvent
eddr
ama(
theat
re)
.

7
  Scul
ptur
es.TheGr
eeksmadest
atuesofgodsandher
oesi
nmar
bleandbr
onze.
 Hi
stor
ywr
it
ing.Thet
wogr
eatGr
eekhi
stor
ianswer
eHer
odot
usandThucy
dides.Her
odot
uswr
ote
aboutcount
ri
esandci
vi
li
sat
ionsout
sideGr
eecebuti
sal
soourbestsour
cef
ort
hePer
sianWar
s.
Thucy
dideswr
oteagoodaccountoft
hePel
oponnesi
anWar
,wi
thoutbi
ast
houghhewasAt
heni
an.
 Medi
cine.Hi
ppocr
atesbegant
het
radi
ti
onofmoder
nmedi
cinei
nEur
ope.Hei
dent
if
iedsy
mpt
oms,
cl
assi
fi
eddi
seasesandsuggest
edsensi
bler
emedi
es(
forexampl
e,f
reshai
randagooddi
et)
.
 “
Democr
acy
”,“
Psy
chol
ogy
”,“
Oly
mpi
c”,
and“
Mar
athon”al
lhav
eGr
eekor
igi
n.
 Phi
l
osophy
.Thet
wogr
eat
estphi
l
osopher
sofanci
entGr
eece,whot
aughti
nAt
hens,wer
ePl
ato
andl
aterAr
ist
otl
e.Themoder
nphi
l
osopherBer
trandRussel
lst
ated,“
Plat
oandAr
ist
otl
ewer
ethe
mosti
nfl
uent
ial
ofal
lphi
l
osopher
s,anci
ent
,medi
eval
ormoder
n.”
Anci
entRomanCi
vi
li
sat
ion
TheRomanci
vi
li
sat
ionwasst
art
edi
npr
esent
-dayI
tal
yar
ound753BCont
hehi
l
lsabov
etheRi
verTi
ber
.
Anci
entRomehadasi
gni
fi
canti
nfl
uenceont
hedev
elopmentofwest
ernci
vi
li
sat
ion.Romanl
aw had
becomet
hef
oundat
ionf
ort
hel
egalsy
stemsofmostcount
ri
esi
nWest
ernEur
opeandLat
inAmer
ica.
Romanr
oads,br
idges,andaqueduct
sser
vedasamodelf
orengi
neer
ing.Anci
entRomansbui
l
tpubl
i
c
bat
hsand amphi
theat
res(
out
doorar
enas)
.Themostf
amoust
heat
rei
ntheci
tyofRomewast
he
Col
i
seum.
Aser
iesofki
ngsr
uledanci
entRomeatt
hebegi
nni
ng.TheRomanRepubl
i
cwasest
abl
i
shedi
n509BC
af
tert
heRomannobl
esov
ert
hrewt
heki
ng.Twoel
ect
edof
fi
cial
scal
l
edConsul
sheadedt
hegov
ernmentof
t
her
epubl
i
c.AConsulser
vedf
oronl
yay
ear
.TheSenat
ewast
hemostpower
fulgov
ernmentbodyoft
he
RomanRepubl
i
c,andsenat
orsser
vedf
orl
i
fe.TheRomanRepubl
i
clast
ednear
ly500y
ear
s,unt
il27BC.The
RomanEmpi
rewasest
abl
i
shedaf
tert
her
epubl
i
cwasdest
roy
edbyt
het
went
yyear
sofci
vi
lwar
.The
empi
rel
ast
edunt
ilRomef
ell
in476AD.
Romeexpandedbey
ondI
tal
yinaggr
essi
vewar
s.Thebl
oodi
estwar
sofRomewer
ether
epet
it
ivePuni
c
war
s(264-
146)f
oughtagai
nstCar
thage.Romet
henext
endedi
tsempi
re,st
epbyst
ep,al
lar
oundt
he
Medi
ter
raneanSeaandbey
ond(
Gaul
,whi
chi
smoder
nFr
ance,Br
it
ain,Bel
gium andt
heNet
her
lands)
.The
mai
n di
ff
erence bet
ween t
he Roman Republ
i
cand t
he Roman Empi
re wast
hatt
he f
ormerwas a
democr
ati
csoci
ety
,andt
hel
att
erwasr
unonl
ybyoneman.Al
so,t
heRomanRepubl
i
cwasi
nanal
most
const
antst
ateofwar
,wher
east
heRomanEmpi
re'
sfi
rst200y
ear
swer
erel
ati
vel
ypeacef
ul.Romel
eft
behi
ndani
mpor
tantl
egacy
,whi
chi
tpassedont
othewor
ldi
nit
scul
tur
eandi
nst
it
uti
ons.
Someoft
hemosti
mpor
tantonesi
ncl
udet
hef
oll
owi
ng:
 TheLat
inLanguage.Lat
indev
elopedi
ntot
he“
Lat
inl
anguages”ofEur
opeandLat
inAmer
ica.

8
  Lat
inl
i
ter
atur
e,aut
hor
sli
keCi
cer
o,Caesar(
hewr
otet
hehi
stor
yofhi
swar
s)andt
hepoet
sVer
gil
,
Hor
aceandot
her
s.
 Romanl
awwasr
evi
vedi
ntheEur
opeanMi
ddl
eAges.
 TheJul
i
ancal
endar
,int
roducedbyJul
i
usCaesari
sthebasef
ort
hecur
rentGr
egor
iancal
endar
Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswer
sfr
om t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sapr
imar
yhi
stor
ical
sour
ce?
A.Books B.Tool
s C.Fi
l
ms D.Pl
ays
2.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotkeyel
ementofci
vi
li
zedst
ate?
A.Enf
orci
ngbodyoft
hel
aw(
gov
ernment
)
B.Ri
ghtt
obeenj
oyed(
sov
erei
gnt
y)
C.Mi
ntedcur
rency(
coi
n)t
ocol
l
ectr
evenuef
rom t
err
it
ory
D.Peopl
etober
uled(
popul
ati
on)
3.Thel
andofAr
yanci
vi
li
zat
ioni
ncl
udedwhatar
etoday
A.Tuni
siaandI
fr
iki
ya C.I
raqandAf
ghani
stan
B.Sout
her
nTur
keyI
raqandSy
ria D.Paki
stanandwestI
ndus
4.Or
alt
radi
ti
onsr
efer
s
A.Anyor
aldat
athati
sver
if
iedandest
abl
i
shedast
rue
B.Anyi
mpor
tantst
ori
est
houghtt
othegener
ati
ons
C.Anyhi
stor
ical
account
sthatr
eser
vedi
nAr
chi
vesf
rom gat
her
s
D.Anysi
gni
fi
canti
nfor
mat
ion’
sthathi
stor
iansgetf
rom el
der
s
5.Hi
stor
yisdi
ff
erentf
rom perhi
stor
ybecausehi
stor
yis
A.Af
terar
tofwr
it
ing C.Af
terHagi
ogr
aphyr
ecor
d
B.Af
ternov
elbookswr
it
ten D.Af
terpr
imar
ysour
cescol
l
ect
ed
6.Thef
ir
stnat
iveAmer
icanwhodev
elopedamagni
fi
centci
vi
li
zat
ioni
nWest
ernhemi
spher
ebef
ore
t
hecomi
ngofEur
opeanswer
e
A.I
ncas B.Gr
eeks C.May
as D.Azt
ecs
7.Fr
om 509BConwar
dsAnci
entRomer
uledby
A.Consul
s B.Senat
es C.RomanNobl
es D.RomanRepubl
i
c
8.Thef
inal
blow/
endofMer
oit
icCi
vi
li
zat
ioncamef
rom
A.Egy
pti
ansi
nvasi
on C.Nubi
ansi
nvasi
on
B.Assy
riansi
nvasi
on D.Aksumi
tesi
nvasi
on

9
9.AsDr
avi
dianswer
eforI
ndi
aci
vi
li
zat
ion_
___
___wer
eforMesopot
ami
anci
vi
li
zat
ion
A.Sumer
ians B.Sy
rians C.Phoeni
ciansD.Shonas
10.
Whi
ch one of t
he f
oll
owi
ng anci
entst
ates had adopt
ed some i
mpor
tantel
ement
sfr
om
Mesopot
ami
aandAssy
rians?Theci
vi
li
zat
ion(
of)
A.Per
sia B.Bush/
Nubi
a C.Gr
eece D.I
ndi
a
11.
TheAzet
icsEmpi
recol
l
apsedi
nthe16thcduet
o
A.TheconquestofPor
tuguese C.Thei
nvasi
onofSpani
ards
B.Theexpansi
onofMay
a D.Theci
vi
lwarwhi
chdet
hronedempi
re
12.
Anci
entst
atest
hatwer
erul
edbypr
iest
sar
eknownas
A.Democr
aci
es B.Er
ast
iani
sts C.Theocr
aci
es D.Rel
i
goust
s
13.
Sout
her
nShonapeopl
erebel
l
edagai
nst_
___
andt
heyest
abl
i
shedt
hei
rownnewempi
re
A.Rozwi B.Nguni C.MwenaMut
apa D.Changemi
reE.
None
14.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwas/
isnott
rueaboutSumer
iansci
vi
li
zat
ion
A.Theyi
ntr
oduceddeci
mal
poi
ntandZer
o
B.Theyi
ntr
oduced360Degr
eei
naci
rcl
e,
60mi
nut
einahourand60secondsi
nami
nut
e
C.Theydev
elopedb/
nri
ver
sandl
aidf
oundat
ionf
ormoder
nast
ronomybyanal
yzi
ngst
ars&
pl
anet
s
D.Sumerwast
hei
rlandandLugal
swer
ethei
rrul
ers
E.None
15.Wr
ongaboutachi
evementofanci
entEgy
pti
anci
vi
li
zat
ion
A.Mummi
fi
cat
ion Mechani
sm ofpr
eser
vingcor
ps
B.Py
rami
ds Bur
ial
placeofal
lEgy
pti
ans
C.Bookofdead Rel
i
giousbook,
fori
ncar
nat
ionofl
i
fe
D.Hi
erogl
yphi
cs Compl
exandnon-
alphabet
ical
wri
ti
ngsy
stem ofAnci
entEgy
pti
ans
16.
Puni
cwarwasawart
ookpl
acebet
ween
A.RomansandCar
thi
ogi
ans
B.At
heni
ansandSpar
tans
C.Per
siansandI
rani
ans
D.Gr
eeksandRomans

10
CHAPTERTWO
2.St
atef
ormat
ionandpopul
ati
onmov
ement
sint
hehor
nofAf
ri
cat
il
lsev
ent
eent
h
cent
ury
2.
1Nor
th:Punt
,Dama’
at,
Aksum andZagwe
Punt
:Puntwasananci
entandhi
stor
ical
l
yknownst
atei
ntheHor
nofAf
ri
ca.Howev
er,
Punt
'
sexactl
ocat
ionandt
err
it
ori
all
i
mit
sar
enotwel
lknown.Hi
stor
ianssuggestt
hati
ts
t
err
it
oryf
all
sint
heRedSeaandI
ndi
anOceancoast
alpar
tsofpr
esent
-dayDj
i
bout
i,
Er
it
rea,
Ethi
opi
aandSomal
i
a.Accor
dingt
oanEgy
pti
anhi
erogl
yphi
c,t
hel
andofPuntwas
l
ocat
edsout
hofEgy
ptandhadt
rader
elat
ionswi
thEgy
ptsi
ncet
het
hir
dmi
l
lenni
um BC.
Thet
radewasconduct
edbyl
andandsear
out
es.Egy
pti
ani
nscr
ipt
ionsandpi
ctor
ial
r
eli
efsdat
ingf
rom ear
lyt
imesi
ndi
cat
etheobj
ect
sthatpuntsuppl
i
edt
oEgy
pt.Thel
and
ofPuntwascommer
cial
l
yimpor
tantf
ort
hegoodsi
tpr
ovi
dedt
oEgy
pt.Theseexpor
ts
or
igi
nat
edi
nthei
nter
ior
,whi
chl
aterbecameEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nofAf
ri
ca.Suchgoods
i
ncl
udegol
dundoubt
edl
yfr
om t
heEt
hiopi
ani
nter
iormai
nlyi
nwest
ernEt
hiopi
a.Ot
her
s
suchasi
vor
y,pant
herandot
herski
ns,my
rrhandmy
rrht
rees,ost
ri
chf
eat
her
s,et
c.wer
e
whi
chcoul
dhav
ecomef
rom any
wher
eint
heHor
n.TheEgy
pti
anssenthat
chet
s,dagger
s,
neckl
aces,
etc.

Ot
herpr
e-Aksumi
test
atesemer
gedsi
nce1000BC.Thesei
ncl
udeYeha,Hawl
ti
-Mel
azo,
Addi
-Segl
emeni
,Met
era,
Kaskase,
Col
oe,
etc.Yeha:i
slocat
ed30kmst
othenor
theastof
Aksum andwast
heol
destoft
hesecent
ers.I
tpr
obabl
yemer
gedar
ound1000BCasa
smal
lempor
ium wher
eSout
hAr
abi
anmer
chant
sandt
hei
ragent
sboughtandst
ored
i
vor
y,r
hinocer
oshor
nandot
hercommodi
ti
escomi
ngf
rom t
hei
nter
ior
.Theper
iodofi
ts
pr
osper
it
y(zeni
th)wasf
rom about750t
o500BC.Remai
nsofwal
l
sofsomeofi
ts
bui
l
dingsandst
onemasonr
yandst
il
lst
andi
ngt
empl
eandi
nscr
ipt
ionsi
ndi
cat
eYeha’
s
gl
ory
.
Hawul
tiMel
azo:i
ssi
tuat
edt
othesout
heastofAksum,wher
est
onet
abl
etsi
nscr
ibedi
n
t
her
ect
angul
art
empl
esur
roundedbyawal
ldecor
atedwi
thpai
nti
ngsr
epr
esent
ingher
ds
ofcat
tl
ehav
ebeenexcav
ated.
Damat
:Damatexi
stedj
ustbef
oret
her
iseofAksum.I
tscent
erwasl
i
ttl
etot
hesout
hof
t
he t
own ofAksum.I
nfor
mat
ion aboutt
his st
ate comes f
rom l
ocalar
chaeol
ogi
cal
sour
ces.SomeofDamat
’sr
uler
susedt
heSout
hAr
abi
anpol
i
ticalandr
eli
gioust
it
lecal
l
ed
Mukar
ib.Thi
sindi
cat
est
hatDamathadest
abl
i
shedext
ernalr
elat
ionswi
thSout
hAr
abi
a.
Thi
scanbeunder
stoodf
rom l
ocali
nscr
ipt
ionsl
eftbyoneofi
tsr
uler
sar
oundt
hef
if
th
cent
uryBC.Damatusedt
hepor
tofAdul
i
sont
heRedSeacoast
.

Aksumi
teKi
ngdom
Asdi
scussedabov
e,i
nthepr
e-Aksumi
teper
iod,Aksum wasnott
hef
ir
stst
atet
hat
emer
gedi
nEt
hiopi
a.Thet
erm Aksum wasder
ivedf
rom t
wot
erms,
Ak/
kumeanswat
eri
n
Agawandsum/
shum meanschi
efi
nSemi
ti
c;hence‘
chi
efofwat
er’
.Aksum emer
gedi
n
t
hef
ir
stcent
uryAD wi
thi
tsnucl
eusatAksum.Ther
efor
e,t
heAksumi
teci
vi
li
sat
ion
r
esul
tedf
rom t
hef
usi
onofCushi
ti
candSemi
ti
ccul
tur
es.TheCi
tyofAksum wasi
ts
pol
i
ticaland r
eli
gious cent
er.The ci
tywas ador
ned bysev
eralt
empl
es and st
one
monument
sli
ket
hemonol
i
thi
cst
elesofAksum.Economi
cal
l
y,t
heAksumi
tesdepended
onpl
oughagr
icul
tur
e.Aksum asaki
ngdom wasapower
fulst
atewi
thawel
l
-demar
cat
ed
soci
alst
ruct
ure.Thel
i
nkbet
weent
heki
ngandt
hepeopl
ewast
hepay
mentoft
ri
but
e.
Thest
ateal
sogener
atedconsi
der
abl
eincomef
rom l
ocalandext
ernalt
radeconduct
ed
v
iat
hepor
tofAdul
i
sont
heRedSeacoast
.

Tof
aci
l
itat
etr
ade,
coi
nsofbr
onze,
sil
verandgol
dwer
emi
nted.I
nthef
ir
stt
hreecent
uri
es,
Ge’
ezev
olv
edasawr
it
tenl
anguage.I
nscr
ipt
ionsandcoi
nsshowt
hatSabeanandGr
eek
l
anguageswer
eusedi
nAksumebef
oreGe’
ez.Theuseoft
heGr
eekl
anguagepossi
bly
r
esul
tedf
rom t
radecont
actwi
tht
heGr
eco-
Romanwor
ld.Gr
eekwast
hel
i
ngua-
fr
ancaof
t
he Red Sea and t
he Medi
ter
ranean r
egi
on byt
hen.The Aksumi
tes had bel
i
efsi
n
i
ndi
genousr
eli
gionsbef
oret
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofChr
ist
iani
tyi
nthe4t
hcent
uryAD and
I
slam i
ntheear
ly7t
hIsl
am.Unl
i
kemanyot
hercent
ersofci
vi
li
sat
ionsl
i
keYeha,Mat
tar
a
andAdul
i
s,Aksum cont
inuedt
oexi
stast
hemosti
mpor
tantcent
erofahi
ghl
ydev
eloped
ci
vi
li
sat
ionf
orsev
eral
cent
uri
es.Thi
scanbeat
test
edf
rom t
her
uinsofAksumi
tet
empl
es,
i
ront
ool
s,br
icks,coi
ns,t
ombsandobel
i
sk.I
naddi
ti
on,shi
pbui
l
dingt
echnol
ogywasal
so
wel
lknowni
nthepor
ttownofAdul
i
s.Asar
esul
t,t
hoser
uinshav
ebecomeamongt
he
knownt
our
ism cent
resi
nEt
hiopi
atoday
.
I
nit
ial
l
y,Aksum wasasmal
lst
ate.Bet
weent
hef
our
thandsi
xthcent
uri
es,
Aksumi
teki
ngs
expandedt
heki
ngdom si
gni
fi
cant
lyt
oincl
udet
err
it
ori
esboundedi
ntheeastbey
ondt
he
RedSea(
sout
her
nAr
abi
a),t
heRi
verAbayi
nthewest
,thenor
ther
nti
pofEr
it
reai
nthe
nor
thandnor
thShewai
nthesout
h.Butgr
adual
l
y,Aksum det
eri
orat
ed.Thepr
ocessof
decl
i
nest
art
edwhent
heRedSeahadcomeundert
hecont
rolofMusl
i
m Ar
absandt
he
subsequentdest
ruct
ionoft
hepor
tofAdul
i
sin702AD.Thel
ossoft
radel
edt
othedecl
i
ne
ofi
tseconomi
c,pol
i
ticalandmi
l
itar
ypower
.Int
ernal
l
y,r
ebel
l
ionagai
nstki
ngKal
eb(
r.
500
-535AD)br
okeout
.Kal
ebhadoncecont
rol
l
edSout
hAr
abi
ain525AD.Butt
heSout
h
Ar
abi
ansf
inal
l
yexpel
l
edAksumi
tegov
ernor
sandsol
dier
sfr
om t
hei
rregi
onbet
ween580
and590AD.
Thus,
Aksum l
osti
tscont
roloft
heot
hersi
deoft
heRedSeat
rade.Thedecl
i
necont
inued
i
nthef
oll
owi
ngcent
uri
es,
wit
hint
ernalpol
i
ticaldi
stur
bancescont
ri
but
ingasanaddi
ti
onal
f
act
or.Fi
nal
l
y,unabl
etocheckt
her
ebel
l
ionsoft
heBej
apeopl
efr
om t
henor
th,
Aksumi
te
st
atewaspushedsout
hwar
dtoKubari
nsout
her
nTi
gray
,andbyt
hel
ateni
nthcent
ury
,it
t
ookr
efugei
nthear
eapr
edomi
nant
lyi
nhabi
tedbyt
heAgawpeopl
e.
ZagweDy
nast
y
TheZagwedy
nast
ycamef
rom t
hel
ocalAgawr
uli
ngcl
assi
nLast
a,par
toft
heAksumi
te
Empi
re.TheZagwedy
nast
ywasf
oundedar
ound1150ADbyMer
aTekl
eHay
mnot
.He
est
abl
i
shedanewcapi
talatAdef
a(Roha)i
nLast
a.Thef
oundi
ngoft
heZagwedy
nast
yis
notanewki
ngdom,buti
tisal
laboutapol
i
ticalpowershi
ft
.Theeconomyoft
heZagwe
dy
nast
ywasbasedonagr
icul
tur
e.Tr
adebr
oughtaddi
ti
onal
incomet
othest
ate.TheZei
l
a
por
twast
hemai
nout
letdur
ingt
heZagwet
ime.TheDahl
akI
slandsont
heRedSeacoast
ser
vedasanout
let
.TheZagwedy
nast
yisknowni
nEt
hiopi
anhi
stor
yfori
tsr
emar
kabl
e
ar
chi
tect
uralachi
evement
.Thi
swast
het
echnol
ogyofbui
l
dingt
hemonol
i
thi
crock-
hewn
Chur
chesatRoha;l
ater
,thecapi
talwasr
enamed Lal
i
bel
a.Thesur
viv
ing pi
ecesof
ev
idencear
etheel
evenr
ock-
hewnchur
chesconst
ruct
eddur
ingt
her
eignofEmper
or
Lal
i
bel
aint
hef
ir
sthal
foft
het
hir
teent
hcent
ury
.
Thepr
esenceoft
hesebeaut
if
ulChur
chesmadet
het
ownofLal
i
bel
aoneoft
hemost
i
mpor
tantcent
ersofl
ear
ningandChr
ist
iancul
tur
einEt
hiopi
a.Manyf
act
orscont
ri
but
ed
t
othedownf
alloft
heZagwedy
nast
y.Thef
ir
stonewast
hepr
obl
em ofsuccessi
ont
othe
t
hroneamongt
heZagwepr
inces.Mostoft
het
ime,t
heyset
tl
edt
hisi
ssuebyf
orceof
ar
ms.Howev
er,t
heycoul
dnotbeabl
etoar
rangeasmoot
hsuccessi
ont
othet
hrone.
Secondl
y,t
her
ehadbeenst
rongopposi
ti
ont
otheZagweki
ngst
hroughoutt
hei
rrul
e.Thi
s
opposi
ti
onwasf
rom t
her
egi
onsofTi
grayandAmhar
a.Par
ti
cul
arl
yinTi
grai
,thel
eadi
ng
cl
ergy member
s oft
he Chur
ches ofAksum and Debr
e Damo spr
ead ant
i-
Zagwe
pr
opagandar
elat
edt
othel
egendoft
heQueenofShebaandKi
ngSol
omonofI
srael
.
Hence,t
heZagweki
ngswer
eseenasi
l
legi
ti
mat
esuccessor
sofAksum.Thei
ntent
ion
behi
ndt
hisl
egendwast
her
est
orat
ionoft
heanci
entdy
nast
yofAksum.Howev
er,
despi
te
t
hest
rongopposi
ti
oni
nTi
grai
,thei
nit
iat
ivet
oov
ert
hrow t
heZagwecamef
rom t
he
Amhar
aregi
on.TheAmhar
aregi
onwasl
ocat
edt
othesout
hofLast
a,ar
oundsout
her
n
Wol
l
o andnor
ther
nShawa.AnAmhar
achi
efYekuno Aml
akor
gani
sedamov
ement
agai
nstt
heZagwer
ule.Hedef
eat
edYet
bar
ek,t
hel
astZagweki
ng,ont
hebat
tl
efi
eldi
n
1270AD.YekunoAml
akest
abl
i
shedageneal
ogyt
hatmadehi
m adescendantoft
hel
ast
Aksumi
teki
ng,Di
lNaod,who wasdeposedbyt
heZagwedy
nast
yar
ound1150AD.
Yekuno Aml
ak(
r.1270-
1285)decl
ared hi
msel
fan Emper
orand,att
hesamet
ime,
became t
he r
est
oreroft
he so-
cal
l
ed "
Sol
omoni
c dy
nast
y".Yekuno Aml
ak and hi
s
successor
susedt
hisl
egendasani
deol
ogi
calar
mtol
egi
ti
miset
hei
rpol
i
ticalpower
.The
t
radi
ti
onofi
dent
if
yingt
heChr
ist
ianki
ngsofEt
hiopi
awi
thanci
entI
sraelcont
inuedunt
il
1974.
2.
2Sout
handsout
hwest
:Bi
zamo,
Damot,
Enar
yaandGaf
at
TheKi
ngdom ofBi
zamo
Theki
ngdom ofBi
zamoexi
stedont
hesout
her
nbendoft
heAbbayr
iverj
ustopposi
tet
o
t
hepr
esentdi
str
ictofWambar
mai
nsout
her
nGoj
j
am.Wedonotknowwhent
hest
ateof
Bi
zamocamei
ntoexi
stence.Buti
texi
stedunt
ilt
heendoft
hesi
xteent
hcent
uryundert
he
cont
roloft
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom.Themedi
evalpopul
ati
onofBi
zamoconsi
tedoft
he
speaker
soft
heOmot
icl
anguagef
ami
l
y.Amongt
hem t
hepr
esentdayShi
nashaet
hni
c
gr
oupwasoneoft
heset
tl
ersoft
heki
ngdom.Thepopul
ati
onofBi
zamowasconst
ant
ly
har
assedbyt
heChr
ist
ianki
ngswhol
edoccasi
onalsl
aver
aidsi
ntot
heki
ngdom.Thi
s
r
educedt
hepopul
ati
onofBi
zamo.Ont
hear
ri
valoft
heMechaOr
omot
owar
dst
heendof
t
hesi
xteent
hcent
ury
,par
toft
her
emai
ningpopul
ati
onf
ledacr
osst
heAbbayi
ntoGoj
j
am.
Par
toft
hepopul
ati
onwhi
chr
emai
nedbehi
ndr
etr
eat
edf
urt
herwestt
othel
owl
ands,
whi
l
ether
emai
ningpar
twasassi
mil
atedbyt
heMechaOr
omo.
TheKi
ngdom ofDamot
Damotwasoneoft
heol
destandst
rongestst
atesi
ntheEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Formostofi
ts
hi
stor
yDamotr
oughl
yoccupi
edt
hewest
ernandsout
hwest
ernpar
toft
heEt
hiopi
an
r
egi
on.Theeast
ernpar
toft
hest
atepr
obabl
yincl
udedwhati
snow t
het
err
it
oryoft
he
Regi
onalSt
ateofBeniShangul
-Gumuz
.Thenor
ther
nfr
ont
ieroft
heki
ngdom st
ret
chedt
o
t
hepr
esentdaynor
ther
nShewa,andDamotal
soi
ncl
udedt
hecent
ralandsout
her
npar
ts
ofShewa.A v
astt
err
it
orysout
hoft
heAbbaygor
gewasal
sopar
toft
het
err
it
oryof
Damot
.Wedonotknowwhent
heki
ngdom ofDamotcamei
ntoexi
stence.Howev
er,t
he
hi
stor
yoft
heki
ngdom goesbackt
otheAksumi
teper
iod.Att
hatt
imeDamotwasknown
f
ori
tsgol
dwhi
chr
eachedt
hemar
ketofAksum andt
hepor
tsoft
heRedSeacoast
.
Dur
ingt
hesout
hwar
dpol
i
ticalor
ient
ati
onoft
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom ofAksum i
ntheni
nth
andt
ent
hcent
uri
es,i
tseemst
hatt
heki
ngdom ofDamothadputupast
rongchal
l
enge
agai
nstt
hef
urt
herexpansi
onoft
heChr
ist
ianst
ate.

Thedomi
nanceofDamoti
ntheEt
hiopi
anr
egi
oncont
inueddur
ingt
heZagweper
iod.
Dur
ingt
heper
iod,Musl
i
m andChr
ist
iant
radi
ngcommuni
ti
esdependedont
heki
ngdom
ofDamotf
ort
hesour
cesoft
radei
tems.Fr
om Damott
radei
temssuchasgol
d,gi
nger
andsl
aveswer
eexpor
tedt
ocount
ri
esasf
arasAr
abi
a,Per
sia,I
ndi
a,Egy
ptandGr
eece.
Thecommuni
ti
esser
vedasmi
ddl
emenbet
weent
hecoastandt
heki
ngdom.Ther
efor
e,
t
radei
nfl
uencedt
hepat
ter
noft
hei
rrel
ati
onwi
tht
heki
ngdom ofDamot
.Int
hisr
espect
,
commoni
nter
estpr
omot
edt
hemai
ntenanceofpeacef
ulr
elat
ionsf
ormostoft
het
ime.
Butt
her
e wer
e occasi
onswhen Damoti
nter
fer
ed i
nthe commer
cialaf
fai
rsoft
he
communi
ti
es.Onsuchoccasi
onst
hecommuni
ti
esputpr
essur
eont
heZagweki
ngst
o
i
nter
fer
eont
hei
rbehal
f.Undersuchapr
essur
e,oneZagweki
ngl
edami
l
itar
yexpedi
ti
on
agai
nstDamott
owar
dst
heendoft
het
wel
ft
hcent
ury
.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,theexpedi
ti
on
endedi
ncompl
etedef
eatoft
heZagweki
ng.Thi
sshowst
hatDamotwasav
iabl
est
ate
ev
enbyt
hatt
ime.Amongt
heki
ngsofDamot
,Mot
alamii
sconst
ant
lyment
ionedi
nthe
r
ecor
dsoft
heper
iod.Damotseemst
ohav
eat
tai
nedt
hepeakofi
tspowerdur
ingt
he
r
eignoft
hiski
ng.Onei
ndi
cat
iont
othi
sisaf
ier
cest
ruggl
ebet
weenMot
alami
andYekuno
-
Aml
ak.Thest
ruggl
ewasov
ert
hecont
rolofShewa.I
nthest
ruggl
eMot
alamiwasf
inal
l
y
def
eat
ed.Af
tert
hisdef
eatMot
alamiwasconv
ert
edt
oChr
ist
iani
tywhi
chmar
kedt
he
begi
nni
ngofagr
owi
ngChr
ist
iani
nfl
uencei
nDamot
.ButDamotcont
inuedi
tsr
esi
stance
f
rom l
andst
othesout
hoft
heGi
beRi
verunt
il1316,whenAmdeSey
onf
inal
l
yannexed
t
heki
ngdom.Subsequent
ly,Damotbecamet
het
ri
but
aryoft
heChr
ist
iam ki
ngdom and
cont
inuedt
oexi
stupt
othet
imeoft
heexpansi
onoft
heMechaOr
omoi
nthear
ea
t
owar
dst
heend oft
hesi
xteent
hcent
ury
.Ont
hear
ri
valoft
heMecha,par
toft
he
popul
ati
onofDamotf
ledacr
osst
heAbbayr
ivert
osout
her
nGoj
i
am.Thedi
str
ictt
hey
set
tl
edatt
het
imei
sst
il
lcal
l
edDamot
.
TheKi
ngdom ofEnar
ya
Themedi
evalki
ngdom ofEnar
yawasl
ocat
edi
mmedi
atel
ytot
henor
thoft
heGoj
ebRi
ver
andwestoft
heuppercour
seoft
heGi
ber
iver
.Wedonotknowwhent
hisst
atecamei
nto
exi
stence.ButEnar
yai
sment
ionedf
ort
hef
ir
stt
imei
nthedocument
soft
heChr
ist
ian
ki
ngst
owar
dst
heendoft
heAksumi
teper
iod.Chr
ist
iani
nfl
uencehadr
eachedEnar
yaas
ear
lyast
hemi
ddl
eoft
het
hir
teent
hcent
ury
.Subsequent
ly,t
heChr
ist
iani
nfl
uencegr
ew
st
rongandf
inal
l
y,Enar
yabecamet
het
ri
but
aryoft
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom dur
ingt
her
eign
ofAmdeSey
on.Enar
yawast
hemai
nsour
ceoft
radei
temsf
ort
het
radeoft
her
egi
on.
Abov
eal
l
,pur
egol
dfr
om Enar
yawasexpor
tedt
othecount
ri
esasf
arasEgy
pt,Gr
eece
andRome.Enar
yacont
inuedt
oser
veasani
mpor
tantsour
ceoft
radei
tems,par
ti
cul
arl
y
f
orgol
d,upt
othesi
xteent
hcent
ury
.

Thel
aterhi
stor
yofEnar
yawascl
osel
yrel
atedt
othehi
stor
yoft
heOr
omopeopl
e.Enar
ya
wasoneoft
heki
ngdomswhi
chst
rongl
yresi
stedt
heexpansi
onoft
heMechaOr
omoi
n
t
hear
eabegi
nni
ngf
rom t
heendoft
hesi
xteent
hcent
ury
.Enar
yar
esi
stedt
heMecha
Or
omof
ormor
ethanacent
ury
.Fi
nal
l
y,i
twasdef
eat
edbyoneoft
hecl
ansoft
heMecha
cal
l
edLi
mmu.Subsequent
ly,t
heconquer
orst
ookt
henameLi
mmu-
Enar
ya,si
gni
fyi
nga
compl
eteassi
mil
ati
onoft
hepeopl
eofEnar
yat
otheMechaOr
omo.
Gaf
at
Theor
igi
nalhomel
andoft
heGaf
atl
i
essout
hofAbay(
BlueNi
l
e)Ri
veradj
oini
ngDamot
.
I
tisnotcl
earf
rom t
hescant
yrecor
dsi
nEt
hiopi
anchr
oni
cleswhet
hert
heGaf
atf
ormeda
“
stat
e”or“
kingdom,
”ornot
,butGaf
atmount
ainspr
ovi
dedar
ichsour
ceofgol
d.
2.
3Musl
im Sul
tanat
es:Shoa,
Hady
a,Fat
agar
,Bal
i,
IfatandDawar
o
TheSul
tanat
eofShewa
Thei
ntr
oduct
ionofI
slam t
otheHor
nwasf
oll
owedbyt
heemer
genceofaser
iesof
Musl
i
m st
atessi
ncet
heni
nthcent
uryAD.Thenor
ther
nEt
hiopi
ant
radedecl
i
nedduet
o
t
heAr
abcont
roloft
heRedSeaandt
hedest
ruct
ionofAdul
i
s.Thus,
Zei
l
a,ont
hecoastof
t
heGul
fofAden,emer
gedasapr
imar
ypor
tforsout
h-east
ernEt
hiopi
ant
rade.Thi
spor
t
becamet
hemostcr
uci
algat
ewayf
orI
slam i
ntot
heHor
nofAf
ri
ca.Sev
eralMusl
i
m st
ates
wer
efor
medal
ongt
heZei
l
atr
ader
out
e,whi
chl
i
nkedt
hepor
twi
tht
her
ichi
nter
ior
.Af
ter
t
hespr
eadofI
slam si
ncet
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heei
ght
hcent
ury
,vi
abl
eMusl
i
m communi
ti
es
andst
ateshadbeenest
abl
i
shedatmanyl
ocat
ions,especi
all
yal
ongt
hemai
ntr
ade
r
out
es f
rom Zei
l
a and i
ts manybr
anches penet
rat
ing t
he i
nter
ior
.The f
ir
stt
o be
est
abl
i
shedwast
hesul
tanat
eofShawai
n896AD.Si
ncet
hef
ounder
soft
hissul
tanat
e
cl
aimeddescentf
rom t
heMakhzunmi
tecl
anofsout
her
nAr
abi
a,t
hedy
nast
ybecame
knownast
heMakhzunmi
tedy
nast
y.I
tsl
ocat
ionwasi
nthehotl
owl
andr
egi
onont
hel
eft
oft
heAwashRi
ver
.Ther
uli
ngf
ami
l
yoft
hisst
atehadani
nter
nalpowerst
ruggl
ewhi
ch
l
aterl
edt
oit
sfi
nal
decl
i
ne.
I
fat
I
fatemer
gedt
othesout
hofShewa,f
oundedbyUmarWal
asma(
hencet
heWal
asma
dy
nast
y)i
n1285AD,i
twoul
dhav
edest
roy
edt
heol
derMakhzumi
tedy
nast
y.I
nst
ead,i
t
becamet
hest
rongestMusl
i
m sul
tanat
eint
her
egi
on.I
fatcont
rol
l
edav
astt
err
it
ory
t
hroughwhi
cht
hel
ong-
dist
ancet
rader
out
esofZei
l
apassed.Ther
efor
e,mostoft
he
pr
ofi
tabl
eZei
l
atr
adecameundert
hecont
rolofI
fat
.Ev
ent
ual
l
y,I
fatbecamet
hest
rongest
r
ivaloft
heChr
ist
ianhi
ghl
andst
ate.Si
nce1270t
heChr
ist
ianhi
ghl
andst
atehadal
so
dev
elopedagr
eati
nter
esti
ntheZei
l
atr
adeandt
rader
out
es.Ther
efor
e,t
heneedt
o
cont
rol
theZei
l
atr
adebecamet
hemai
nsour
ceofconf
li
ctbet
weent
het
wost
ates
TheSul
tanat
eofHadi
ya
Hadi
yawasoneoft
hemedi
evalMusl
i
m sul
tanat
esoft
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Wedonot
know whent
hesul
tanat
ecamet
opower
.Howev
er,t
hesul
tanat
eisment
ionedf
ort
he
f
ir
stt
imedur
ingt
her
eignofAmdeSey
on.Att
het
imet
hesul
tanat
ewasoneoft
he
t
ri
but
ari
esoft
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.Amongt
heMusl
i
m sul
tanat
es,Hady
aoccupi
edt
he
mostwest
erl
yter
ri
tor
yoft
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Thewest
ernf
ront
ier
sofHady
atouched
t
heGi
beRi
ver
.Int
hesout
hthet
err
it
oryoft
hesul
tanat
eseemst
ohav
est
ret
chedupt
o
LakeAwasa,
whi
l
eint
henor
thi
text
endedal
i
ttl
etot
henor
thofLakeZway
.Onepr
obl
em
i
nthehi
stor
yoft
hemedi
evalMusl
im sul
tanat
esi
slackofi
nfor
mat
ionont
heet
hni
c
i
dent
it
yoft
hei
rpopul
ati
on.I
nthecaseofHadi
ya,i
tisknownt
hatt
heancest
orsoft
he
pr
esentHadi
yaet
hni
cgr
oupwer
eamongt
heor
igi
nalset
tl
ersoft
hesul
tanat
e.I
tisal
so
suggest
edt
hatt
heancest
orsoft
hepr
esentet
hni
cgr
oupsl
i
keBur
ji
,Kambat
ta,
Tambar
o,
and par
toft
he Hal
aba peopl
e const
it
uted t
he medi
evalpopul
ati
on ofHadi
ya.
The
economyofHadi
yasul
tanat
ewasmai
nlydependedonmi
xedf
armi
ng,
whi
l
esomepar
tof
t
hepopul
ati
onl
edapur
elypast
orall
i
fe.Tr
adeal
socont
ri
but
edt
otheeconomyoft
he
st
ate.Hady
awast
hemai
nsour
ceofsl
avesf
ort
her
egi
on.Thesul
tanat
eofHady
a
possessedr
ichnat
uralr
esour
cesandmai
nlyi
twasknownf
ori
tsweal
thi
nhuman
r
esour
ce.Becauseoft
hist
heChr
ist
ianki
ngsgav
emuchat
tent
iont
oHadi
yaanddef
eat
ed
i
tint
heear
ly1330sr
educi
ngi
ttoat
ri
but
aryst
atus.Nev
ert
hel
ess,Hadi
yahadal
way
s
causedpr
obl
em t
otheChr
ist
ianki
ngs.Ther
uler
shadt
het
it
leofgar
ad.Thegar
ads
r
ebel
l
ednow andt
henagai
nstt
heChr
ist
ianski
ngs.Asar
esul
t,t
heChr
ist
ianki
ngs
occasi
onal
l
yledpuni
ti
veexpedi
ti
onst
oret
aint
het
ri
but
aryst
atusofHadi
ya.Theyev
en
wentt
otheext
entofsecur
ingt
hel
oyal
tyoft
her
uler
sofHadi
yabymeansofpol
i
tical
mar
ri
age.Thedaught
erofawel
l
-knownHadi
yagar
adwasmar
ri
edt
oEmper
orZar
’a
Ya’
eqob and became Queen El
leni
,famous women i
nthe pol
i
tics oft
he Chr
ist
ian
Ki
ngdom.Bai
de Mar
iyam and Li
bne Dengelwer
e al
so of
fi
cial
l
ymar
ri
ed t
o Hadi
ya
pr
incesses.Thi
spol
i
cywasf
oll
owedbyt
heot
hermember
soft
heChr
ist
ianr
uli
ngcl
ass.
Yet
,thi
sdy
nast
icmar
ri
agedi
dnotmoder
atet
hemi
l
itancyofHadi
ya.Thel
astr
ebel
l
ionof
Hadi
yawasdur
ingt
her
eignofSar
saDengel(
r.
1563-
1597)whot
otal
l
yabandonedt
he
sul
tanat
ebecauseoft
hei
ncr
easi
ngpr
essur
efr
om t
heexpandi
ngMechaOr
omo.

TheSul
tanat
eofBal
i
Bal
iwasanot
herMusl
i
m sul
tanat
eoft
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.I
tsr
uler
sal
sousedt
het
it
leof
gar
ad.WedonotknowwhenBal
iemer
gedasast
ate.Thesul
tanat
eisment
ionedi
nthe
chr
oni
cles oft
he Chr
ist
ian ki
ngs begi
nni
ng f
rom t
he f
our
teent
h cent
ury
,when t
he
sul
tanat
ecameundert
hecont
rolofAmdeSey
on.Si
ncet
hent
hegar
adofBal
ipai
dtr
ibut
e
t
otheChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom upt
othesi
xteent
hcent
ury
.Bal
ioccupi
edt
hemostsout
her
ly
t
err
it
oryoft
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Exceptont
hesout
her
nfr
ont
ier
,Bal
iwassur
roundedby
v
ari
ousMusl
i
m sul
tanat
es.Nor
thofBal
iexi
stedt
hesul
tanat
esofDawar
oandShar
ka.I
n
t
hewestexi
stedHadi
ya,
whi
l
etheeast
ernf
ront
ierwasoccupi
edbyt
hesul
tanat
eofAdal
.
Thesout
her
nli
mitoft
het
err
it
oryofBal
ii
snotcl
ear
lyknown
Themedi
evalpopul
ati
onofBal
iseemst
ohav
econsi
stedofdi
ff
erentet
hni
cgr
oups.The
ancest
orsoft
hepr
esentSi
damaet
hni
cgr
oupwer
eoneoft
heset
tl
ersoft
hesul
tanat
e.
Somegr
oupsoft
heOr
omopeopl
eal
sooccupi
edt
hehi
ghl
andsofBal
i
.
TheSul
tanat
eofDawar
o
Dawar
owassi
tuat
edSout
hofShoa,bor
der
ingonI
fatont
her
ightbankoft
heAwash,
st
ret
chi
ng Sout
hwar
dsasf
arast
he r
iverWebiwhi
ch mar
ked t
he bor
derwi
tht
he
nei
ghbour
ingst
ateofBal
i
.Dawar
other
efor
e,cor
respondedr
oughl
ytopr
esentAr
sir
egi
on.
Theancest
orsoft
hepr
esentSi
damaet
hni
cgr
oupar
eknownt
ohav
eset
tl
edi
nthe
t
err
it
oryofDawar
o.Thepr
esent
-dayDawr
opeopl
eal
sot
racet
hei
ror
igi
ntoDawar
o.
Accor
dingt
othei
rtr
adi
ti
on,
theywer
efor
cedt
omov
etot
hei
rpr
esentt
err
it
oryar
oundt
he
OmoRi
verbecauseoft
hewar
sofI
mam AhmadI
brahi
m.
TheSul
tanat
eofFat
agar
Thesul
tanat
eofFat
agaremer
gedar
oundt
hemi
ddl
eoft
het
hir
teent
hcent
ury
.The
sul
tanat
ewasl
ocat
edbet
weenLakeZwayi
nthesout
handt
hepr
esentt
ownofBi
shof
tu
(
Debr
eZei
t)i
nthenor
th.Thet
err
it
oryofFat
agari
ncl
udedmor
eorl
esst
hepr
esent
di
str
ict
sofMi
njar
,Shenkor
aandAda'
ainShewa.Fat
agaral
sobecamet
het
ri
but
aryoft
he
Chr
ist
ianKi
ngdom dur
ingt
her
eignofAmdeSey
on.I
twasl
aterr
educedt
oapr
ovi
nce
di
rect
lyr
uledbyt
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.Si
ncet
hen,
thepr
ovi
ncebecamet
hecent
eroft
he
ki
ngdom f
oral
mostacent
ury
.
2.
4Int
erst
ater
elat
ions:causesoft
heconf
li
ct
Rel
ati
onshi
pBet
weent
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom andt
heSul
tanat
eofAdal
,1520s-
1559
Thepr
imar
ysour
ceofconf
li
ctamongpeopl
esandst
atesi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nof
Af
ri
cawast
hedesi
ret
omonopol
i
zel
ong-
dist
ancet
rade.Long-
dist
ancet
radewasa
sour
ceofgr
eatweal
th.I
tal
soser
vedasal
i
nkamongt
hepeopl
esofEt
hiopi
a.Thedesi
re
f
ort
err
it
ori
alexpansi
onwasal
soanot
hersour
ceofr
ival
ryamongt
hepeopl
esandst
ates
oft
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Ther
efor
e,t
hedesi
ref
ort
hemonopol
yofl
ong-
dist
ancet
radeand
t
err
it
ori
alexpansi
onpr
ovedt
obesour
cesf
ori
nter
-st
ateconf
li
cts.Ther
evi
valofl
ong-
di
stancet
radecausedcompet
it
ionandst
ruggl
eforcont
rolov
ert
het
rader
out
esbet
ween
t
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdomsandt
heMusl
i
m pr
inci
pal
i
ties.Thi
swasf
oll
owedbyaser
iesof
war
s,depi
ctedaswar
sforr
eli
gioussupr
emacyi
nhi
stor
icalaccount
sofChr
ist
ianand
Musl
i
m cl
eri
cs.Whi
l
emal
admi
nist
rat
ionandexpl
oit
ati
onoft
heper
ipher
ymademi
l
itar
y
mobi
l
izat
ionpossi
ble,
rel
i
gionpr
ovi
dedi
deol
ogi
calj
ust
if
icat
ionf
ort
hewar
s.Howev
er,
the
i
nter
esti
ncont
rol
l
ingt
rader
out
esl
ayatt
hehear
toft
heconf
li
ctt
hatcont
inuedf
ort
wo
cent
uri
es.Thewarcul
minat
edi
nthey
ear
sfr
om 1529t
o1543.

I
nthebegi
nni
ng,
theZei
l
atr
ader
out
ewasundert
hecont
roloft
heMusl
i
m st
ates,
mai
nly
I
fat
.Howev
er,i
n 1332 I
fatwas def
eat
ed by t
he Chr
ist
ian ki
ngdom and l
osti
ts
i
ndependence.Thusmonopol
yov
ert
her
out
ewentt
o AmdeSey
on.To r
egai
nthei
r
i
ndependenceandcont
rolov
ert
heZei
l
atr
ader
out
eHaqadi
nIIandSa'
adadi
nret
reat
edt
o
t
heHar
arpl
ateauandsetupanewMusl
i
mresi
stancebasei
nthel
atef
our
teent
hcent
ury
.
Asapr
eludet
othi
sconf
li
ctamongt
heMusl
i
m Sul
tanat
es,i
nter
nalst
ri
fe,cor
rupt
ionand
anar
chywer
eint
ensi
fi
ed,andnew l
eader
shi
pwasur
gent
lycal
l
edf
or.Suchl
eader
shi
p
camef
rom I
mam Ahmedi
bnI
brahi
m al
-Ghazi
.Theor
igi
nofI
mam Ahmed,
alsonamedas
“
thel
eft
-handed”i
sobscur
e.Hewasbor
natHubeti
nbet
weenDi
reDawaandJi
gji
gaand
r
aisedbyhi
sdev
outMusl
i
m ki
ninoneoft
heoasesont
her
out
etoZei
l
a.
Af
terI
mam Ahmadcamet
opower
,thebat
tl
eswer
enotj
ustf
oughtt
ocont
rolt
hel
ong-
di
stancet
rader
out
egoi
ngt
hroughZei
l
abutmai
nlybecauset
her
ewasademogr
aphi
c
pr
essur
eamongt
heAf
arandSomal
ipast
oral
i
stspushi
ngt
oappr
oachHar
arandt
he
Chr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.I
twasoneoft
heI
mam'
sremar
kabl
eachi
evement
sinl
eader
shi
pthat
hemobi
l
izedt
hepast
oralcommuni
ti
esoft
heAf
ar,t
heAr
goba,t
heSomal
i
,theHar
la,
Har
ariandot
her
stoacommoncause.Heconv
incedt
hem nott
ofi
ghtamongstt
hem but
t
ouni
teandexpandt
otheChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.I
twast
oresol
vet
hei
rpr
essi
ngmat
eri
al
needswhi
l
eatt
hesamet
imekeepi
ngI
slami
cbel
i
efsandpr
act
icesf
rom t
hei
nfi
l
trat
ionof
anyal
i
enr
eli
giousdoct
ri
ne.Asar
esul
t,hewasabl
etogai
nanaudi
enceasI
mam.He
consol
i
dat
edhi
sar
myt
ofi
ghtt
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.Meanwhi
l
e,Lebne-
Dengelwas
ent
hronedwhenhewasonl
yel
even.Nev
ert
hel
ess,assi
stedbyt
heel
der
lyEl
l
enianddue
t
oint
ernalconf
li
ctsi
nAdal
,theChr
ist
ianst
atei
nit
ial
l
yret
ainedi
tsi
nter
estandev
en
adv
ancedi
ntoMusl
i
mter
ri
tor
yscor
ingsi
gni
fi
cantv
ict
ori
esi
ntheear
lysi
xteent
hcent
ury
.
Asar
esul
t,mostMusl
i
m Sul
tanat
es,i
ncl
udi
ngAdal
,wer
etr
ibut
ari
est
otheChr
ist
ian
Ki
ngdom.

Howev
er,shor
tl
y,Adalf
ellt
oImam Ahmed'
sar
my.Byt
het
imeI
mam Ahmedwasst
rong
enoughf
ormi
l
itar
yconf
ront
ati
oni
n1520.Her
efusedt
opayt
ri
but
e,whi
chwasf
oll
owed
byacampai
gnagai
nstt
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom i
n1527.TheI
mam'
sar
myf
oughtf
ier
cel
y
and cont
rol
l
ed t
he t
err
it
ori
es i
ncl
udi
ng Bal
i
,Dawar
o,Fat
agar
,Si
dama,Hadi
ya and
Kambat
a,andt
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom wasatr
isk.I
n1528,r
eal
i
zingt
heupcomi
ngt
hreat
,
Lebne-
Dengelmobi
l
izedav
astf
orce.Howev
er,t
her
ewasal
ogi
sti
cspr
obl
em,andt
he
l
eader
shi
poft
hear
myoft
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom f
ail
edt
oadoptacommonst
rat
egyt
o
def
eatAdal
’
sfor
ce.Ont
heot
herhand,ent
husi
ast
icI
mam Ahmed’
sar
mymanaged
l
ogi
sti
cspr
obl
emswi
thi
tssmal
l
-si
zedar
my.TheI
mam’
sar
myal
sohadanexcel
l
ent
l
eader
shi
pchar
act
eri
zedbybet
termobi
l
ityandf
lexi
blet
act
icswi
thauni
fi
edcommand.
Asar
esul
t,t
hel
argerandwel
l
-equi
ppedChr
ist
ianar
mywasdef
eat
edi
noneoft
hemost
deci
si
veengagement
satt
hebat
tl
eofShi
mbr
aKur
ein1529,
nearpr
esent
-dayMoj
o.Af
ter
t
hev
ict
ory
,theI
mam'
sar
mymadeal
arge-
scal
econt
roloft
het
err
it
ori
esoft
heChr
ist
ian
Ki
ngdom,
incl
udi
ngShewa,
Amhar
a,Last
a,andmov
edasf
arnor
thasMer
ebMel
ash.

By1535,
Imam Ahmed'
sempi
rest
ret
chedf
rom Zei
l
atoMassawaont
hecoast
,incl
udi
ng
t
heEt
hiopi
ani
nter
ior
.Ashepenet
rat
eddeepi
ntot
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom,I
mam Ahmed
est
abl
i
shedaci
vi
l,
admi
nist
rat
ivebur
eaucr
acyconst
it
utedbyhi
smenandnewl
yrecr
uit
ed
per
sonnelf
rom t
heChr
ist
iant
err
it
ori
es.Oneoft
hemosthel
pfulf
igur
esdur
ingt
hewar
wast
hewi
feoft
heI
mam,Bat
iDelWanbar
a.Shewast
hedaught
erofaMusl
i
m mi
l
itar
y
commanderofAdalknownasMahf
uz.Sheaccompani
edherhusbandt
hroughouthi
s
expedi
ti
ons.Shei
ssai
dtohav
emar
chedev
eni
nast
ateofpr
egnancydur
ingwhi
chshe
wasunabl
etousemul
es.I
ndeed,shedel
i
ver
edhert
wosonsdur
ingt
hecampai
gnsof
1531and1533i
nIf
atandpr
esent
-dayTi
gray
,respect
ivel
y.Ont
hepar
toft
heChr
ist
ian
Ki
ngdom,t
hemi
l
itar
yset
backf
orcedt
her
eigni
ngki
ng,LebneDengel
,tor
etr
eat
,who
f
inal
l
ydi
edi
n1540bei
ngf
ugi
ti
ve.Hi
ssonGel
awdewos(
r.1540-
1559)ascendedt
othe
t
hroneandcont
inuedt
ofacet
hewar
swi
thmor
eint
ensi
ty.
2.
5.I
nter
nat
ional
dimensi
onsoft
hewar
Conf
li
cti
ntheEt
hiopi
anr
egi
onbegant
otakeani
nter
nat
ionaldi
mensi
onwhent
wo
f
orei
gnpower
sint
erv
enedf
ort
hei
radv
ant
age.Thesepower
swer
ePor
tugalandOt
toman
Tur
key
.Si
ncet
het
wel
ft
hcent
ury
,Eur
opeanshadf
oundt
hel
ong-
dist
ancet
rader
out
e
f
rom Eur
opet
otheFarEastbl
ockedbyt
heOt
tomanTur
ks.TheOt
tomanTur
kishEmpi
re
wasal
readyi
ncont
rolofAr
abi
aandEgy
pt.I
tal
sooccupi
edar
easi
npar
tsoft
heRedSea
coastand al
ong t
he east
ern coastoft
he I
ndi
an Ocean.Ot
toman Tur
keywas an
est
abl
i
shedpoweri
ntheRedSea,t
heGul
fofAdenandt
heI
ndi
anOceanr
egi
ons.Af
ter
VascodaGamadi
scov
eredadi
rectsear
out
etoI
ndi
aforEur
opei
n1498,
thePor
tuguese
begant
oest
abl
i
sht
radi
ngst
ati
onsal
ongt
heeast
erncoast
sofAf
ri
ca.Theywer
eal
so
i
nter
est
edi
nget
ti
ngnew onesont
heGul
fofAdenandt
heRedSeacoast
s.Hav
ing
not
icedt
hemov
ementofdi
plomat
icmi
ssi
onsbet
weent
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdomsand
Por
tugal
,theTur
ksgav
emor
alandmi
l
itar
ysuppor
ttoI
mam Ahmed.I
mam Ahmedhad
r
ecei
ved Tur
kisht
wo hundr
ed Musl
i
m musket
eer
sand t
encannonsi
n1540.I
nthe
meant
ime,based ont
heear
li
err
equestmadebyLebne-
Dengeli
n1535,aboutf
our
hundr
edPor
tuguesesol
dier
sar
medwi
thmat
chl
ocksar
ri
vedi
ntheChr
ist
iancour
tin1541.

Thear
mywasl
edbyChr
ist
opherdaGama,
they
oungestsonofVascodaGama.Howev
er,
i
nAugust1542,
theChr
ist
ianar
mywasdef
eat
edi
nOf
la,
int
oday
'ssout
her
nTi
gray
.Int
he
bat
tl
e,aboutt
wohundr
edPor
tugueseandt
hei
rleaderChr
ist
opherdaGamawer
eki
l
led,
andt
hel
eaderwasbeheaded.Ani
mpor
tantanecdot
ethatshoul
dbement
ionedher
eis
t
her
oleofLebne-
Dengel
'
swi
fe,Sebl
ewongel
.Shei
ssai
dtohav
epar
ti
cipat
edi
nthewar
agai
nstI
mam Ahmedi
n1542.Af
tert
hesuccess,I
mam Ahmedwasconf
identabouthi
s
ar
my'
sabi
l
ityt
orepul
seanyf
utur
eat
tackbyt
hef
orceoft
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom t
hathe
senthi
s al
l
ies back home and l
ethi
s ar
mycamp.On t
he par
toft
he Chr
ist
ians,
pr
epar
ati
onswer
emadef
ort
hef
inalconf
ront
ati
onundert
hel
eader
shi
pofEmper
or
Gel
awdewos.TheQueen'
smot
her
,Sebl
e-Wongel
,adv
isedt
her
eigni
ngemper
orhow t
o
pr
epar
eandmar
chf
ort
hebat
tl
eofWoy
na-
Dega.Duet
oli
mit
edr
esour
ces,t
hemonar
ch
empl
oyedhi
tandr
unst
rat
egy
,whi
chsev
erel
yaf
fect
edI
mam'
sar
my.I
mam Ahmed'
sar
my
coul
dnotusei
tspr
evi
ousqual
i
tyofeasymobi
l
itybecauset
heydi
dnotknowwher
ethe
at
tackscamef
rom.
OnFebr
uar
y25,1543,whi
l
eImam AhmedwasencampednearLakeTana,hewas
at
tackedandki
l
ledaf
terf
ier
cef
ight
ingatt
hebat
tl
eofWoy
na-
Dega.Soonaf
tert
hebat
tl
e,
Gel
awdewoswasconf
identt
hatt
henobi
l
ityandhi
sar
mywer
eloy
alt
ohi
m.Asar
esul
t,
t
heki
ngr
est
oredpossessi
onofal
mostal
lthenor
ther
nandcent
ralpl
ateau.Musl
i
m
communi
ti
esi
nthehi
ghl
andssubmi
tt
edt
oGel
awdewos.Hewast
oler
antt
owar
dthem t
o
pr
omot
enat
ionalconci
l
iat
ionanddev
elopar
evi
valofsmoot
hrel
ati
onswi
tht
heMusl
i
m
wor
ld.Besi
des,Gel
awdewosr
est
oredmanyoft
hepr
e-1520st
err
it
ori
esandt
ri
but
ary
r
egi
ons.Theki
ngat
tempt
edt
oreconsol
i
dat
ethest
atet
hroughcampai
gnst
odi
ff
erent
ar
easandcampi
ngChewa(
regi
ment
)inbor
derar
eas.Byt
heear
ly1550s,Gel
awdewos
hadest
abl
i
shedast
rongChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.Howev
er,cont
rol
l
ingt
heMusl
i
m-domi
nat
ed
ar
easwasnotaneasyt
ask.Thegr
owi
ngchal
l
enget
otheChr
ist
ianst
atecamef
rom t
he
r
etr
eat
ingsol
dier
soft
heSul
tanat
eofAdal
,theOt
tomanTur
ks,Jesui
tint
erl
ude,and
Or
omot
hatadv
ancedi
ntot
hecent
re.Undert
hel
eader
shi
pofNurI
bnal
-Waazi
rMuj
ahi
d,
Adal
wasr
eadyt
owagewaragai
nstt
heChr
ist
ianst
atef
orr
evenge.

I
n1559,t
hef
orcesofEmi
rNurconf
ront
edGel
awdewosandki
l
ledt
heki
nghi
msel
f.
Emper
orMi
nas(
r.
1559-
1563)
,whosucceededGel
awdewosdef
eat
edt
heTur
ks'
for
ceand
r
ecl
aimedt
err
it
ori
esont
hecoast
,incl
udi
ngDabar
wa.Howev
er,
int
heear
ly1560s,
Yishaq
r
evol
tedandal
l
iedwi
tht
heTur
ksagai
nsthi
m.Si
mil
arl
y,Sar
tsa-
Dengl
e(r
.1563-1598)had
t
odef
endt
heTur
kswhi
l
efi
ght
ingwi
tht
heAgaw,Gumuz
,Bet
e-I
srael
,Si
dama,Ennar
ya
andt
heOr
omo.Theemper
ort
henmar
chedt
othenor
th,def
eat
edTur
kishf
orces,and
r
est
oredt
het
err
it
ori
es.

TheMusl
i
m-Chr
ist
ianconf
li
cthadr
esul
tedi
nsev
eralconsequences.Oneoft
hemost
obv
iouswast
hehugehumanandmat
eri
alcost
.Iti
sal
soev
identt
hatbot
htheMusl
i
m
Sul
tanat
eandt
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom wer
eweakened,t
her
ebypav
ingt
hewayf
oreasy
penet
rat
ionandsuccessoft
heOr
omopopul
ati
onmov
ement
.Ont
heposi
ti
vesi
de,i
t
shoul
dber
est
atedt
hatt
hewarhadar
guabl
yresul
tedi
ncul
tur
ali
nter
act
ionamongt
he
peopl
esofEt
hiopi
a.Li
ngui
sti
candr
eli
giousi
nter
act
ionsaccompani
edbyi
nter
mar
ri
ages
amongpeopl
esoft
hev
ari
ouscul
tur
algr
oupswer
eoneoft
hesemani
fest
ati
onsi
nthe
l
onghi
stor
yofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
n.

Compet
it
ionf
orsupr
emacyov
ert
heRedSeaandt
heI
ndi
anOceanbet
weenPor
tugaland
t
heOt
tomanTur
ksgav
ethepr
olongedconf
li
ctbet
weent
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom andt
he
Musl
i
m pr
inci
pal
i
tiesagl
obaldi
mensi
on.Apar
tfr
om t
hehost
il
erel
ati
ons,wi
dersoci
o-
economi
candcul
tur
ali
nter
act
ionswer
ebet
weent
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdomsandMusl
i
m
pr
inci
pal
i
ties.Asi
near
li
erper
iods,t
radecont
inuedt
obet
hemaj
orchannelofsoci
al
i
ntegr
ati
on.Al
so,i
thadl
ongbeent
hesour
ceoff
ri
endshi
p,i
nter
act
ion,i
nter
dependence
andconf
li
ctamongt
her
egi
on'
sst
ates.Thel
ong-
dist
ancet
radeandl
ocalmar
ket
sser
ved
ascor
ear
easofsoci
alt
ies.Thedi
ff
erencei
necol
ogybet
weent
heMusl
i
m sul
tanat
esand
t
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom cr
eat
edeconomi
cint
erdependence,whi
chst
rengt
henedsoci
o-
economi
cbondage.Mer
chant
soft
het
wor
egi
onsof
tenmov
edf
rom t
hehi
ghl
andst
othe
coastand v
ice v
ersa.The soci
all
i
nks wer
e st
rengt
hened t
hrough such car
avan
mer
chant
s,andr
eli
gionsspr
ead.Thesei
nter
act
ionsandi
nter
dependencei
neconomi
c,
soci
al,
cul
tur
alandpol
i
tical
spher
esl
ayt
hef
oundat
ionf
ormoder
nEt
hiopi
a
2.
6Popul
ati
onMov
ement
s,Expansi
on,
andI
ntegr
ati
oni
nEt
hiopi
a
Thel
owl
andi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nofAf
ri
cai
sinhabi
tedbyAf
ar,Or
omo,Somal
i
,Saho,
andot
herCushi
ti
clanguagef
ami
l
yspeaker
s.I
nthel
atef
if
teent
handear
lysi
xteent
h
cent
uri
es,t
hemi
l
itar
yconf
li
ctbet
weent
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdomsandt
heSul
tanat
eofAdal
waspar
tl
yresponsi
blef
ort
heAr
goba,
AfarandSomal
ipopul
ati
onmov
ement
.Inaddi
ti
on,
t
hedemogr
aphi
cpr
essur
eont
heenv
ironmentgav
ethebackgr
oundf
ort
hepopul
ati
on
mov
ement
.Thei
rter
ri
tor
iesl
ayi
nther
egi
onwher
etr
ader
out
espassedandwer
eaf
fect
ed
byt
heconsequencesoft
hemi
l
itar
yconf
li
ct.Ther
efor
e,t
hesepeopl
emov
edbackand
f
ort
hinr
esponset
otheongoi
ngmi
l
itar
yconf
li
ct.
Ar
goba:TheAr
gobawer
emaj
oragent
sofI
slami
cexpansi
on,t
radeandMusl
i
m st
ate
f
ormat
ioni
ntheHor
n.Fori
nst
ance,t
hesul
tanat
eofShewaandI
fatwasest
abl
i
shedby
t
heMakhzumi
teandWal
asmaDy
nast
ies,r
espect
ivel
y.Towar
dst
heendoft
het
hir
teent
h
cent
ury
,thesul
tanat
eofShewamov
edf
urt
hert
otheeastduet
othepr
essur
efr
om t
he
Chr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.Thesul
tanat
eofI
fat
,wher
etheAr
gobawer
edomi
nant
,becamet
he
cent
erofMusl
i
mresi
stance.Ont
heev
eoft
hewar
sofI
mam Ahmedal
-Ghazi
,theAr
goba
j
oinedt
heAf
arandt
heSomal
iagai
nstt
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.Thear
eai
nhabi
tedbyt
he
Ar
gobawasal
soat
argetoft
heexpandi
ngChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom.I
twast
hemaj
orcent
erof
t
heconf
li
ct.Thi
swasbecauset
hemaj
orcar
avant
rader
out
espassedt
hroughAr
goba
t
err
it
ory
.Asar
esul
t,t
heChr
ist
ian-
Musl
i
mri
val
ryandt
heconf
li
ctst
her
eofl
edt
othe
dest
ruct
ionofsul
tanat
esanddi
sper
sionoft
hepeopl
e.Theendur
ingef
fectoft
heconf
li
ct
canbeobser
vedf
rom t
hef
ragment
edset
tl
ementpat
ter
nsoft
hepeopl
e.
Af
ar:Duet
odr
ought
,theAf
armov
edt
owar
dst
heeastunt
ilt
heyr
eachedt
hemi
ddl
e
Awash.Tr
ader
out
esl
i
nki
ngt
hepor
tsi
ntheHor
npassedt
hrought
heAf
ar'
ster
ri
tor
y.Asa
r
esul
t,t
her
egi
onwast
hecent
reofcompet
it
ionbet
weent
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdomsandt
he
Musl
i
m sul
tanat
est
ocont
rolt
het
rader
out
es.Besi
desbei
ngact
orsi
ntheconf
li
ct,t
he
conf
li
cti
nev
itabl
ypr
essur
isedt
heAf
art
omov
eindi
ff
erentdi
rect
ionst
oav
oidt
her
iskof
di
sput
es.I
nthe si
xteent
h cent
ury
,thei
rpast
oraleconomyhel
ped t
hem sur
viv
ethe
dest
ruct
iveef
fect
soft
hewar
s.
Somal
i:Thei
rter
ri
tor
ylayi
nthemedi
evalcompet
it
iont
ocont
rolt
rader
out
es.Li
kewi
se,
bef
oret
hewar
sofI
mam Ahmedal
-Ghazi
,ther
ewasst
rongdemogr
aphi
cpr
essur
efr
om
t
heSomal
i
.Thepopul
ati
onmov
ementoft
heSomal
iwasast
rongf
orcebehi
ndt
he
mi
l
itar
yst
rengt
hoft
heI
mam.Howev
er,t
hepopul
ati
onmov
ementoft
heSomal
idi
dnot
l
astf
orl
ongast
heyr
etur
nedt
othei
rhomebasef
oll
owi
ngt
hedef
eatofI
mam Ahmedi
n
1543.
Or
omo:TheOr
omosar
eani
ndi
genousCushi
ti
cpeopl
eofEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nofAf
ri
ca.
WhenAksum camei
ntohi
stor
y,i
twasqui
tecl
eart
hatt
heOr
omoal
sooccupi
eda
consi
der
abl
epar
toft
hel
andi
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heHor
nofAf
ri
ca.Accor
dingt
oOr
omoor
al
t
radi
ti
ons,
theor
igi
nalhomel
andoft
heOr
omobef
oret
hesi
xteent
hcent
urywast
hesout
h
-
cent
ralpar
tofEt
hiopi
a'
shi
ghl
ands.Thepol
i
ticalandr
eli
giouscent
reoft
heOr
omo
set
tl
ementar
ea was Madda Wal
abu,l
ocat
ed on t
he Bal
e-Si
dama bor
der
lands.A
combi
nat
ionofnat
ural
andmanmadef
act
orscausedt
hemov
ementofOr
omopopul
ati
on
i
nthesi
xteent
handsev
ent
eent
hcent
uri
es.Thesear
e:
 Demogr
aphi
cpr
essur
eandt
hesubsequentneedf
orl
andt
oaccommodat
ethe
gr
owi
nghumanandl
i
vest
ockpopul
ati
on.
 Theconf
li
ctbet
weent
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdomsandMusl
i
m Sul
tanat
eswast
heot
her
f
act
ort
hatf
orcedt
heOr
omot
oleav
ethel
andst
heyi
nhabi
tedandmov
etoot
her
ar
eas.
Long bef
oret
hei
r expansi
on,t
he Or
omo peopl
e wer
e di
vi
ded i
nto t
wo maj
or
conf
eder
aci
es:t
heBar
ent
uandt
heBor
anaconf
eder
aci
es.Eachconf
eder
acycompr
ised
smal
l
erdi
vi
sions and cl
ans.The Bor
ana conf
eder
acyconsi
sted ofMecha,Tul
ama,
sout
her
nBor
anaandGuj
icl
ans.
TheBar
ent
uwascomposedoft
heKar
ayu,Mar
awa,I
tt
u,Humbana,Akachu,Wol
l
oand
Ar
sicl
ans.Themov
ementandexpansi
ont
ookpl
acef
rom ar
ound1522t
o1618.The
mov
ementwasseti
ntwomaj
ordi
rect
ionsi
ntheEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.TheBar
ent
umov
ed
outi
nanor
theastdi
rect
ion.TheBor
anaf
oll
owedanor
th-
west
erl
ydi
rect
ion.Theyal
so
mov
edouti
nthedi
rect
ionsofKeny
aandSomal
i
aout
sidet
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.The
mov
ementt
ookpl
acei
ntwost
ages.
 Thef
ir
stst
agewast
heper
iodofasmal
landsl
owmov
ementi
nthef
ir
sthal
foft
he
si
xteent
hcent
ury
.
 Thesecondst
agest
art
edar
oundt
hemi
d-si
xteent
hcent
uryandl
ast
edupt
o1618.
Thi
swasal
arge-
scal
emov
ementcar
ri
edoutusi
ngf
orce.
 I
n1522,
whent
hepopul
ati
onmov
ementbegan,
theOr
omower
eal
readyor
gani
sed
underBor
ana and Bar
ent
u conf
eder
aci
es.The Or
omo f
orces t
ook nor
ther
n
di
rect
ionandpassedt
hroughacor
ri
dorbet
weenMountWal
abuandLakeAbay
a.
When t
hey r
eached hal
fway bet
ween Lakes Abay
a and Hawassa,t
hey t
ook
west
war
d.Fi
rst
,theypenet
rat
edacr
osst
heBi
l
att
eRi
vert
othesout
hwest
.Then
t
heyheadednor
thwar
dst
othel
ake'
sregi
onoft
heRi
ftVal
l
ey.Fr
om 1522t
o1618,
t
heOr
omof
oughtt
wel
veBut
tawar
s.Accor
dingl
y,
 The f
ir
stGadaa,i
.e.Mel
ba (
1522-
1530)
,foughtand def
eat
ed t
he Chr
ist
ian
r
egi
mentBat
raAmor
aledbyFasi
landoccupi
edBal
i
.
 GadaaMudena(
1530-
8)r
eachedt
heedgeofAwashRi
ver
.
 TheKi
l
oleGadaa(
1538-
46)cont
rol
l
edDawar
oaf
terdef
eat
ingChr
ist
ianr
egi
ment
Adal
Mabr
aq
 Bi
fol
e(1546-
54)adv
ancedt
oWaj
andEr
er.
 TheMi
chi
l
le(
1554-
62)scor
edav
ict
oryov
erHamal
mal
'
sfor
ceatDago,
JanAmor
a
f
orces,
andAdal
ledbyEmi
rNurMuj
ahi
ddi
natMountHazal
o.
 TheHar
muf
a(1562-
70)f
oughtMi
nas(
r.
1559-
63)atQaci
naandWay
yat
a;occupi
ed
Angot
,Ganzy
i,Say
intet
c.
 I
n1574,Sar
tsaDi
ngi
l
's(
r.
1563-
97)cav
alr
yledbyAzzajHal
i
bodef
eat
edRobal
e
Gadaa(
1570-
78)atWoy
naDaga.Howev
er,Robal
erecov
eredbydef
eat
ingZar
a'a
Yohanni
s'f
orce.
  TheBi
rmaj
i(1578-
86)cont
rol
l
edAr
'i
nei
nWaj
,cr
ossedJamat
o Wol
aqaand
ov
erwhel
medt
heDar
agot
iregi
ment
.
 TheMul
’
ata(
1586-
94)sei
zedDamot
,Bi
zamo,Gaf
at,Dambi
yaandTi
gray
.Int
he
ear
lysev
ent
eent
hcent
ury
,theDul
o(1594-
1602)
,Mel
ba(
1603-
10)
,andMudena
(
1610-
18)expandedt
otheWestandNor
ther
npar
tsoft
heHor
nofAf
ri
cawhi
l
e
ot
her
sli
ket
heWar
daymov
edt
oKeny
aandBurHaqabaandMaj
ert
ini
nSomal
i
a.
I
naddi
ti
ont
othewar
sbet
weent
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdomsandMusl
i
m Sul
tanat
es,t
he
or
gani
sat
ionoft
heOr
omoundert
heGadaasy
stem pl
ayedacr
uci
alr
olei
nthesuccessof
t
heOr
omopopul
ati
onmov
ement
.Int
hei
rmov
ementi
ntov
ari
ousr
egi
ons,di
ff
erent
Or
omobr
anchesest
abl
i
shedGadaacent
res.Thesecent
erswer
e:
•OdaNabeeofTul
ama(
EastShewa)
,OdaRobaofSi
kko-
Mando(
Arsi
),OdaBul
tum ofI
tu-
Humbenna(
Har
arge)
,OdaBi
silofMecha(
WestShewa)and OdaBul
l
uqofJawwiMecha
(
Hor
ro-
Gudur
u).Ot
herpl
aces,whi
chbecameGadaacent
res,wer
eGay
oofSabbo-
Gona,
Me'
eBokkoofGuj
i
,OdaDogiofI
lu,OdaHul
l
eofJi
mma,OdaGar
adofWal
l
o,et
c.Gadaa
l
eader
ssuchasDaweGobboofBor
ana,AnnaSor
raofGuj
i
,Makko-
Bil
iofMecha,Babbo
Koy
yeofJi
mmaandot
her
sest
abl
i
shedGadaacent
res.Theyl
aiddowncar
dinall
awsi
n
t
hei
rrespect
ivear
eas.Howev
er,v
ari
ousOr
omogr
oupskeptt
hei
rrel
ati
onst
hrought
he
of
fi
ceofAbbaMuda(
thef
atherofanoi
ntment
)seat
edatMaddaWal
abuandf
ormed
al
l
iancesdur
ingt
imesofdi
ff
icul
ty.Besi
des,t
heyobey
edsi
mil
arcul
tur
eandl
aw (
Seer
a)
bysendi
ngt
hei
rdel
egat
est
oMadda-
Wal
abu,t
hecent
ralchaf
fe,unt
ilt
hepan-
Oromo
assembl
ywasf
orbi
ddeni
n1900duet
othepol
i
tical
inf
luenceEt
hiopi
anst
ate.

TheOr
omopopul
ati
onmov
ementandexpansi
onwassuccessf
ulf
orsev
eral
reasons:
•I
nthef
ir
stpl
ace,t
heGadaasy
stem pr
ovi
dedt
rai
ningandmi
l
itar
yor
gani
sat
ion,whi
ch
cont
ri
but
edmucht
othemov
ement
'ssuccess.Besi
des,al
mostal
lmember
sofsoci
ety
par
ti
cipat
edi
nwar
s.So,
itwasal
arge-
scal
eexpansi
onsodi
ff
icul
ttost
op.
•TheOr
omomadewi
deandgooduseoft
hehor
seatt
het
imeoft
heexpansi
on.
•Onei
mpor
tantOr
omoi
nst
it
uti
onwhi
chseemst
ohav
efaci
l
itat
edt
heexpansi
onwas
adapt
ati
on.Mor
eov
er,t
he mov
ementt
ook pl
ace when t
he Sul
tanat
e ofAdal
-was
exhaust
edandweakenedduet
othewar
soft
hef
ir
sthal
foft
hesi
xteent
hcent
ury
.
TheOr
omopopul
ati
onmov
ementandexpansi
onbr
oughtaboutf
undament
alchangesi
n
t
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Et
hni
candcul
tur
ali
nter
mixi
ngt
ookpl
acebet
weent
heOr
omoand
ot
herpeopl
esoft
her
egi
on.Theexpandi
ngOr
omo dest
roy
edt
heol
dst
atesoft
he
ki
ngdomsofDamot
,Bi
zamoandEnnar
ya.Thepeopl
esofDamotandGaf
atwer
eei
ther
assi
mil
atedwi
tht
heOr
omoorf
orcedt
omov
eoutf
rom t
hesout
htot
henor
thand
i
nter
mingl
ewi
tht
heChr
ist
iancommuni
tyoft
hear
ea.TheChr
ist
ianki
ngdom wasgr
eat
ly
di
stur
bedbyt
heOr
omopopul
ati
onmov
ement
.Thet
err
it
ori
alandf
inanci
alst
rengt
hsof
t
heki
ngdom wer
ehi
ghl
yweakened.I
twasf
orcedt
oshi
fti
tspol
i
ticalcent
ref
rom Shewa
i
nthesout
htot
heLakeTanaar
eanor
thandGondar
.

TheSul
tanat
eofAdalwasr
educedt
othewal
l
edt
ownofHar
arast
her
esul
toft
heOr
omo
expansi
on.Thi
swasmai
nlybecauseaf
tert
hedeat
hofI
manAhmed,
theMusl
i
msofAdal
wasr
eor
gani
sedunderEmi
rNurMuj
ahi
d.TheEmi
rlaunchedanof
fensi
vewaragai
nstt
he
Chr
ist
ianki
ngdom.I
n1559NurMuj
ahi
ddef
eat
edandki
l
ledGel
awdewosi
ntheAwash
v
all
ey.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
hecoul
dnotpur
suehi
svi
ctor
yov
ert
heChr
ist
ianf
orcesbecauset
he
Or
omof
orceshadal
readyr
eachedt
heHar
arar
eaatt
het
ime.So,her
etur
nedt
oAdalt
o
def
endi
tfr
om f
all
i
ngt
otheOr
omo.Howev
er,si
ncemostofHar
arwasoccupi
edbyt
he
Or
omo,hej
ustbui
l
tawal
lar
oundt
het
ownofHar
ar,whi
chi
sknownast
heJegolGi
mb.
Thi
sledt
otheendofanage-
oldconf
li
ctbet
weenAdalandt
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom.
Fol
l
owi
ng t
hei
r mov
ement and expansi
on,t
he Or
omo became l
argel
y sedent
ary
agr
icul
tur
ist
s.I
nti
me,
thegr
eatmaj
ori
tyoft
hem al
soadopt
edChr
ist
iani
tyandI
slam.St
il
l,
l
ateron,
theywer
eabl
etof
orm ki
ngdomsoft
hei
rowni
ntheEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.

Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswerf
rom t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.Oneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sanachi
evementoft
heAksumi
tci
vi
li
zat
ion?
A.Thedev
elopmentofaLat
inal
phabet
B.Thedev
elopmentofbui
l
dingt
echnol
ogy
C.Thei
nvent
ionoft
hewheel
D.Thedev
elopmentofawr
it
tenl
egal
code
2.TheI
slami
ccal
endari
sbasedon
A.Thev
olumeoft
hewor
ld’
sbi
gri
ver
s
 B.Thel
i
fecy
cleoft
hebi
gst
ars
C.Thepr
ophet
’sf
li
ghtf
rom Meccat
oMedi
na
D.Thebi
rt
hoft
hepr
ophetMohammed
3.Themai
ncauseoft
heOr
omopopul
ati
onmov
ementandexpansi h16thcwas
ont

A.
thewarof16thc C.env
ironment
alr
easons

B.ext
ernal
pressur
e D.l
andf
ragment
ati
on
4.Ther
easonf
ort
hesuccessoft
heOr
omoi
nthei
rexpansi
ondur
ing16thcwas

A.
thei
rpol
i
cyofassi
mil
ati
on.

B.t
hesuppor
ttheygotf
rom Musl
i
ms

C.
thequal
i
tyoff
ir
ear
mtheyused

D.
thesuppor
ttheygotf
rom ot
tomanTur
ks
5.Whooft
hef
oll
owi
ngmusl
i
m sul
tanki
l
ledbyGel
adi
wosatt
hebat
tl
eofWoi
naDega?
A.I
mam Mahf
uz B.AhmedBadl
y C.AhmedGr
agn D.I
mam
Mahmad
6.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngConf
eder
acyofOr
omodwel
l
eredi
nandout
sideEt
hiopi
a
A.Bor
ena B.
Bar
ent
u C.Sout
her
nBor
ena D.
Mechaand
Tul
ama E.
All
7.NotFal
se
A.Tr
adi
ti
onal
rel
i
gionofOr
omobasedonQal
l
u
B.Cul
tur
eofadopt
ingnewy
out
hsMogassa
C.AbbaDul
l
aspokesmenofChaf
fe
D.Abbaser
aTr
adi
ti
onal
lawofOr
omowhi
chf
avour
swomen
E.Ear
lyagegr
adesofOr
omoRegar
dedasl
eader
shi
page

8. Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngMusl
i
m Sul
tanetofmedi
evalper
iodext
endedi
tst
err
it
ory
whi
chi
ncl
udedpr
esentdayMi
njar
,Shenkor
aandAda’
ainShewa
A. TheSul
tanat
eofDawar
o
B.TheSul
tanat
eofDer
a
C. Thesul
tanat
eofBal
i
D.TheSul
tanat
eofFat
agar
9. Foundi
ngdy
nast
yofMusl
i
m sul
tanat
eofI
fatandAdal
was_
___
___
___
A.Makzumi
tedy
nast
y C.Ummay
ddy
nast
y
 B.Mal
l
ady
nast
y D.Abbabasi
ddy
nast
yE.None
10.
Whi
choft
hef
fist
rueaboutt
heMedi
eval
Isl
ami
cst
atesi
nEast
-Cent
ral
Ethi
opi
a?
A.
Theywer
eent
ir
elyt
heocr
ati
c
B.Theywer
edomi
nat
edpr
inci
pal
l
ybyt
radi
ngi
nter
est
s
C.
Theywer
eal
way
sdependent
soft
heChr
ist
ianst
atei
nthenor
th
D.
All
oft
hem wer
eAr
abi
cspeaki
ng
11.
The r
ootcause f
ort
he conf
li
ctand war
sbet
ween t
he Musl
i
msand Chr
ist
ian
ki
ngdom was
A.Rel
i
giousdi
ff
erenceanddomi
nance
B.Saf
etyandsecur
it
yoft
heki
ngscour
t
C.
Theneedt
ocont
rol
thet
err
it
ori
esal
ongt
het
rader
out
e
D.Ther
efusal
oft
heMusl
i
ntr
ader
stobecomeagent
soft
heki
ng
12.
whi
choft
hef
fisnott
rueaboutt
hePopul
ati
onmov
ementofOr
omo
A.Rel
i
gionwast
radi
ti
onal
,bel
i
evedonwaqaasskygodandl
eadbyqal
l
u
B.Mov
ementwasnott
ocont
rol
trader
out
eandnotf
ort
radebenef
it
C.Mov
ementwast
ogetbr
eat
hingpl
acef
ort
hemsel
ves,gr
azi
ngl
andf
ort
hei
r
cat
tl
e
D.
Assembl
ywascal
l
edchaf
fewhi
chl
edbyAbbaDul
a
13.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
str
ueaboutt
hest
ateofHadi
yadur
ingt
heMedi
eval
per
iod?
A.
Itsr
uler
scl
aimedanor
ther
nEt
hiopi
anor
igi
n
B.I
twast
hef
ri
endl
i
estst
atet
owar
dst
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom.
C.
Itt
ri
edt
omai
ntai
nit
sindependencebycombi
ningr
esi
stancewi
thdi
plomacy
D.
Itwasabl
etocoor
dinat
eandl
eadaMosl
em f
rontagai
nstt
heChr
ist
ianKi
ngdom
14.
Whi
chci
tyofKushdest
roy
edbyAssy
rians
A.Sennar B.Napat
a C.Mer
oe D.Thebes

15.
TheI
ndi
cat
iont
hatAnci
entst
ateofDamatusedt
o hadt
her
elat
ionwi
thSaud
Ar
abi
awast
hef
act
:
A.I
twasusi
ngt
hepor
tofAdul
i
sfort
rade
B.I
tsr
uler
sspeakAr
abi
clanguage
C.I
tsr
uler
susedr
eli
gio-
pol
i
tical
tit
leMukar
ib
D.I
tfoughtagai
nstPer
siaal
l
iancewi
thSaudAr
abi
a
 16.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwasnotmaj
orachi
evement
sofZagawe
A.Theycont
rol
l
edJer
usal
em andmadet
ourt
other
e
B.The bui
l
t13Chr
ist
ianchur
chesdur
ingt
heper
iod1150-
1270
C.Theyhadst
rongmi
l
itar
ythatst
rengt
henedbyt
radebenef
it andkeep 
 secur
it
y
oft
heki
ngdom l
i
kepr
ocedur
es
D.TheymadeGeezchur
chl
anguageandChr
ist
iani
tyasst
ater
eli
gion E.None 
of
t
hement
ioned
17.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngpai
rsdi
dnotcomeundercont
roloft
heChr
ist
ianst
ate
 
 b/
n1270-
1529?
A.DamotandKef
fa B.Wol
ait
aandI
fat C.Goj
j
am andHadi
ya D.
Kef
faand
Adal
18.
Ani
nter–st
ateconf
li
cti
nEt
hiopi
aint
he16t
hcwaspr
imar
il
ycausedby
A.monopol
yov
ert
heZel
i
atr
ader
out
e
B.r
eli
giousdi
ff
erenceb/
ntheChr
ist
ians&Musl
i
ms
C.pol
i
tical
inst
abi
l
ityi
nthehor
nofAf
ri
ca
D.ext
ernalpr
essur
e
19.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngcont
ri
but
edf
ort
heemer
genceofMusl
i
m st
atesi
nMedi
eval
Et
hiopi
a?
A.Themi
grat
ionandset
tl
ementofAr
absi
nther
egi
on
B.TheJi
hadt
hatAr
absconduct
edi
nther
egi
on
C.Thet
hreatoft
hel
owl
ander
sbyt
heChr
ist
ians
D.Theexpansi
onoft
radet
hrought
hepor
tofZei
l
a
20.
Ani
nter–st
ateconf
li
cti
nEt
hiopi
ai he16thcwaspr
nt imar
il
ycausedby
A.monopol
yov
ert
heZel
i
atr
ader
out
e
B.r
eli
giousdi
ff
erenceb/
ntheChr
ist
ians&Musl
i
ms
C.pol
i
tical
inst
abi
l
ityi
nthehor
nofAf
ri
ca
D.ext
ernalpr
essur
e

21.
Whi
choneoft
hef
fwasachar
act
eri
sti
coft
hest
ateofKaf
fa?
A.I
tsdemocr
ati
cadmi
nist
rat
ionsy
stem basedont
heMi
krecho
B.I
tsor
gani
zat
ionofanef
fect
ivedef
encest
ruct
ure
C.I
tsor
gani
zat
iont
heeconomyonsl
ave-
cul
ti
vat
edpl
ant
ati
ons
 D.I
tsendur
ancef
oral
ongt
imeasar
esul
tofpol
i
tical
all
i
ancewi
tht
heOr
omo
22.
Whatwast
her
elat
ionshi
pbet
weent
hemedi
eval
stat
eofDamotandWol
ait
a?
A.Bot
hst
atesemer
gedi
nthesamegeogr
aphi
calar
eabuti
ndi
ff
erenthi
stor
ical
per
iods
B.Wol
ait
atr
adi
ti
oncl
aimst
hatoneofi
tsdy
nast
ieshadl
i
nkswi
thDamot
C.The r
uli
ng dy
nast
y ofwol
ait
a was est
abl
i
shed by r
efugees f
rom Damot
f
oll
owi
ngi
tsconquestbyt
heOr
omo
D. Thepol
i
ticali
nst
it
uti
onsofwol
ait
awer
eexactr
epr
oduct
ionoft
hepol
i
tical
i
nst
it
uti
onsofDamotandbot
hwer
efoundedbyMot
alam
23.
Thet
woCount
ri
eswhi
chdi
rect
lyi
nvol
vedi
nthemi
l
itar
yconf
lctof16th cEt
i hiopi
a
wer
e
A.Por
tugalandSpai
n C.Ot
tomanTur
key&Por
tugal
B.Br
it
ainandFr
ance D.I
tal
yandFr
ance
24.
Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngf
eat
uresdoesn’
texpl
aint
heper
iodofZagwedy
nast
yrul
e
i
nEt
hiopi
a?
A.Zagwer
uler
scont
inuedt
hecul
tur
alt
radi
ti
onoft
heAksumi
test
ate
B.Rel
i
giouspi
l
gri
maget
oJer
usal
em r
eachedi
tspeak
C. Const
ruct
ionofchur
chesandexpandedChr
ist
ianf
ait
h
D.Att
heendoft
hei
rrul
ether
ewasasmoot
hpowersuccessi
onamong t
he
Zagwer
uler
s
25.
ThesuccessofAdal
’
svi
ctor
yov
ert
heChr
ist
ianki n16thcwasduet
ngdom i o:
A.I
mam’
sar
mywasbackedupbyTur
kish
B.I
mam’
smi
l
itar
yandr
eader
shi
pqual
i
ties
C.Super
ior
it
yofi
mam’
sar
mycompar
edt
oLepeneBengel
’
sfor
ce.
D.Chr
ist
ianar
myequi
ppedwi
tht
radi
ti
onal
weaponsunl
i
keAhmedGr
agn’
s.
26.
Themai
ncauseoft
heOr
omopopul
ati
onmov
ementandexpansi h16thcwas
ont
hewarof16thc
A.t C.env
ironment
alr
easons
B.ext
ernal
pressur
e D.l
andf
ragment
ati
on
27.
Ther
easonf
ort
hesuccessoft
heOr
omoi
nthei
rexpansi
ondur
ing16thcwas
A.t
hei
rpol
i
cyofassi
mil
ati
on.
B.t
hesuppor
ttheygotf
rom Musl
i
ms
C.t
hequal
i
tyoff
ir
ear
mtheyused
D.t
hesuppor
ttheygotf
rom ot
tomanTur
ks
28.
Theswi
ftmov
ementoft
heOr
omoi
nthehi
ghl
andofEt
hiopi
ain16thcwasexpl
ained
byt
he
A.useoff
ir
ear
ms C.di
suni
tyoft
heOr
omo
B.Gadami
l
itar
yor
gani
zat
ion D.st
rengt
hoft
hei
rki
ngs.
29.
TheOr
omosoci
alpr
act
icesf
aci
l
itat
edt
heabsor
pti
onofnon–Or
omogr
oupsi
nthe
cor
toofexpansi
onwas-
--
--
--
--
--
A.Guddi
fachaB.War
shi
pofWaqaC.
MogassaD.
Atet
e.
30.
Whowast
hewarl
eaderoft
heOr
omoi
nthecour
seoft
hei
rmov n16thc
ementi
A.AbbaLaf
a B.AbbaDul
aC.
AbbaBoku D.AbbaSer
a
31.
The Musl
i
m st
ate whi
ch r
eor
gani
zed t
he Musl
i
m r
esi
stance agai
nstChr
ist
ian
ki
ngdom si
ncet
hel
ate14thc
A.Adal B.I
fatC.
ShoaD.Bal
i
32.I
ntheev
eoft
hei
rexpansi
on,
theOr
omoor
gani
zedi
nto-
--
--
--
--
--
A. t
ri
bes B.conf
eder
acyC.cl
ansD.age-
grade
33.
Thet
radi
ti
onalcounci
loft
heOr
omocommuni
tywhi
chel
ect
edt
heof
fi
cial
soft
he
Gadagov
ernmentwas-
--
--
--
--
--
--
-
A.Chaf
fe B.LubaC.Qal
l
uD.Muda
34.
TheOr
omosoci
oeconomi
candmi
l
itar
yor
gani
zat
ionwasbasedont
he-
--
--
--
--
--
--
-
A.Monar
chi
cal
inst
it
uti
on C.Qal
l
uinst
it
uti
on
B.Gadasy
stem D.Hi
erar
chysoci
alcl
ass
35.
Leader
shi
psuchasAbbaBoku,
AbbaDul
aandAbbaSer
atr
adi
ti
onalOr
omosoci
ety
wer
e--
A.her
edi
tar
y C.basedondi
vi
ner
ight
B.basedondescent D.der
ivedf
rom t
heGadasy
stem
36.
TheI
mam ofAdalwhocamet
opoweri
nAdal
inEar
ly1520swas_
___
___
___
___
_
C.Mahf
uz C.AhmedI
bnI
brahi
m al
-Ghazi
D.MohammedBadl
ey D.AhmedNur
CHAPTERTHREE
TheModer
nWor
ldsi
nce1500
3.
1.TheRenai
ssance
Renai
ssancewasani
ntel
l
ect
ualmov
ement
.Thewor
drenai
ssancei
ndi
cat
est
he“
rebi
rt
h”
ofl
ear
ning.I
tbegani
nthe14t
hcent
uryandendedi
nthe17t
hcent
ury
.Renai
ssance
begani
nIt
alyandspr
eadt
other
estofEur
ope,
mai
nlyt
oEngl
and,
France,
Ger
many
,Spai
n
and Hol
l
and.Fi
rst
,Renai
ssanceI
tal
ywasessent
ial
l
yan ur
ban soci
ety
.Second,t
he
Renai
ssancewasanageofr
ecov
eryf
rom t
hedi
sast
ersoft
hef
our
teent
hcent
ury
.Thi
s
r
evi
valaf
fect
edbot
hpol
i
ticsandar
t.Thi
rd,anew v
iew ofhumanbei
ngsemer
gedas
peopl
eint
heI
tal
i
anRenai
ssancebegant
oemphasi
sei
ndi
vi
dual
abi
l
ity
TheRenai
ssancehadt
hef
oll
owi
ngchar
act
eri
sti
cs:
•Thest
udyofanci
entRomeandGr
eekl
anguages,
li
ter
atur
e,ar
tsandt
heuseofr
eason.
•Thesuppor
toff
reedom oft
houghtandquest
ioni
ngmi
nd.
•Theuseoft
hev
ernacul
ar,ort
henat
ionall
anguagesuchast
heI
tal
i
anandt
heEngl
i
sh
l
anguager
athert
hanLat
ini
nwr
it
ing
Theout
standi
ngper
sonsoft
heRenai
ssancepr
oducedgr
eatwor
ksofl
i
ter
atur
e,pai
nti
ng,
scul
ptur
e,ar
chi
tect
ureandsci
ence.I
nli
ter
atur
e:Di
vi
neComedywaswr
it
tenbyI
tal
i
an
Dant
e Al
i
ghi
eri
;Ut
opi
a byEngl
i
shman Thomas Mor
e;Don Qui
xot
e byt
he Spani
ard
Cer
vant
es;Hol
yBi
blewast
ransl
atedi
ntoGer
manbyMar
ti
nLut
herandv
ari
ousgr
eat
pl
aysbyEngl
i
shmanWi
l
li
am Shakespear
e.I
nar
ts:I
tal
i
anLeonar
dodaVi
ncipai
ntedLast
SupperandMonal
i
sa;I
tal
i
anMi
chaelAngel
opai
ntedt
heCr
eat
ionofAdam andmade
st
atuesofDav
id,
Mosesandt
heVi
rgi
n&t
hedeadChr
ist
.Insci
ence,
theBel
gianVesal
i
us
st
udi
edhumananat
omy
.ThePol
i
shNi
chol
asCoper
nicusdecl
aredt
hatt
heear
thr
evol
ved
ar
oundt
hesun.Pr
evi
ousl
y,i
twast
houghtt
hatpl
anet
srev
olv
edar
oundt
heear
th.The
Renai
ssancehadapr
ofoundi
nfl
uenceont
hedev
elopmentofmoder
nsoci
etycul
tur
e,and
si
ncei
tisanat
uralext
ensi
onofbot
h,ar
ti
sti
cexpr
essi
on.TheRenai
ssancei
nfl
uencei
n
t
hewor
ldbr
oughtaboutanewf
ocusonhumani
sm and,
asar
esul
t,asubsequentt
urni
ng
awayf
rom t
hedomi
nanti
deasputf
ort
hbyt
hechur
ch.Thedawni
ngr
ecogni
ti
onofhuman
pot
ent
ialandsci
ent
if
ici
nqui
ryshapedt
hecour
seofwor
ldhi
stor
yandst
il
linf
luences
cont
empor
arysoci
eti
es'
cul
tur
etoday
3.
2TheAgeofExpl
orat
ionsandDi
scov
eri
es
TheageofEur
opeanexpl
orat
ionsanddi
scov
eri
eswasi
nthef
if
teent
handsi
xteent
h
cent
uri
es.Theexpl
orat
ionswer
e,i
npar
t,i
nit
iat
edbyt
heneedt
oby
passt
heOt
toman
Tur
kishbl
ockadeoft
heol
dlong-
dist
ancet
rader
out
efr
om Eur
opet
otheFarEast
.

Fact
orst
hatencour
agedexpl
orat
ionsanddi
scov
eri
eswer
e:
•Eur
opeani
nter
esti
nlong-
dist
ancet
radeandnewi
nvent
ionsl
i
ket
hecompass.
•I
naddi
ti
on,t
hedev
elopmentofbet
termapsandshi
psandt
hegr
owi
ngi
nter
esti
n
geogr
aphi
cal
knowl
edgef
uel
edt
hei
deaofexpl
orat
ion.
•Pr
inceHenr
y,t
heNav
igat
or(
1394-
1460)ofPor
tugalandQueenI
sabel
l
a(1451-1504)of
Spai
n,who suppor
ted t
hev
oyagesofexpl
orer
s,al
so i
nspi
red t
heexpl
orat
ion.They
sponsor
edv
oyagesf
ort
hesakeoft
hei
reconomy
,rel
i
gionandgl
ory
.
Spai
nandPor
tugalwer
ethel
eader
sint
heexpl
orat
ionanddi
scov
eri
esi
nthe15t
hand
16t
h cent
uri
es.Theywer
e cl
osel
yfol
l
owed byHol
l
and,Br
it
ain,Fr
ance and Russi
a.
Por
tugueseexpl
orerVascodaGamadi
scov
eredanewsear
out
etoI
ndi
aandt
heFarEast
i
n1498.Chr
ist
opherCol
umbuswast
hef
ir
stEur
opeanexpl
orert
oreachAmer
icai
n1492
whi
l
ehewasi
nser
viceofSpai
n.Unf
ort
unat
ely
,Col
umbusdi
edwi
thoutknowi
ngt
hathe
hadf
oundnewl
ands.Thel
andf
oundcamet
obeknownasAmer
icaf
rom t
henameofan
I
tal
i
anmapmakercal
l
edAmer
igoVespucci
.Thenewl
y“di
scov
ered”ar
easal
sobecame
knownast
he“
New Wor
ld”
.ThePor
tuguese,Fer
dinandMagel
l
an,ci
rcumnav
igat
edt
he
wor
ldbet
ween1519and1522i
ntheser
viceofSpai
n.Thenewl
ydi
scov
eredl
andswer
e
l
aterconquer
edandbecamecol
oni
esofEur
opeanpower
s
Ther
ear
eeconomi
cimpact
soft
heageofexpl
orat
ionanddi
scov
eri
es.Economi
cal
l
y,
Eur
opeansgai
nedhugepr
ofi
tsf
rom l
ocalt
radenet
wor
ks,
whi
chenhancedt
hegl
obal
i
sing
pr
ocess.Mor
eov
er,wi
tht
hesubsquentcol
oni
alconquest
,thev
oyagespr
omot
edt
he
f
ast
erdev
elopmentofcapi
tal
i
sm
3.
3TheEngl
ishBour
geoi
sRev
olut
ion
I
n1603,
thel
astr
uleroft
heEngl
i
shTudordy
nast
y,QueenEl
i
zabet
hI(
r.1558-
1603)
,di
ed
unmar
ri
ed.Shewassucceededbyhernear
estr
elat
ive,JamesVI
,Ki
ngofScot
land,who
becameal
soJamesI
,Ki
ngofEngl
andandI
rel
and,t
hef
ir
stKi
ngofEngl
andoft
he
Scot
ti
shSt
uar
tdy
nast
y.Fr
om 1603onEngl
andandScot
landhadt
hesamer
ulerbut
r
emai
ned separ
atecount
ri
esi
nal
lot
herr
espect
s.Engl
and and Scot
land wer
ebot
h
Pr
otest
ant
.Howev
er,t
heScot
ti
shChur
ch,cal
l
edt
hePr
esby
ter
ianChur
ch,wasmor
e
st
ri
ctl
yandt
hor
oughl
yCal
vi
nistt
hant
heof
fi
cialChur
chofEngl
and.Engl
andandScot
land
di
dnotbecomepol
i
tical
l
yuni
ted,exceptbr
ief
lyi
nthet
imeofCr
omwel
l
,unt
ilt
heActof
Uni
oni
n1707.Thenaf
ter1707wi
thasi
ngl
epar
li
amentandgov
ernment
,Engl
andand
Scot
landbecameknownas“
GreatBr
it
ain”butusual
l
yjust“
Bri
tai
n”f
orshor
t.
TheTudordy
nast
y(1485-
1603)hadmadet
heEngl
i
shmonar
chyst
rongbutnotabsol
ute
andt
heSt
uar
tdy
nast
yst
eppedi
ntot
hesest
rongposi
ti
oni
n1603.TheEngl
i
shmonar
chy
wasnotabsol
utebecauseal
thought
her
ewasar
oyalnav
y,t
heki
nghadnor
egul
ar,
pr
ofessi
onalar
myandonl
yasmal
lbur
eaucr
acyofpai
dof
fi
cial
s.Themonar
chyneeded
t
he co-
oper
ati
on oft
he l
and owni
ng nobl
es and gent
ry,and t
he r
icherci
ti
zens
(
bour
geoi
sie)oft
het
ownsandci
ti
es,t
ogov
ernt
hecount
ryef
fect
ivel
y.Thegent
rywer
e
j
ustbel
owt
henobl
esi
nrankandr
eal
l
ypar
toft
hesamecl
ass,exceptt
hatt
heyhadno
nobl
eti
tl
es.TheEngl
i
sheconomywasnoty
etv
eryadv
anced:t
heDut
chwer
eleader
sin
mer
chantcapi
tal
i
sm i
nthe17thcent
ury
.
TheEngl
i
shmonar
chywasnotabsol
utef
oranot
herr
eason,t
hati
stheexi
stenceofa
r
epr
esent
ati
venat
ionalassembl
ycal
l
edpar
li
ament
.Al
llawsandt
axat
ionhadt
o be
appr
ovedbypar
li
amentbutpar
li
amentonl
ymetwhent
heki
ngcal
l
edi
t.I
tsmeet
ingswer
e
atWest
minst
er,whi
ch was t
hen j
ustout
side London.Par
li
amentwas t
wo Houses
(
assembl
i
es)
:theHouseofLor
ds,notel
ect
ed,consi
sti
ngoft
heheadsofnobl
efami
l
ies
andt
hear
chbi
shopsandbi
shopsoft
heof
fi
cialChur
chofEngl
and;andt
heHouseof
Commons,whi
chwasel
ect
edandr
epr
esent
edt
hepeopl
e.Thev
oti
ngi
nel
ect
ionsf
or
member
s(M.
P.s)oft
heHouseofCommonswasnotdemocr
ati
c.Af
air
ly,l
argenumber
ofadul
tmal
escoul
dvot
ebutcer
tai
nlynotal
ladul
tmal
es.Al
so,t
her
ewasr
espectand
obedi
encet
owar
dsgent
ryf
ami
l
iesandt
hesef
ami
l
iest
ookt
hel
eadi
npubl
i
caf
fai
rs.I
t
wasmember
sof t
hegent
ryandaf
ew bour
geoi
smer
chant
sandl
awy
erswhower
e
el
ect
edasmember
sofPar
li
amenti
ntheHouseofCommons.
Ser
iousconf
li
ctbet
weent
heki
ngandpar
li
amentbegani
nther
eignofChar
lesI(
r.1625-
1649)andco-
oper
ati
onbet
weent
heki
ngandt
her
uli
ngcl
assbegant
obr
eakdown.The
mostser
iousdi
sput
eswer
eaboutf
orei
gnpol
i
cy,t
henmoneyandr
eli
gion.Ear
lyi
nhi
s
r
eign,Engl
andwasi
nvol
vedi
ntwoexpensi
veandunsuccessf
ulwar
sagai
nstSpai
nand
Fr
anceandf
ail
urel
edt
ocr
it
ici
sm oft
heki
ngandhi
smi
nist
ers.Char
les,l
i
kemost
Eur
opean ki
ngs,was usual
l
yinf
inanci
aldi
ff
icul
ti
es.When par
li
amentdi
d notv
ote
suf
fi
cientmoneyi
ntaxat
ion,Char
lescol
l
ect
edmoneywi
thoutpar
li
ament
’sappr
ovali
na
numberofway
swhi
chhi
speopl
efel
twer
eil
l
egal
.Ther
eli
giouspr
obl
em wast
hegr
owi
ng
suspi
cioni
nEngl
andt
hatChar
lesandhi
sFr
enchCat
hol
i
cqueen,Henr
iet
taMar
ia,wer
e
t
aki
ngEngl
andawayf
rom Pr
otest
ant
ism andbackt
oCat
hol
i
cism.Thi
swasnott
rue,
Char
leswasnotsecr
etCat
hol
i
c,buti
nhi
stor
yver
yof
teni
tisnotwhati
str
uet
hatmat
ter
s
butwhatpeopl
ebel
i
evedt
obet
rue.Char
leshadsomucht
roubl
efor
m par
li
amentt
hat
af
ter1629hedi
dnotcal
lameet
ingofpar
li
amentagai
nunt
il1640.I
ntheel
eveny
ear
s,
1629-
40,
Char
lesr
uledwi
thoutpar
li
amentandcont
inuedt
ocol
l
ectmoneyi
nwhatpeopl
e
bel
i
evedt
obei
l
legal
way
s.Hewasr
uli
ngl
i
keanabsol
utemonar
ch.
Begi
nni
ngoft
heRev
olut
ion
Ther
evol
uti
onar
ycr
isi
sbegani
nScot
land.Char
leswaski
ngofScot
landaswel
laski
ng
ofEngl
and.I
n1637,
wit
houtconsul
ti
ngt
heScot
s,Char
lesi
mposedt
heChur
chofEngl
and
Pr
ayerBookf
orChur
chser
vicesi
nScot
land.TheScot
sopposedt
hisf
ornat
ional
i
st
r
easonsandbecauset
otheCal
vi
nist(
Presby
ter
ian)Scot
sthepr
ayerBookr
eal
l
ydi
dlook
Cat
hol
i
c.The Scot
srebel
l
ed.Hopi
ng t
o obt
ain moneyt
o suppr
ess t
he r
ebel
l
ion i
n
Scot
land.Char
lescal
l
ed a meet
ing oft
he Engl
i
sh Par
li
ament
.Howev
er,Par
li
ament
r
efusedt
oappr
oveanyt
axat
ionandt
heki
ngqui
ckl
ydi
ssol
vedwhatwascal
l
edt
heShor
t
Par
li
ament
,becausei
tsmeet
ingwassobr
ief(
Apr
il– May1640)
.Char
leswant
edt
o
def
eatt
heScot
swi
thoutmoneyf
orm Par
li
amentbutwasunabl
etosuppr
esst
her
ebel
l
ion.
Thegov
ernment
’saut
hor
it
ybegant
obr
eakdowni
nEngl
andaswel
lashav
ingbr
oken
downi
nScot
land.Theki
ngcoul
dnotav
oidcal
l
ingt
heEngl
i
shpar
li
amentagai
n.I
tmeti
n
Nov
ember1640andbecameknownast
heLongPar
li
amentbecausei
tmetf
rom 1640t
o
1653.
Att
hebegi
nni
ngt
hemember
s(Lor
dsandCommons)oft
heLongPar
li
amentwer
euni
ted
agai
nstt
heki
ng.Char
leswasf
orcedt
oacceptl
awsser
iousl
yli
mit
inghi
spower
s.Then
par
li
amenti
tsel
fbecamedi
vi
ded.Amaj
ori
ty,butonl
yasmal
lmaj
ori
ty,oft
heHouseof
Commons,andaf
ewoft
heHouseofLor
ds,want
edt
otakeawayal
lthepower
soft
he
ki
ngandmakehi
m apuppetoft
hepar
li
ament
aryl
eader
s.Theybel
i
evedt
heycoul
dnot
t
rustt
heki
ngandt
heyf
ear
edhi
srev
engeagai
nstt
hemsel
vesi
fhekeptanyofhi
spower
s.
Al
i
ttl
elesst
hanhal
ftheCommonsandmostoft
heLor
dsbel
i
evedt
hatpar
li
amentwas
goi
ngt
oof
ari
nopposi
ngt
heki
ng.Theyal
sof
ear
edt
hatt
hepol
i
ticalcr
isi
swasbr
eaki
ng
downal
laut
hor
it
yint
hecount
ry,notonl
ytheki
ng’
saut
hor
it
y,andt
hatpol
i
ticaland
r
eli
giousr
adi
cal
i
sm amongt
hel
owercl
asseswasagr
owi
ngdanger
.Theseconser
vat
ives
t
urnedt
otheki
ng,whonow f
oundhehadgr
owi
ngsuppor
t.Theconser
vat
ivesal
so
opposed t
hewi
sh oft
hest
ri
ctCal
vi
nist
sin par
li
amentt
o abol
i
sh ar
chbi
shopsand
bi
shopsi
ntheChur
chofEngl
andandchanget
heEngl
i
shPr
ayerBook.

Thebasi
cquest
ion,onwhi
cht
heki
ngandt
heopposi
ti
ont
ohi
minpar
li
amentwoul
dnot
compr
omi
se,r
ose f
oll
owi
ng a r
ebel
l
ion i
nIr
eland.The par
li
ament
ary opposi
ti
on
demandedcont
rolov
eranar
mywhi
chwoul
dber
aisedt
osuppr
esst
hisr
evol
t,f
ear
ing
t
hatot
her
wiset
he ar
mywoul
dbeusedagai
nstt
hemsel
ves.Theki
ngr
efusedt
his
demand.Thef
inali
nci
dent
,maki
ngci
vi
lwarunav
oidabl
e,wast
heki
ng’
sat
tempt
,whi
ch
f
ail
ed,t
oar
restf
ivel
eadi
ngmember
soft
hepar
li
ament
aryopposi
ti
on.Theki
ngt
henl
eft
t
hecapi
talt
orai
seanar
myf
rom hi
ssuppor
ter
sint
hepr
ovi
nces.Par
li
amental
sor
aised
anar
myandf
ight
ingbegani
nthesummerof1640.I
nthi
sFi
rstCi
vi
lWar(
1642-
46)
,
London,t
her
ichestpar
toft
hecount
ry,andt
henav
ysuppor
tedpar
li
ament
.In1643,t
he
Par
li
ament
ari
ans,ast
heopponent
stot
heki
ngwer
ecal
l
ed,al
sogotmi
l
itar
yhel
pfr
om
Scot
land.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
heRoy
ali
sts,whosuppor
tedt
heki
ng,di
dwel
lint
hef
ight
ingat
f
ir
st.Par
li
amentwont
hewarbyr
aisi
nganew cent
ral
i
zedf
orcecal
l
edt
heNew Model
Ar
myandput
ti
ngi
tundert
hecommandoft
woabl
egener
als,ThomasFai
rf
axandOl
i
ver
Cr
omwel
l
.TheCi
vi
lWarbeganCr
omwel
l
’smi
l
itar
yandpol
i
tical
car
eer
.Af
tert
heFi
rstCi
vi
l
War
,Fai
rf
ax,i
ntheend,wi
thdr
ew f
rom pol
i
ticall
i
feandCr
omwel
lbecamet
hepr
inci
pal
ar
myl
eader
.Af
tert
heFi
rstCi
vi
lWart
hepr
obl
em wast
ogetaf
ir
m pol
i
ticalset
tl
ement
.A
set
tl
ementi
nvol
vedt
heki
ng,
par
li
amentandt
hear
my.Al
thoughChar
leshadl
ostt
heCi
vi
l
War
,al
mostev
ery
oneatf
ir
stexpect
edandwant
edt
hemonar
chyt
ocont
inuewi
thChar
les
st
il
lki
ng.Thi
smeantr
eachi
nganagr
eementwi
thhi
m aboutt
hedi
str
ibut
ionofpol
i
tical
powerandaboutr
eli
gion.Bot
hpar
li
amentandt
hear
myl
eader
snegot
iat
edwi
tht
heki
ng
butwi
thnosuccess.Char
lesbel
i
evedhewasi
ndi
spensabl
eandcoul
dwi
ninnegot
iat
ion
whathehadl
ostont
hebat
tl
efi
eld,andi
ntheendi
ntheSecondCi
vi
lWari
n1648,he
at
tempt
edt
ogetmi
l
itar
yvi
ctor
yagai
n.

Par
li
ament
,wi
thout
,ofcour
se,i
tsRoy
ali
stmember
swhohadj
oinedt
heki
ngi
n1642,
appar
ent
lyhadpoweratt
heendoft
heFi
rstCi
vi
lWar
.Howev
er,
theNewModelAr
myhad
t
hegunsandt
hear
mywasnotwi
l
li
ngj
ustt
obedi
sbanded(
dismi
ssed,demobi
l
ized)or
sentt
osuppr
esst
her
ebel
l
ioni
nIr
eland.Thear
mywant
edi
tsv
oicet
obehear
dint
he
set
tl
ement
.Butt
hear
mywasi
tsel
fdi
vi
ded.I
tsl
eader
s,i
ncl
udi
ngCr
omwel
lwer
esoci
all
y
and pol
i
tical
l
y qui
te conser
vat
ive butpar
toft
he ar
my had become much mor
e
r
adi
cal
.Bef
oreanddur
ingt
heCi
vi
lWarr
adi
cal
rel
i
giousandpol
i
tical
ideashademer
ged.A
l
argel
ysecul
arpol
i
ticalmov
ementcal
l
edt
heLev
ell
ermov
ementhadappear
ed.The
Lev
ell
erswant
eddemocr
acy
,rel
i
gioust
oler
ati
onwi
thnost
atechur
chandr
efor
m oft
he
sl
ow compl
i
cat
ed,expensi
veandhar
shl
egalsy
stem.TheLev
ell
ershadst
rongsuppor
t
amongpar
ti
cul
arl
y,smal
lmast
ercr
aft
smenandwagewor
ker
sint
het
owns,especi
all
y
London.Theyal
sohadsuppor
tamongt
heor
dinar
ysol
dier
sandj
uni
orof
fi
cer
soft
heNew
Model
Army
.

Theseel
ement
sint
hear
mysai
dthatt
heydi
dnotwantt
ohav
eshedt
hei
rbl
oodi
nthe
Ci
vi
lWarf
ornot
hing.Theyhadbeenf
ight
ingf
orpol
i
ticalandr
eli
giousf
reedom f
or
or
dinar
ypeopl
e.Thel
owerr
anksoft
hear
mywer
est
rongenought
ofor
cet
hear
my
l
eader
shi
ptohol
dapol
i
ticaldi
scussi
onwi
tht
hei
rrepr
esent
ati
ves.Thi
sdi
scussi
on,
cal
l
ed
t
hePut
neyDebat
es(
1647)
,Endedwi
thoutconcl
usi
onsoragr
eement
.Then,
in1648,
came
t
heSecondCi
vi
lWar
.Thi
swasani
nvasi
onofEngl
andbyaScot
ti
shar
my.Onepol
i
tical
gr
oupofScot
shadr
eachedanagr
eementwi
thChar
lesandsentanar
myt
osuppor
thi
m.
TheSecondCi
vi
lWarwasal
soaRoy
ali
sti
nsur
rect
ioni
nEngl
and.TheNewModelAr
my
qui
ckl
ydef
eat
edt
heScot
sandt
heEngl
i
shRoy
ali
sts.Themaj
ori
tyoft
hear
mywasnow
det
ermi
nedt
oputanendt
oChar
lesandt
hemonar
chy
.Cr
omwel
lfi
nal
l
yagr
eedt
othi
s.I
n
December1648 t
he ar
my,excl
uded f
rom par
li
amental
lmember
soft
he House of
Commonswhodi
dnotagr
eewi
tht
hear
my'
spr
ogr
amme.Themember
soft
heHouseof
Commonswhor
emai
nedwer
ecal
l
edt
he“
Rump”
,meani
ngr
emnantorl
eft
-ov
ers.The
“
Rump”andt
hear
myt
henst
agedashow t
ri
aloft
heki
ngandChar
lesIwaspubl
i
cly
beheadedi
nJanuar
y1649.TheHouseofLor
dswasabol
i
shed.Engl
andwasdecl
areda
r
epubl
i
c,cal
l
edt
heCommonweal
th.I
twasnot
,howev
er,i
nanywayademocr
ati
cst
ate.
Af
tert
heSecondCi
vi
lWar
,Cr
omwel
lmov
edf
astt
osmasht
heLev
ell
ermov
ementi
nsi
de
andout
sidet
hear
my.Youhav
enoot
herwaywi
tht
hesemenbutt
obr
eakt
hem “
hesai
d”,
f
orei
thery
ouwi
l
lbr
eakt
hem ort
heywi
l
lbr
eaky
ou”
.Thi
swast
hedef
eatoft
hef
ir
st
secul
ardemocr
ati
cmov
ementi
nmoder
nEur
ope.

Fr
om 1648t
o1653t
he“
Rump”oft
heLongpar
li
amentr
uledEngl
and,
uphel
dbyt
hear
my.
Howev
er,t
hear
myandi
tsl
eader
sbecamedi
ssat
isf
iedwi
tht
heRump.I
nApr
il1653,
Cr
owel
ltooksol
dier
sint
otheHouseofCommonsanddi
smi
ssedt
heRump,andt
his
endedt
heLongPar
li
ament
.Cr
omwel
lhi
msel
fnow r
uledEngl
and,andScot
landand
I
rel
andt
oobyconquest
.Cr
omwel
lrul
edunt
ilhi
sdeat
hinSept
ember1658.Thepr
obl
em
wast
henwhatf
orm ofgov
ernmentshoul
dEngl
andhav
e?Ther
uli
ngcl
assesofEngl
and,
whohadbeendi
vi
dedbyt
heci
vi
lwar
s,r
euni
tedar
est
orat
ionoft
hemonar
chy
.Itwasa
secur
it
yforpol
i
tical
stabi
l
ity
,tr
adi
ti
onal
rul
ebyt
radi
ti
onal
l
awsandasecur
it
yagai
nstanyr
evi
valofpol
i
ticalr
adi
cal
i
sm,whi
chseemedadanger
af
terCr
omwel
l
’sdeat
h.Rest
orat
ionofmonar
chywasmor
eaccept
abl
etomor
epeopl
e
t
hananyot
herpossi
blepol
i
ticalsol
uti
on.Whengener
alMock,
whocommandedast
rong
sect
ionoft
hear
my,deci
dedt
o suppor
tar
est
orat
ionoft
hemonar
chy
,rest
orat
ion
becamecer
tai
n.I
nMay1660Char
lesI
’
sel
destsonwhowasal
sonamedChar
les,
ent
eredLondonandbegant
orul
easChar
lesI
I.Thi
sev
enti
sknownast
heRest
orat
ion.
TheRest
orat
ionbr
oughtbackt
hemonar
chy
,theHouseofLor
ds,t
hest
ateChur
chof
Engl
and wi
thi
ts ar
chbi
shops and bi
shops,who had been abol
i
shed by t
he Long
Par
li
amenti
n1646,andt
het
radi
ti
onalconst
it
uti
on.Char
lesI
Idi
dnotcomebackasan
absol
utemonar
ch.Hehadt
orul
ewi
thpar
li
amentandwi
tht
hesuppor
toft
henobi
l
ityand
gent
ry.Char
leshadnol
egi
ti
mat
echi
l
drenandwhenhedi
edhi
sbr
otherbecameki
ngas
JamesI
I(r
.1685-
1688)
.Hewasaccept
edaski
ngont
heunder
standi
ngt
hat
,though
hi
msel
fa Cat
hol
i
c,he woul
d noti
nter
fer
e wi
tht
he Pr
otest
antst
ate Chur
ch of
Engl
and.
Peopl
esoonbegant
osuspectt
hatJamesi
ntendedt
ounder
minet
heChur
chof
Engl
andandmakeEngl
andCat
hol
i
c.Theyal
sosuspect
edt
hatJameswas t
ryi
ngt
o
est
abl
i
shanabsol
utemonar
chy
,li
keLoui
sXI
V’si
nFr
ance,whi
chwast
heabsol
uti
st
modelf
orot
herEur
opeanki
ngs.A smal
lgr
oupofr
uli
ngcl
assconspi
rat
orssecr
etl
y
i
nvi
ted Wi
l
li
am ofOr
ange,t
he Pr
otest
antl
eaderoft
he Dut
ch Republ
i
c and Mar
y’s
(
James’
sPr
otest
antdaught
er)husbandt
ocomet
oEngl
andwi
thanar
my.Wi
l
li
am was
wi
l
li
ngt
odot
hist
obr
ingEngl
andi
ntohi
sal
l
iancesy
stem agai
nstt
hepowerofFr
ance
andLoui
sXI
V.Wi
l
li
am ar
ri
vedi
nEngl
andwi
thaDut
char
myi
nNov
ember1688.
Par
li
ament
arySupr
emacyandt
heBi
llofRi
ght
s
I
n1689,
whenKi
ngWi
l
li
am I
IIandQueenMar
ybecamej
ointr
uler
sofEngl
and,
Par
li
ament
pr
esent
edt
othem adecl
arat
iont
hatbecameknownast
heBi
llofRi
ght
s.Thi
sfamous
documentassur
edt
hepeopl
ecer
tai
nbasi
cci
vi
lri
ght
s.I
tst
andswi
thMagnaCar
taand
t
hePet
it
ionofRi
ght
sast
hel
egalguar
ant
eesofEngl
i
shl
i
ber
ty.TheBi
l
lofRi
ght
sli
sted
cer
tai
nri
ght
sthatwer
ethe“
true,
anci
ent
,andi
ndubi
tabl
eri
ght
sandl
i
ber
ti
esoft
hepeopl
e”
oft
heEngl
i
shKi
ngdom.I
tset
tl
edt
hesuccessi
ont
othet
hrone.I
tal
somadei
til
l
egalf
or
t
heki
ngt
okeepast
andi
ngar
my,t
olev
ytaxeswi
thoutPar
li
ament
’sappr
oval
,ort
obea
RomanCat
hol
i
c.
3.
4TheFr
enchRev
olut
ion
Theper
iodf
rom t
hemi
ddl
eoft
he17t
hcent
uryt
o1789i
nFr
ancewascal
l
edt
heOl
d
Regi
me.TheOl
d Regi
megov
ernmentwasabsol
utemonar
chywi
thno const
it
uti
on.
Soci
etyi
nOl
dRegi
meFr
ancewasst
il
ldi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreeest
ates,
meani
ngsoci
algr
oups.
The1stest
atewast
heCat
hol
i
ccl
ergy
,the2ndest
atewast
henobi
l
ityandt
he3r
dest
ate
was-
bour
geoi
s,pet
tybour
geoi
s,wagewor
ker
sandpeasant
s.The1stand2ndest
ates
hadmor
epr
ivi
l
egest
hant
he3r
dest
ate,meani
ngt
hatt
hei
rlegalposi
ti
onwasmor
e
f
avor
abl
e.I
npar
ti
cul
ar,t
hecl
ergyandt
henobi
l
itypai
dlesst
axest
hant
he3r
dest
ate.
Wi
thi
nthe3r
dest
ate,
thepeasant
swer
ethemostoppr
essedofal
l
;theypai
dmor
etaxes
t
hananyot
hergr
oupi
nrel
ati
ont
othei
rincomeandt
heyst
il
lpai
dfeudalduest
olor
ds
andt
heChur
cht
axcal
l
edt
het
it
het
otheChur
ch.I
nthesecondhal
foft
he18t
hcent
ury
,
t
her
ewasi
ncr
easi
ngcr
it
ici
smi
nFr
anceofabsol
utemonar
chy
,whi
chpeopl
enowcal
l
ed
“
despot
ism”
.Ther
ewasi
ncr
easi
ngcr
it
ici
sm ofunj
ustpr
ivi
l
eges
.Ast
heFr
encheconomy
expanded,t
hebour
geoi
siei
ncr
easedi
nnumberandweal
th.Thebour
geoi
sienol
onger
accept
edt
hei
rinf
eri
orposi
ti
oncompar
edt
othe1stand2ndest
atesandwer
emor
e
di
ssat
isf
iedaboutt
hepr
ivi
l
egeswhi
cht
he1stand2ndest
atesenj
oyed.Thepeasant
s
wer
eal
sobecomi
ngl
esspassi
veandmor
edi
scont
ent
edwi
thunj
ustt
axat
ionandf
eudal
dues.Thesecr
it
ici
smsanddi
scont
ent
swer
ethel
ongt
erm causesoft
heRev
olut
ion.

Thei
mmedi
atecauseoft
heRev
olut
ionwasFr
ance’
spar
ti
cipat
ioni
ntheAmer
icanWar
ofI
ndependence(
1778-
83)
.Thewarl
edt
orev
olut
ioni
ntwoway
s.Fi
rst
,of
fi
cer
swho
hadser
vedi
nAmer
icar
etur
nedt
oFr
ancef
ullofi
deasaboutl
i
ber
ty.Fr
enchpeopl
eal
so
wonder
ed whyt
he Fr
ench shoul
d hel
ptol
i
ber
ate Amer
icans,y
etst
il
lli
ve under
despot
ism t
hemsel
ves.Sot
her
ewasi
ncr
easedcr
it
ici
sm oft
heabsol
utemonar
chy
.
Second,
thewarwasv
eryexpensi
veandr
esul
tedi
nfi
nanci
alcr
isi
sfort
hegov
ernment
.
By1788t
her
ewasnomor
emoneyi
ntheTr
easur
y,t
hegov
ernmentcoul
dbor
row no
mor
emoneyandt
heaut
hor
it
yoft
hegov
ernmentwasbr
eaki
ngdown.Thegov
ernment
wasf
orcedt
oannounceameet
ingoft
heSt
ages-
Gener
al.
TheSt
ates-
Gener
alwast
henat
ionalr
epr
esent
ati
veassembl
yofFr
ance.I
tconsi
stedof
r
epr
esent
ati
vesel
ect
edbyt
het
hreeest
ates.I
thadnotmetsi
nce1614.I
n1788t
he
gov
ernmentannouncedt
hatel
ect
ionswoul
dbehel
dfort
heSt
ates-
Gener
alandt
hati
t
woul
dmeetatVer
sai
l
les,
ther
oyalr
esi
dencenearPar
is,
in1789.Meanwhi
l
e,t
hepol
i
tical
cr
isi
swasmadewor
sebyeconomi
ccr
isi
s.TheFr
encheconomyhadbeeni
ndepr
essi
on
si
ncet
he1770s.Thi
ngswer
emadewor
sebyav
erybadhar
vest
,causedbyt
hebad
weat
heri
n1788.Foodwasscar
ce,pr
icer
oseandt
her
ewashi
ghunempl
oyment
.The
suf
fer
inganddi
scont
entoft
hepoori
ncr
eased.Par
is,t
hecapi
tal
,hadabout500,
000-
600,
000peopl
ein1789.I
ngener
al,t
hemassesi
nPar
iswer
edi
scont
ent
edenought
o
pr
ovi
deaf
ight
ingf
orcef
ort
her
evol
uti
onoft
hebour
geoi
sie.Addedt
oal
lthi
s,t
heki
ng,
Loui
sXVI(
r.1774-
1792)
,wasweakandi
ncompet
entandt
hiswi
fe,
Mar
ieAnt
oinet
te,
was
v
eryunpopul
arand cr
it
ici
zed f
orherext
rav
agantspendi
ng.She was di
sl
iked t
oo,
becauseshewasaf
orei
gner
,Aust
ri
anpr
incess.

TheSt
ates-
Gener
almeti
nMay1789.Ther
epr
esent
ati
vesoft
he3r
dest
atewer
ethe
mostnumer
ous.OnJune17,t
he3r
dest
atepassedar
esol
uti
on.Theydecl
aredt
hat
,
si
ncet
heyr
epr
esent
ed96%oft
heFr
enchpeopl
e,t
heyal
onewer
ecompet
entt
omakea
const
it
uti
on.Theydecl
aredt
hemsel
vesal
onet
obeaNat
ionalAssembl
yoft
heFr
ench
Nat
ion.Ther
epr
esent
ati
vesoft
he3r
dest
atet
ookt
henameNat
ionalAssembl
yand
i
nvi
tedt
her
epr
esent
ati
vesoft
heot
herest
atest
ojoi
nthem whi
chsomedi
d.The
member
soft
heNat
ionalAssembl
ythent
ookanot
hert
hatt
heywoul
dnotendt
he
meet
ingsoft
heNat
ionalAssembl
y,what
evert
heki
ngor
der
edunt
ilt
heyhadgi
ven
Fr
anceapr
operconst
it
uti
on.Thi
sev
enti
scal
l
edt
heTenni
sCour
tOat
hbecauset
he
oat
hwasmadei
nlar
ge,
indoort
enni
scour
tonJune20,
1789.Theki
ngpl
annedcount
er
-
rev
olut
ion,
order
ingar
myr
egi
ment
stomar
cht
oPar
isandVer
sai
l
les.
TheNat
ional
Assembl
ywassav
edf
rom count
er-
rev
olut
ionbyamassi
nsur
rect
ionoft
he
or
dinar
ypeopl
eofPar
is,t
hewagewor
ker
sandsmal
lcr
aft
smen.On14Jul
y1789t
he
peopl
ecapt
uredt
heBast
il
le,
ther
oyal
pri
son,
for
tressandar
senal
int
hemi
ddl
eofPar
is.
The sol
dier
sin Par
is wer
etoo f
ew t
o suppr
ess t
he r
isi
ng and al
so t
he sol
dier
s
sy
mpat
hiz
edwi
tht
hepeopl
e,sot
hatof
fi
cer
sdar
ednott
oor
dert
hem t
ofi
reont
he
cr
owds.TheBast
il
lewasconsi
der
edasasy
mboloft
yrannyandoppr
essi
on.Thef
allof
t
heBast
il
lemar
kedt
heendofabsol
utemonar
chy(
thoughtnoty
ett
heendoft
he
monar
chy
)inFr
ance,
andJul
y14,
iscel
ebr
atedbyt
heFr
enchpeopl
east
heanni
ver
sar
y
oft
hisl
i
ber
ty.Meanwhi
l
e,i
nthe summerof1789,t
her
e wer
e mass peasant
di
stur
bancesi
nmanyar
easofFr
ance.TheNat
ionalAssembl
ysat
isf
iedt
hepeasantby
decr
eei
ngonAugust4,1789t
heabol
i
tionoff
eudalduesandt
heChur
cht
ax,t
het
it
he.
Thenat
ionalAssembl
ydi
dev
enmor
e:ont
heni
ghtofAugust4,1789i
tpr
ocl
aimedt
he
abol
i
tionofal
lfor
msofpr
ivi
l
ege,i
ncl
udi
ngt
axexempt
ions.Theev
ent
sofJul
yand
August1789endedt
heOl
dRegi
mei
nFr
ance.TheNat
ionalAssembl
ytookaut
hor
it
yto
cr
eat
enewsoci
alandpol
i
ticalcondi
ti
onsi
nFr
ance.I
tdi
dthi
sbywr
it
ingaconst
it
uti
on
anddecr
eei
nganumberofr
efor
ms.Bef
oreget
ti
ngt
owor
kont
heconst
it
uti
on,t
he
Nat
ionalAssembl
ydecr
eedonAugust26,1789t
heDecl
arat
ionoft
heRi
ght
sofMan
andt
heCi
ti
zen.Thi
ssetoutt
hepol
i
ticalpr
inci
plesonwhi
cht
henewconst
it
uti
onwoul
d
bebased.TheDecl
arat
ionsai
dthatal
lpol
i
ticalaut
hor
it
ycomesf
rom t
hepeopl
eand
t
hatl
awsandt
axat
ionmustbeappr
ovedbyanel
ect
edr
epr
esent
ati
veassembl
yoft
he
nat
ion.Al
lmember
soft
henat
ionar
eequali
nri
ght
sanddut
ies.Thedi
vi
sionofFr
ance
i
ntoest
ateshadt
husbeenr
eject
ed;al
lFr
enchmenwer
eequalci
ti
zensofonenat
ion.
TheDecl
arat
ional
soexpr
essedv
ari
ousci
vi
lri
ght
sli
kef
reedom ofspeechandr
eli
gion.

I
n Oct
ober1789 t
her
e wasanot
hermassdi
stur
bance.The peopl
e ofPar
ishear
d
r
umour
sofmor
ecount
er-
rev
olut
ionatVer
sai
l
les.OnOct
ober5-
6,1789al
argecr
owd,
wi
thmanywomeni
nit
,mar
chedt
oVer
sai
l
lesandf
orcedt
heki
ngandhi
sfami
l
ytocome
back wi
tht
hem t
o Par
is.The Nat
ionalAssembl
ysoon mov
ed i
ts meet
ings f
rom
Ver
sai
l
lest
oPar
is.Af
tert
his,t
her
ewasr
elat
ivecal
mfort
henextt
woy
ear
sandt
he
Nat
ionalAssembl
ywasabl
etoconcent
rat
eonbui
l
dingupaNew Fr
ance.TheFr
ench
Rev
olut
ionwasabour
geoi
srev
olut
ion.Mostoft
hel
eader
shi
pwasbour
geoi
sandt
he
bour
geoi
s maj
ori
tyoft
he Nat
ionalAssembl
yref
lect
ed mai
nlybour
geoi
sint
erest
s.
Howev
er,someofwhati
tdi
dal
sobenef
it
edt
hepeopl
easawhol
e.TheNat
ional
Assembl
yendedgov
ernmentoft
hepr
ovi
ncesbyr
oyalof
fi
cial
sandr
epl
acedt
hisby
gov
ernmentatdi
ff
erentl
evel
sbyel
ect
edcounci
l
s.Tocopewi
tht
hef
inanci
alcr
isi
s,t
he
Nat
ionalAssembl
ynat
ional
i
zedal
lthel
andbel
ongi
ngt
otheCat
hol
i
cChur
ch.Thi
sland
wast
hensol
d.I
twasmember
soft
hebour
geoi
sie,
somenobl
esandsomer
ichpeasant
s
whohadt
hef
inanci
alcapaci
tyt
obuyt
hel
and.Thepoorpeasant
sandl
and-
lesspeopl
e
i
nthecount
rysi
degotnot
hing.I
n1790t
heNat
ionalAssembl
yal
sov
otedt
oputt
he
Cat
hol
i
cChur
chi
nFr
anceundert
hecont
roloft
hest
ate.Themeasur
ewasnotaccept
ed
bypopei
nRomeandmanyCat
hol
i
ccl
ergyi
nFr
ance.Thi
sledt
oaquar
relbet
weent
he
Rev
olut
ionar
iesandt
heChur
ch.Asar
esul
t,t
hecount
er-
rev
olut
ionar
yfor
cesi
nFr
ance
suppor
tfort
hef
ir
stt
ime.Thesi
tuat
ionwasacut
eespeci
all
yinr
uralar
easwher
ethe
i
nfl
uenceoft
heChur
chwasst
rong.
I
nJune1790t
heki
ngandhi
sfami
l
yfl
edf
rom Par
ist
ojoi
nthecount
er-
rev
olut
ionar
ies
whohadal
readyl
eftFr
ance.Theki
ngwasr
ecogni
zedbef
orehegott
othef
ront
ier
,
st
oppedandbr
oughtbackt
oPar
is.Thi
smadet
her
oyalf
ami
l
yst
il
lmor
eunpopul
arwi
th
t
heor
dinar
ypeopl
eofPar
isbutt
heNat
ionalAssembl
ywasnotwi
l
li
ngt
oabol
i
sht
he
monar
chy
.Amassdemonst
rat
ioni
nPar
isi
nfav
orofar
epubl
i
cwassuppr
essedbyt
he
bour
geoi
ssecur
it
yfor
cecal
l
edt
heNat
ional
Guar
d.
I
n Sept
ember1791 t
he new const
it
uti
on had been compl
eted.I
tmade Fr
ance a
const
it
uti
onalmonar
chy
.Howev
er,t
heconst
it
uti
oncont
radi
ctedt
hepr
inci
plesoft
he
Decl
arat
ionoft
heRi
ghtofManandt
heCi
ti
zendecl
aredi
nAugust1789.Thenew
const
it
uti
ongav
eful
lpol
i
ticalr
ight
sofv
oti
ngandbei
ngel
ect
edonl
yto“
act
iveci
ti
zens”
,
whohadenoughpr
oper
ty.Ot
her
swer
ecal
l
ed“
passi
veci
ti
zens”anddi
dnothav
eful
l
pol
i
ticalr
ight
s.Women deni
ed al
lpol
i
ticalr
ight
s.Sl
aver
ycont
inued i
nthe Fr
ench
ov
erseascol
oni
es.TheNat
ionalAssembl
ydi
dnotgi
vepol
i
ticalr
ight
stot
hepoor
,
becauset
hebour
geoi
si
efear
edgi
vi
ngpol
i
ticalr
ight
swoul
dendangert
heguar
ant
eeof
pr
ivat
epr
oper
ty.Hav
ingf
ini
shedi
tswor
k,t
heNat
ionalAssembl
yar
rangedel
ect
ions
undert
henewconst
it
uti
onf
oranewLegi
slat
iveAssembl
ywhi
chmeti
nOct
ober1791.
Thenew const
it
uti
ondi
dnotl
astl
ongas,Fr
ancesoonent
eredwart
hatmadet
he
r
evol
uti
onmor
eext
reme.Themonar
chi
esofEur
opedi
sli
kedt
her
evol
uti
onandwant
ed
t
ocr
ushi
t.TheLegi
sl
ati
veAssembl
yal
sobel
i
evedt
hatar
evol
uti
onar
ywarwoul
dspr
ead
r
evol
uti
ont
other
estofEur
ope.Ast
her
esul
toft
heser
easons,i
n1792warbegan
bet
weenFr
anceononesi
deandAust
ri
aandPr
ussi
aont
heot
her
.Ast
hescopeoft
he
warspr
eadFr
ancewasatwaragai
nstmostEur
opeanst
atesi
n1793.
Aust
ro-
Prussi
anar
myi
nvadedeast
ernFr
ance.Ast
hewarwentagai
nstFr
ance,t
he
peopl
eofPar
isbel
i
eved,t
hatt
her
oyalf
ami
l
ywassecr
etl
yont
hesi
deoft
heenemy
.A
newr
isi
ngbr
okeouti
nPar
isandov
ert
hrewt
hemonar
chyonAugust10,1792.Peopl
es
al
sor
eject
edt
heconst
it
uti
onof1791.Thus,Legi
slat
iveAssembl
ydi
ssol
vedi
tsel
ffor
new assembl
ycal
l
edt
heConv
ent
ion.Thet
askoft
heconv
ent
ionwast
owr
it
eanew
const
it
uti
on.Meanwhi
l
e,att
hewarf
ront
,ther
evol
uti
onwassav
edf
ort
hemoment
.The
Fr
enchar
mywonani
mpor
tantv
ict
oryagai
nstt
heAust
ri
anf
orcev
ict
oryatt
hebat
tl
eof
Val
myi
nSept
ember1792.

TheConv
ent
ionmeti
nSept
ember1792andi
mmedi
atel
ydecl
aredFr
ancear
epubl
i
c.The
ex-
king,Loui
sXVI
,wasexecut
edi
npubl
i
cbyt
hegui
l
lot
inei
nJanuar
y1793andMar
ie
Ant
oinet
tewasgui
l
lot
inedl
ateri
nOct
ober1793.I
nthemeant
ime,pol
i
ticalgr
oupsand
par
ti
eshademer
ged,
sincet
hebegi
nni
ngoft
her
evol
uti
on.Thet
wor
ivalpol
i
ticalpar
ti
es
i
ntheconv
ent
ionwer
etheJacobi
nsandt
heGi
rondi
ns.TheJacobi
nsbel
i
evedt
ohav
e
r
epr
esent
edt
hemi
ddl
eandpet
tybour
gei
siewher
east
heGi
rondi
nst
hatoft
hebi
g
bour
geoi
sie.Howev
er,t
her
ealdi
ff
erencebet
weent
heJacobi
nsandt
heGi
rondi
nswas
t
hatt
heJacobi
nswer
ewi
l
li
ngt
ogot
omor
eradi
calext
remest
osav
eFr
anceandt
he
r
evol
uti
on.
I
n1793t
her
evol
uti
onandFr
ancewer
eagai
ninser
iousdanger
.Ther
ewer
eeconomi
c
pr
obl
emsbecauseofwarandi
nter
nali
nst
abi
l
ity
.Ther
ewascount
er-
rev
olut
ioni
npar
ts
ofFr
ance.Fr
ancewasagai
ninv
adedbyt
hear
miesoft
heEur
opeanmonar
chi
es.The
peopl
eofPar
ist
urnedt
othesuppor
tofJacobi
nswhom t
heybel
i
evedt
her
adi
caland
det
ermi
nedpar
tywhi
chcoul
dsav
ethecount
ry.Fr
om May31t
oJune2,
1793anot
herbi
g
r
isi
ngf
orcedt
heConv
ent
iont
opur
get
heGi
rondi
ns.TheJacobi
ns,t
houghami
nor
it
yin
t
heConv
ent
ion,wer
enow i
npoweri
nar
evol
uti
onar
ydi
ctat
orshi
p.TheConv
ent
ion
cont
inuedt
omeetbutt
heJacobi
nswer
eincont
rol
.Unt
ilJul
y1794t
heConv
ent
iondi
d
whatt
heJacobi
nswant
edi
ttodo.Thechi
efJacobi
nleaderandt
heor
istwasMaxi
mil
l
ien
Robespi
err
e.TheJacobi
nsr
uledFr
ancet
hrougha12-
manCommi
tt
eeofPubl
i
cSaf
ety
.
TheJacobi
nsi
ntr
oducedanew,v
erydemocr
ati
cconst
it
uti
oni
n(June1793)
,whi
chwas
t
ocomei
ntoef
fectonl
yatt
heendoft
hewar
.Howev
er,i
tnev
erdi
dcomei
ntoef
fect
.
Foodr
ati
oni
ngwasi
ntr
oducedandcont
rol
sonpr
icesandwagescal
l
ed(
theLawoft
he
Maxi
mum)
wasal
soenf
orced.Thesemeasur
eswer
eusedt
ost
abi
l
iset
heeconomi
c
si
tuat
ion.Ther
eignofTer
rorwasusedt
ocr
ushcount
er-
rev
olut
ion.Ter
ror
ism meant
execut
ionofi
ndi
vi
dual
sconv
ict
edofbei
ng“
enemi
esoft
hepeopl
e”.TheCommi
tt
eeof
Publ
i
c Saf
etyr
aised mass ar
mies byconscr
ipt
ion t
oface t
he ext
ernali
nvasi
ons.
Di
ff
erentmet
hodswer
eusedt
osuppl
ythear
mies.Or
gani
zi
ngt
hel
argescal
epr
oduct
ion
ofar
msandsei
zi
ngbygov
ernmentor
derev
ery
thi
ngnecessar
yfort
hewarf
ront
swer
e
someoft
hemet
hodsused.Thei
nvasi
onswer
erepul
sed.TheJacobi
nrev
olut
ionar
y
di
ctat
orshi
p,June1793–Jul
y1794,wast
hehei
ghtoft
heFr
enchRev
olut
ionandi
ts
bl
oodi
estst
age.

TheJacobi
nswer
eanext
remer
evol
uti
onar
ymi
nor
it
yint
heConv
ent
ionandout
sidei
t.
TheConv
ent
ionandt
hebour
geoi
sieaccept
edt
heJacobi
ndi
ctat
orshi
pwhi
l
ethemi
l
itar
y
si
tuat
ionwascr
it
ical
.Howev
er,whent
hedangerwasov
er,t
heyt
urnedagai
nstt
he
Jacobi
ns.The Jacobi
ns al
so l
ostsuppor
tamong t
he peopl
e ofPar
is by t
hei
r
suppr
essi
onofpopul
ardemocr
acyatt
hel
ocall
evel
.Al
so,t
het
err
orgotoutofcont
rol
andmadeenemi
esi
nal
lcl
asses.Fi
nal
l
y,t
heJacobi
nsf
ail
edt
okeepdi
sci
pli
neamong
t
hemsel
ves.Thei
rquar
rel
sgav
eanoppor
tuni
tyf
ort
henon-
Jacobi
nmaj
ori
tyi
nthe
Conv
ent
iont
otur
nagai
nstt
heJacobi
nleader
shi
p.OnJul
y27-
28,1794t
heConv
ent
ion
v
otedt
hear
restofRobespi
err
eandot
herJacobi
nleader
sandsentt
hem t
othegui
l
lot
ine.
Thi
swast
heendoft
heJacobi
nrev
olut
ionar
ydi
ctat
orshi
pandt
her
evol
uti
onnow
becamemor
econser
vat
ive.TheConv
ent
ionv
otedanew const
it
uti
oni
n1795.Thi
s
const
it
uti
onr
est
ri
ctedpol
i
ticalr
ight
sev
enmor
ethant
he1791const
it
uti
onhaddone.
The1795const
it
uti
onest
abl
i
shedar
egi
mecal
l
edt
heDi
rect
ory
.TheDi
rect
orywas
unabl
etogi
veFr
anceast
abl
e,conser
vat
ivebour
geoi
srepubl
i
c.
Ther
egi
mewascor
rupt
,weakandunpopul
ar,wi
thoutmuchsuppor
tev
enamongt
he
bour
geoi
sie.Forat
imei
tkeptpowerwi
tht
hesuppor
toft
hear
my.Fi
nal
l
y,i
nNov
ember
1799,anambi
ti
ous,popul
arandsuccessf
ulgener
alov
ert
hrewt
heDi
rect
oryi
nami
l
itar
y
coupandt
ookpower
.Thi
sgener
alwasNapol
eonBonapar
te.
Democr
ati
cGai
ns
TheFr
enchRev
olut
ionbr
oughtaboutgr
eatchangesi
nthesoci
etyandgov
ernmentof
Fr
ance.I
tint
roduced democr
ati
cideal
sto Fr
ance butdi
d notmake t
he nat
ion a
democr
acy
.Howev
er,i
tendedsupr
emer
ulebyFr
enchki
ngsandst
rengt
henedt
he
mi
ddl
ecl
ass.TheRev
olut
ionabol
i
shedser
fdom,
slav
ery
,inher
it
edpr
ivi
l
egesandj
udi
cial
t
ort
ure.Legalequal
i
tygr
adual
l
ybecamet
henor
minFr
ance.TheFr
enchRev
olut
ion
cr
eat
edt
hel
ong-
last
ingf
oundat
ionf
orauni
fi
edst
ate,ast
rongcent
ralgov
ernment
,and
af
reesoci
etydomi
nat
edbyt
hemi
ddl
ecl
assandl
andowner
s.
TheRev
olut
ion,whi
chl
ast
edf
rom 1789t
o1799,al
sohadaf
ar-
reachi
ngef
fectont
he
r
estofEur
ope.Af
tert
heRev
olut
ionbegan,
noEur
opeanki
ngs,
nobl
esorot
herpr
ivi
l
eged
gr
oupscoul
dev
eragai
ntaket
hei
rpower
sforgr
ant
ed,
ori
gnor
ethei
deal
sofl
i
ber
tyand
equal
i
ty.
TheNapol
eoni
cEr
a(1799-
1815)andI
tsConsequences
Mi
l
itar
yDi
ctat
orshi
pNapol
eonwasbor
nonAugust15,1769,i
nAj
acci
o,ont
hei
slandof
Cor
sicai
ntheMedi
ter
raneansea.Napol
eon'
spar
ent
swer
emember
sofnobl
eIt
ali
an
f
ami
l
ies.
Hehadr
ecei
vedhi
seducat
ioni
nami
l
itar
yschool
andhadbecomeasecondl
i
eut
enanti
n
t
heFr
enchar
myatt
heageof16.Hehadwonf
avourwi
tht
her
evol
uti
onar
ygov
ernment
byav
ict
oryagai
nstt
heEngl
i
sh(
atToul
onwhent
heBr
it
ishandt
heFr
enchr
ebel
sagai
nst
t
her
evol
uti
onar
ygov
ernmenti
n1793)andt
heSpani
shandbysuccessf
ull
ydef
endi
ng
t
heNat
ionalConv
ent
ionf
rom at
tackbyabomb.I
n1796.Napol
eonwasgi
vencommand
ofanar
myf
ight
ingt
heAust
ri
ansi
nnor
ther
nIt
aly
.Wi
thast
oni
shi
ngspeedheconquer
ed
t
hel
i
ttl
erepubl
i
csandki
ngdomsofnor
ther
nIt
alyandsmashedt
heAust
ri
anar
mysent
agai
nsthi
m.Heper
suadedt
heAust
ri
anst
omakepeacebyal
l
owi
ngt
hem t
ohav
eVeni
ce.
ButAust
ri
aagr
eedt
osur
rendert
heAust
ri
anNet
her
lands(
Bel
gium)t
oFr
anceandt
o
per
mitmostofnor
ther
nIt
alyt
obedi
vi
dedi
ntol
i
ttl
erepubl
i
csunderFr
ances'
'
prot
ect
ion'
'
.
Pr
ussi
aandHol
l
andhadal
readymadepeace.Gr
eatBr
it
ainr
emai
nedFr
ances'onl
y
power
ful
enemy
.
Fr
ancel
ackedt
heseapowerneededt
omakeadi
rectat
tackupont
heBr
it
ishI
sles.So
Napol
eonper
suadedt
heDi
rect
oryt
hatt
henextbestt
hingf
orFr
ancewoul
dbet
o
conquerEgy
ptandSy
riai
ntheeast
ernMedi
ter
raneanr
egi
on.Suchamov
ewoul
dst
ri
kea
bl
owatt
heBr
it
isht
radei
ntheEast
.ButNapol
eon'
scampai
gnsi
nEgy
ptandSy
riawer
e
notsuccessf
ulent
ir
ely
.Hewonv
ict
ori
esbyl
and,butt
heBr
it
ishf
leet
,underAdmi
ral
Nel
son,dest
roy
edhi
sfl
eetandf
orcedhi
mtor
etur
ntoFr
ance.Onhi
sret
urnt
oFr
ance,
howev
er,Napol
eonwashai
l
edasaher
o.TheFr
enchpeopl
ehadhear
dmuchabouthi
s
v
ict
ori
esandl
i
ttl
eabouthi
sdef
eat
s.
I
n1799,
Napol
eonov
ert
hrewt
heDi
rect
oryandpr
ocl
aimedanewconst
it
uti
onf
orFr
ance.
Napol
eon'
sownt
it
lewast
obeFi
rstConsul
.Twoot
herconsul
swer
etoai
dhi
m as
adv
iser
s.Ther
ewer
esev
eral
gov
ernmentbodi
esi
ncl
udi
ngal
egi
slat
ureandacounci
l
,but
Napol
eon,
asFi
rstConsulcoul
dcont
rolt
hismember
shi
p.Out
war
dbyFr
ancer
emai
neda
r
epubl
i
c,butact
ual
l
yitwasami
l
itar
ydi
ctat
orshi
pwi
tht
her
ealpoweri
nthehandsoft
he
Fi
rstConsul
,Napol
eon.
Napol
eonf
il
ledt
heposi
ti
onofFi
rstConsulofFr
ancef
rom 1799t
o1804.Dur
ingt
his
per
iod,cal
l
ed t
he consul
ate Napol
eon showed a geni
us i
n bot
h mi
l
itar
y and
gov
ernment
alaf
fai
rs.Anewal
l
ianceofRussi
a,Aust
ri
a,Gr
eatBr
it
ainandcer
tai
nsmal
l
er
st
ateshadbeenf
ormedt
odr
ivet
heFr
enchf
rom I
tal
y,Ger
manyandt
heNet
her
lands.But
Napol
eonsmashedt
heal
l
ianceagai
nstt
heFr
enchandgai
nedal
lGer
manywestoft
he
Rhi
neRi
ver
.Heext
endedFr
ancesi
nfl
uenceov
eral
lIt
alyandst
rengt
henedFr
ancesgr
ip
onHol
l
andandSwi
tzer
land.Heev
enf
orcedGr
eatBr
it
aint
omakepeacei
n1802.I
n1804,
Napol
eoncastasi
dehi
sti
tl
eofFi
rstConsulofFr
enchRepubl
i
candbecameEmper
orof
t
heFr
ench.Shor
tl
yaf
terNapol
eonbecameEmper
or,warbr
okeoutagai
n.St
il
lanot
her
al
l
iancewasor
gani
zedagai
nstNapol
eon.Gr
eatBr
it
ain,
Aust
ri
a,Russi
aandSwedenwer
e
t
hepr
inci
palmember
s.I
nthecampai
gnst
hatf
oll
owed,Napol
eondi
spl
ayedhi
sgr
eat
est
geni
usandownhi
sgr
eat
estv
ict
ori
es.Ther
esul
twast
obr
ingmostoft
hecont
inentof
Eur
opedi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyunderhi
scont
rol
.
By1810,t
heFr
ench Empi
rei
tsel
fhad been ext
ended t
oincl
udeBel
gium,Hol
l
and,
west
ernGer
many
,nor
thwest
ernI
tal
y,andpar
tofwhati
snowYugosl
avi
a.Al
argepar
tof
Eur
ope-
Spai
n,mostofPol
and,t
her
estofI
tal
y,Swi
tzer
land,andagr
oupofGer
man
st
atesknownast
heConf
eder
ati
onoft
heRhi
ne-
thoughnotannexedt
otheEmpi
re,was
undert
heFr
enchEmper
or'
scont
rol
.St
atessuchasAust
ri
a,Pr
ussi
a,Denmar
kand
Nor
way(
whi
chbel
ongst
oDenmar
k)hadbeenf
orcedagai
nstt
hei
rwi
l
ltobecomeal
l
ies
ofFr
ance.Ev
ent
heRussi
anCzarhadbeenobl
i
gedt
opr
omi
seai
dtoNapol
eon.Tohel
p
i
nthecont
rolofEur
ope,Napol
eonhadgi
vent
hronest
ohi
srel
ati
vesandf
avour
it
e
gener
alsButGr
eatBr
it
ainr
emai
nedundef
eat
ed.Thi
swasduet
oit
sisl
andposi
ti
onand
t
oit
scommandoft
heseas.I
n1805,t
heBr
it
ishf
leet
,commandedbyt
hegr
eatLor
d
Nel
sonhadcr
ushedt
heFr
enchf
leeti
nthei
mpor
tantseabat
tl
eofTr
afal
garof
fthecoast
ofSpai
n.Thi
svi
ctor
ynotonl
ysav
edEngl
andf
rom aFr
enchi
nvasi
onbutgav
econquer
ed
Eur
openewhope.
Meanwhi
l
e,Napol
eonhadpr
obl
emsofhi
sown.Hehadnotonl
ytheBr
it
ishar
myand
nav
ytocont
endwi
th,butt
hepopul
ati
onsoft
hecount
ri
eshehadov
err
un.Atf
ir
stt
he
Fr
enchar
mieshadbeenwel
comedas'
'
li
ber
ator
s''byt
hecommonpeopl
eofHol
l
and,
Bel
gium,Ger
manyandI
tal
y.Thesepeopl
ethoughtt
hatFr
enchar
mieswoul
dfr
eet
hem
f
orm unpopul
arr
uler
sandunj
ustl
aws.Butast
imewenton,
thepeopl
eoft
heconquer
ed
t
err
it
ori
esbegant
owonderaboutt
hehi
ghpr
icet
heyhadt
opayf
ort
he'
'
benef
it
s''of
Fr
enchr
ule.Napol
eonpl
under
edcapt
uredci
ti
esoft
hei
rwor
ksofar
tandshi
ppedt
hem
t
oFr
ancet
obeaut
if
ytheci
tyofPar
is.Hef
orcedconquer
edpeopl
est
ocont
ri
but
e
sol
dier
stoswel
lhi
sar
miesandmoneyt
opayhi
swar
s.
Thepeopl
eofEur
opecamet
ohat
eandf
earNapol
eon.Di
scont
entt
urnedi
ntor
ebel
l
ion
ast
hepeopl
eofdi
ff
erentcount
ri
esbandedt
oget
hert
othr
owof
fFr
enchcont
rol
.Sol
ong
asNapol
eonhadmer
elyt
oov
ert
hrow ki
ngsordef
eatpr
ofessi
onalar
mies,hewas
v
ict
ori
ous.Butwhenhehadt
ofi
ghtconquer
edpeopl
eswhower
est
ir
redbynat
ional
pat
ri
oti
sm,
Napol
eonbegant
olose.Hedi
dnothav
ear
miesst
rongenought
ohol
dthem
down.
I
n1812,Napol
eonmadet
hemi
stakeofi
nvadi
ngRussi
a.Atf
ir
sthewassuccessf
ul.He
def
eat
edt
heRussi
anar
myandcapt
uredMoscow.Buthehadf
ail
edt
oreckonont
wo
t
hings-
thespr
itoft
heRussi
anpeopl
eandt
hecol
doft
heRussi
anwi
nter
.Fi
ndi
ngi
t
i
mpossi
blet
oremai
ninMoscow,muchofwhi
cht
heRussi
anshadbur
ned,Napol
eon
beganoneoft
hemostdi
sast
rousr
etr
eat
sinmi
l
itar
yhi
stor
y.TheRussi
anscutof
f
suppl
i
esoff
ood,
dest
roy
edr
oadsandbr
idgesandcapt
uredst
raggl
ers.Andal
way
sther
e
wast
het
err
ibl
e,bi
ti
ngcol
d.WhenNapol
eonr
eachedGer
mansoi
lagai
n,l
i
ttl
ewasl
eftof
hi
sar
my.Meanwhi
l
e,al
lhi
senemi
eshadt
urnedonhi
m.Rebel
l
ionbr
eakoutamongt
he
Ger
mans,
whi
l
eFr
enchar
mieswer
edef
eat
edi
nPor
tugalandSpai
n.I
n1813,
int
hebat
tl
e
oft
henat
ionsnearLei
pzi
g,Ger
many
,Napol
eonsuf
fer
edadi
sast
rousdef
eat
.Hewas
dr
ivenbackt
oFr
anceandf
inal
l
yfor
cedt
osur
render
.
I
n 1814,t
hev
ict
ori
esal
l
iessentNapol
eon i
nto exi
l
eon t
hei
sland ofEl
ba i
nthe
Medi
ter
ranean Sea.They r
est
ored t
he monar
chy
,putLoui
s XVI
II
,br
otheroft
he
gui
l
lot
ined.Ki
ng,ont
het
hroneofFr
ance,andt
urnedt
othepr
obl
emsofbr
ingi
ngpeace
t
oEur
ope.Butsuddenl
ythepeacemaker
swer
eint
err
upt
edbyst
art
li
ngr
umor
s.Napol
eon
hadescapedf
rom El
ba!Hewasi
nFr
ance!Hewasmar
chi
ngonPar
is!TheFr
encht
roops
sentt
ocapt
ureNapol
eonj
oinedhi
sar
myi
nst
ead.Tooneofhi
sol
dregi
ment
shesai
d.
'
'
Her
eIam.Youknow me.I
fther
eisasol
dieramongy
ouwhowi
shest
oshoothi
s
Emper
or,
hecandoi
t'
'
.Ki
ngLoui
sXVI
IIf
ledt
hecount
ry,
andf
or100day
s(Mar
cht
oJune,
1815)Napol
eonwasagai
nincont
rol
ofFr
ance.
The mast
erofFr
ance,howev
er,was no l
ongert
he mast
erofEur
ope.Napol
eon'
s
enemi
esunt
iedi
nal
astcampai
gni
n1815.Ont
hef
iel
dofwat
erl
oo,i
nBel
gium,t
he
Br
it
ishl
edbyt
heDukeof
Wel
l
ingt
on,andt
hePr
ussi
ansunderBl
ucherdef
eat
edNapol
eon.Thi
sti
met
heBr
it
ish
f
oundasaf
epl
acef
orNapol
eont
hef
arawayl
i
ttl
eisl
andofSt
.Hel
enai
ntheSout
h
At
lant
ic.Thenhedi
edaf
ew y
ear
slat
eratt
heageof52.Hi
sbodynow r
est
sina
magni
fi
centt
ombi
nPar
is.
Whatef
fect
sdi
dNapol
eon'
srul
ehav
euponFr
ance?Whi
l
eNapol
eonwasi
npower
,he
hadt
womai
ngoal
s-t
orepl
acet
heconf
usi
onofRev
olut
ionwi
thl
aw andor
derandt
o
keept
hoseachi
evement
sofRev
olut
ionwhi
chwer
edeart
omostFr
enchmen.Napol
eon
setupacent
ral
i
zedef
fi
cientgov
ernmentf
orFr
ance.Taxeswer
ecol
l
ect
edpr
oper
ly.
Roads,
canal
s,andbr
idgeswer
ebui
l
twhi
chhel
pedt
ouni
teFr
ance.
Napol
eonappoi
ntedl
awy
erst
ofi
nishor
gani
zi
ngFr
enchl
aw i
ntoauni
for
m codef
oral
l
Fr
ance.Thenewl
awcodes-
sev
eni
nnumber
-i
ncor
por
atedsomeoft
hef
reedomsgai
ned
byt
hepeopl
eofFr
ancedur
ingt
her
evol
uti
oni
ncl
udi
ngr
eli
gioust
oler
ati
onandt
he
abol
i
tionofser
fdom.Tot
hiscodeofl
awshegav
ehi
sownname,t
heCodeNapol
eon.
Thi
scodehashadwi
deusei
nBel
gium,
west
ernGer
many
,andI
tal
y,aswel
lasi
nFr
ance.
Napol
eonsetupawhol
esy
stem ofpubl
i
cschool
s-el
ement
aryschool
s,hi
ghschool
s,
mi
l
itar
yacademi
es,anduni
ver
sit
ies-
allundert
hesuper
visi
onoft
hecent
ralgov
ernment
.
Fr
enchmencont
inuedt
ohav
ecompl
etef
reedom t
owor
shi
past
heywi
shed,butan
agr
eementwasr
eachedwi
tht
hepopei
n1801wher
ebyt
heCat
hol
i
cChur
chbecamet
he
est
abl
i
shedChur
chofFr
ance.TheChur
chagr
eedt
ogi
veupcl
aimst
oit
sfor
merl
ands,
butr
egai
nedowner
shi
pofchur
chbui
l
dings.Thegov
ernmentagr
eedt
opayt
hesal
ari
es
oft
hecl
ergy
.Youcanseet
hatt
hisagr
eement
,whi
l
eitr
est
oredt
heCat
hol
i
cChur
chi
n
Fr
ance,
kepti
tundert
hecl
osecont
rol
oft
hegov
ernment
.
3.
5Amer
icanWarofI
ndependence
TheAmer
icanRev
olut
ionwasal
socal
l
edt
heU.
S.WarofI
ndependence.Thewarwast
he
i
nsur
rect
ionf
oughtbet
ween1775and1783,
thr
oughwhi
ch13(
thi
rt
een)ofGr
eatBr
it
ain'
s
Nor
thAmer
icancol
oni
est
hrewof
fBr
it
ishr
ulet
oest
abl
i
sht
hesov
erei
gnUni
tedSt
atesof
Amer
ica.Si
nceCol
umbus'
sdi
scov
eryoft
he"
New Wor
ld"i
n1492,peopl
efr
om Eur
ope
begant
oinhabi
t,sear
chi
ngf
orabet
terl
i
fet
her
e.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
hesepeopl
egr
adual
l
y
dev
elopedset
tl
edl
i
feascol
oni
stsandbegant
ocl
aim col
oni
alt
err
it
ori
esi
nthe"
New
Wor
ld"
.Among Eur
opeans,bet
ween 1607 and 1682,t
he Br
it
ish hav
e succeeded i
n
est
abl
i
shi
ngt
hir
teencol
oni
esi
nNor
thAmer
ica.Thest
ruggl
eoft
heseEur
opeanset
tl
ers
(
thi
rt
eencol
oni
sts)agai
nstBr
it
ishcol
oni
alr
ulef
ori
ndependencewascoi
nedi
nwor
ld
hi
stor
yast
heAmer
icanWarofI
ndependence.
Ast
heBr
it
ish began t
oimposeheav
ytaxat
ions,t
het
hir
teen col
oni
stsgat
her
ed at
Phi
l
adel
phi
a-t
heFi
rstCont
inent
alCongr
ess.Theyadopt
ed anon-
impor
tat
ion,non-
consumpt
ionagr
eement
,whi
chv
irt
ual
l
ycutof
fimpor
tsf
rom Br
it
ain.Agai
n,t
heymeti
n
Phi
l
adel
phi
aonMay10,1775.TheCongr
esssett
heAr
myoft
heUni
tedCol
oni
esand
Col
onelGeor
geWashi
ngt
ont
obeCommander
-i
n-Chi
efoft
heAr
my.Thef
ight
ingst
art
ed
i
nthel
argestci
ti
esandt
radi
ngpor
ts.Fi
nal
l
y,i
n1776,r
epr
esent
ati
vesf
rom 13col
oni
es
meti
nPhi
l
adel
phi
atodecl
aret
hemsel
vesi
ndependent
.ThomasJef
fer
sondr
aft
eda
documentcal
l
edt
heDecl
arat
ionofI
ndependence(
Jul
y14,1776)
.Itj
ust
if
iedt
heactof
r
ebel
l
ionandannouncedt
hebi
rt
hofanewnat
ioncal
l
edt
heUSA.Thedocumental
soset
f
ort
hthephi
l
osophyofhumanf
reedom,
whi
chl
aterbecameady
nami
cfor
cei
nther
estof
t
hewest
ernwor
ld.I
n1783,t
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmentaccept
eddef
eat
.Themaj
ori
tyof
del
egat
essi
gnedaconst
it
uti
ononSept
ember17,
1787
Theconst
it
uti
onalconv
ent
ionof1787f
acedsev
erechal
l
engesi
n1788whenagul
fwas
cr
eat
ed bet
ween f
eder
ali
stsand ant
i-
feder
ali
sts.Nev
ert
hel
ess,f
inal
l
y,ant
i-
feder
ali
sts
j
oinedt
hef
eder
ali
stst
orat
if
ytheconst
it
uti
ononJune25.Thewarofi
ndependence
br
oughtaboutt
hel
i
ber
ati
onoft
heAmer
icanpeopl
efr
om Br
it
ishr
ule.I
tal
socr
eat
ed
i
ndependentAmer
icannat
ions,whi
chwer
efor
mer
lyt
heBr
it
ishcol
oni
es.Thesenat
ions
f
inal
l
ycr
eat
edt
heUni
tedSt
atesofAmer
ica.TheAmer
icanWarofI
ndependencehi
ghl
y
i
nfl
uenced manycount
ri
esl
i
ket
heFr
ench and Lat
in Amer
icans.I
twasoneoft
he
i
mmedi
atecausesf
ort
heFr
enchRev
olut
ionout
breaki
n1789.I
nthecaseoft
heLat
in
Amer
icancount
ri
es,t
heyst
art
edt
orai
sear
msagai
nstt
hei
rcol
oni
almast
ers,Spai
nand
Por
tugal
.InMar
ch1889,el
ect
ionswer
ehel
dfort
hePr
esi
dencyoft
henew f
eder
al
gov
ernment
,and Geor
ge Washi
ngt
on became t
he f
ir
stPr
esi
dentoft
he USA.The
Amer
icanWarofI
ndependencedi
dnotabol
i
shsl
aver
y.Att
hesamet
ime,i
tdi
dnot
consi
dert
heRedI
ndi
ansasci
ti
zens.Nev
ert
hel
ess,i
twasanessent
ialst
ept
owar
ds
cr
eat
ing t
he Uni
ted St
ates ofAmer
ica,whi
ch has shown a mor
erapi
dindust
ri
al
dev
elopmentsi
ncet
hen.
3.
6.TheI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ionandI
tsconsequences
TheI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ionbegani
nGr
eatBr
it
aini
nthel
ate1700sbutsl
owl
yspr
eadacr
oss
t
hegl
obe.TheI
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ionwasnewmanuf
act
uri
ngpr
ocessesi
nEur
opeandt
he
Uni
tedSt
atest
hatt
ookpl
acebet
weent
he18t
handt
he19t
hcent
uri
es.Bef
oret
he
I
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ion,t
heeconomi
cneedsoft
hesoci
etywer
emett
hrought
hef
armi
ng
and pr
oduct
ion of si
mpl
e handmade ar
ti
cles. Dur
ing t
he I
ndust
ri
al Rev
olut
ion,
manuf
act
uri
ngr
api
dlychangedf
rom mai
nlyhandpr
oduct
iont
otheuseofmachi
ner
y.
Thi
str
ansi
ti
onf
rom ol
dmodesofpr
oduct
iont
onew t
echnol
ogi
cal
l
ydr
ivenpr
oduct
ion
br
oughtdr
ast
icchangesi
ntheEur
opeanwayofl
i
fe.Maki
ngcl
othmov
edf
rom homest
o
l
argef
act
ori
es.Br
it
ainal
sohadpl
ent
yofcoalandi
ron,
whi
chwasessent
ialt
opowerand
pr
oducedmachi
nef
ort
hef
act
ori
es.
Theconsol
i
dat
ionofcapi
tal
i
sm i
nEur
opewasanout
comeofchangei
npr
oduci
ngcl
oth,
i
ron,st
eel
,andot
hermanuf
act
uredgoods.I
twasessent
ial
l
yther
epl
acementofmanual
wor
ksbyt
henew machi
net
hatmadet
hel
arge-
scal
epr
oduct
ionofgoodspossi
ble.
Capi
tal
i
sm emer
gedi
nthe16t
hto17t
hcent
uri
esi
nNor
thwest
ernEur
ope,especi
all
yin
Gr
eatBr
it
ain.I
ndust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm i
samodeofpr
oduct
ionconsi
sti
ngofl
arge,cent
ral
l
y
cont
rol
l
edaccumul
ati
onsofcapi
talt
hati
susedt
ofi
nancepr
oduct
ionofcommodi
ti
es.
Oneoft
hebi
ggestf
act
orscont
ri
but
ingt
other
iseofi
ndust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm wast
echnol
ogy
.
Char
act
eri
sti
csofcapi
tal
i
sm i
ncl
udecapi
talaccumul
ati
on,compet
it
ivemar
ket
s,apr
ice
sy
stem,pr
ivat
epr
oper
tyandt
her
ecogni
ti
onofpr
oper
tyr
ight
s,v
olunt
aryexchangeand
wage l
abour
.In addi
ti
on,t
her
e wer
e new t
echnol
ogi
es t
hathel
ped busi
ness:t
he
t
elephonet
ocoor
dinat
etr
ansact
ionsov
erl
ongdi
stances,t
het
ypewr
it
ert
ospeedup
r
ecor
d-keepi
ng,
andel
ect
ri
cit
ywhi
chmadei
tpossi
blet
owor
ksaf
elyaf
terdar
k.Theet
hos
ofi
ndust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm al
sobegant
ochal
l
engemer
cant
il
istdoct
ri
nesoft
radebar
ri
ers
andpr
otect
ivemonopol
i
es,andbyt
hemi
d-19t
hcent
ury
,Br
it
ainhadf
ull
yembr
aced
l
aissez-
fai
reeconomy
.Li
ber
ali
sm andcompet
it
ioni
ntr
adeandt
hedev
elopmentofaf
ree-
mar
keteconomyar
enowcapi
tal
i
sm’
smai
npol
i
ticalandeconomi
cphi
l
osophi
es.Byt
he
19t
hcent
ury
,Br
it
ainwasseen(
andsawher
sel
f)ast
hewor
ld'
swor
kshop.Howev
er,t
he
dr
ivi
ngf
orcesofi
ndust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm,compar
abl
etot
hoseexper
iencedi
ntheBr
it
ain,
al
soi
mpact
edl
andscapesi
not
herpar
tsofEur
opeandNor
thAmer
ica.St
eam engi
ne
t
echnol
ogy under
pinned t
he i
nvent
ion i
nthe ear
ly 19t
h cent
ury ofst
eam-
power
ed
l
ocomot
ive engi
nes and t
he dev
elopmentofr
ail
way
s.Rai
l
way
s made possi
blet
he
i
ntegr
ati
on ofv
astcont
inent
alspaces pol
i
tical
l
y,cul
tur
all
y,and economi
cal
l
y.For
exampl
e,t
heBr
it
ishbegant
obui
l
drai
l
way
sinI
ndi
aint
he1850s.
I
nNor
thAmer
ica,t
hef
ir
stt
ranscont
inent
alr
ail
roadopenedi
n1869.Asar
esul
t,t
he
t
ranspor
tcost
sofr
aw mat
eri
alsandf
ini
shedpr
oduct
swer
esi
gni
fi
cant
lyr
educed,new
sour
ces ofsuppl
y became accessi
ble,and new mar
ket
s wer
e opened.Pol
i
tical
l
y,
i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ionhadef
fect
sont
hepol
i
ticalst
ruct
ureduet
othei
ncr
easeofpoweroft
he
i
ndust
ri
est
hatwoul
dlat
erbecomemonopol
i
es.Themechani
zat
ionofl
abourcausedt
he
di
spl
acementoft
housandsofl
abour
ers.Ther
iseofi
ndust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm t
hroughoutt
he
ni
net
eent
hcent
urywenthandi
nhandwi
tht
her
iseofst
ri
kesandot
herf
ormsofl
abour
pr
otest
s.Soci
all
y,I
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
iondr
ast
ical
l
ychangedt
hesoci
all
i
feofEur
opeand
t
hewor
ld.Thi
schangewasev
identi
nthegr
owt
hofci
ti
esandt
heemer
genceoft
wonew
soci
alcl
asses:
thebour
geoi
sieandpr
olet
ari
at.
Thebour
geoi
si
eownedt
hef
act
ory
,machi
nei
nit
srawmat
eri
alsandt
hef
ini
shedgoods.
Thepr
olet
ari
atssol
dthei
rlabourf
ormoneywages.Theywer
epoor
lypai
dunderst
ri
ct
wor
kdi
sci
pli
neandf
acedunempl
oyment
.Li
vi
ngcondi
ti
onswer
echangedal
ongwi
tht
he
emer
gence ofcl
ass di
ff
erences.Chi
l
dren r
epr
esent
ed a cheap suppl
y ofl
abour
.
Economi
cal
l
y,t
he I
ndust
ri
al Rev
olut
ion t
ransf
ormed agr
icul
tur
e and handi
craf
ts
economi
est
olar
ge-
scal
eindust
ry,mechani
zedmanuf
act
uri
ng,andt
hef
act
orysy
stem.
Thi
str
ansf
ormat
ionr
esul
tedi
nincr
easei
nweal
th,pr
oduct
ionofgoodsandst
andar
dof
l
i
ving.I
naddi
ti
on,peopl
ehadaccesst
oheal
thi
erdi
ets,bet
terhousi
ng,bet
tereducat
ion,
andcheapergoods.
I
ndust
ri
alRev
olut
ionhadal
somanynegat
iveef
fect
s.Amongt
hosewer
e:
 env
ironment
aldegr
adat
ion. •pol
l
uti
on.
•poorsani
tat
ion. •poorwor
kingcondi
ti
onsandl
owwage.
•spr
eadofdi
seases. •chi
l
dlabor
.
Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswerf
rom t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.Amaj
orr
esul
toft
heageofexpl
orat
ionwas

A.expansi
onofpopul
ati
on

B.t
hebegi
nni
ngofaper
iodofEur
opeangl
obal
domi
nat
ion.

C.al
ongper
iodofpeace&st
abi
l
ity

D.t
hef
all
ofEur
opeanmonar
chi
es

2.West
ernEur
opeansachi
evedi
nthe15thcexpl
orat
ionwast
he-
--
--
--
--
--
--

A.di
scov
eryofAmer
ica C.conquestofJer
usal
em

B.def
eatofot
tomant
urkey D. domi
nat
ion of I
ndi
an
ocean
3.Whatdi
dthet
ermr
enai
ssancer
efer
sto?

A.I
tst
udi
esaboutnat
ural
sci
ence

B.I
tsi
mpl
ymeans“r
ebi
rt
hs“

C.I
twasconcer
nedwi
thr
eli
giousi
ssues

D.I
twasr
edi
scov
eryofEur
ope
4.Ther
enai
ssanceper
iodmai
nlyemphasi
zed

A.t
hesuppor
toff
reedom oft
hought

B.dev
oti
ont
orel
i
gion

C.r
evi
val
oft
heLat
inl
anguagei
nst
eadofv
ernacul
arl
anguage

D.obedi
enceofgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
s.
5.Whi
chst
atementbestdescr
ibesachar
act
eri
sti
coft
her
enai
ssance?

A.Cr
eat
ivi
tyi
nthear
t C.Or
gani
zedpol
i
tical
syst
em
 B.Decr
easei
ntheuseofr
eason D.Decl
i
nei
nli
feaf
terdeat
h
6.Whowast
hewr
it
erofabookent
it
ledut
opi
aIt
her
enai
ssanceer
a?

A.W .
Sheakspear
e C.Thomasmor
e

B.Leonar
dodaVi
nci D.Mi
chel
angel
o

7.Eur
opeansexpl
orat
ionsanddi
scov
eri
eswer
emadepossi
bleby

A.t
het
estf
orl
uxur
ygoods

B.i
nvent
ionsofcompassandl
ett
ershi
ps

C.t
radewi
nds

D.t
hedi
scov
eryofsci
ence
8.Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snott
hemaj
orf
eat
uresoft
heBy
zant
ineEmper
or?

A.I
tSur
viv
edunt
il1453A–D

B.TheEmpi
rewasr
uledbyt
heEmper
or

C.I
t’
scapi
tal
wasConst
ant
inopl
e

D.I
thadnol
ongerdef
endi
t’
ster
ri
tor
yfr
om f
orei
gni
nvasi
on.
9.TheEur
opeancount
ri
espi
oneer
edi
nexpl
orat
ionsanddi
scov
eri
eswer
e

A.Br
it
ainandFr
ance C.Spai
nandPor
tugal

B.Russi
aandHol
l
and D.I
tal
yandGer
many
10.Whatwast
hemai
nmot
ivef
oror
gani
zedov
erseasv
oyagesofEur
opeansi
nthe15th
and16thcent
uri
es? A.conquestoft
err
it
oryB.Expandi
ngChr
ist
iani
ty
C.Thesear
chf
orpest
erJohnD.Accesst
ogoodsf
rom t
heeast
11.
Whi
choneoft
hef
fisacor
rectcont
rastofabsol
uti
sm i
nFr
anceandEngl
and?
A.Absol
uti
sm i
nFr
ancer
eachedi
tshi
ghestpoi
ntunderLoui
sXI
Vwhi
l
einEngl
and
i
tst
art
edt
odecl
i
neaboutt
hesamet
ime.
B.Absol
uti
sm i
nFr
ancewasweakenedbyt
hebackwar
dnessoft
heeconomy
whi
l
einEngl
andi
tbenef
it
tedf
rom economi
cexpansi
on
C.Absol
uti
sm i
nFr
ancebenef
it
tedf
rom t
heacqui
sit
ionofov
erseast
err
it
ori
es
whi
l
ethi
sunder
minedi
tsgr
owt
hinEngl
and
 D.Absol
uti
sm i
nFr
ancewasst
rengt
henedbyt
het
eachi
ngsoft
heCat
hol
i
cchur
ch
whi
l
eitwasunder
minedbyt
heAngl
i
canChur
chi
nEngl
and
12.
Engl
andr
egar
dedasbi
rt
hpl
aceofI
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
onbecauseof
A.Theyhav
eenoughl
andf
ori
nvest
ment
B.Theyhadf
orei
gnschol
ars
C.The col
oni
ali
zed Af
ri
ca and Asi
a soonert
han i
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
on whi
ch
becamesour
ceofr
awmat
eri
als
D.Accessi
bil
i
tyofpor
tandowner
shi
pofwel
lski
l
ledwor
ker
s
13.
West
ernEur
opeansachi
evedi
nthe15thcexpl
orat
ionwast
he-
--
--
--
--
--
--

C.di
scov
eryofAmer
ica C.conquestofJer
usal
em

D.def
eatofot
tomant
urkey D. domi
nat
ion of I
ndi
an
ocean
14.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sNotcor
rectaboutt
hreeest
atesofFr
ance
A.Thef
ir
stest
atei
ncl
udedt
her
oyalf
ami
l
yandcl
ergy
wher
east
hesecondest
ate
consi
stedofnobi
l
ity
B.Thet
hir
dest
atemadeupofpeasant
sandbour
geoi
sandhadbi
glands,f
ree
f
rom gov
ernmentt
axat
ion
C.Thet
hir
dandsecondest
ateswer
enotequal
l
ypr
ivi
l
eged
D.Thef
ir
standsecondest
ateswer
especi
ali
nsoci
o-economi
candpol
i
tical
pr
ivi
l
egesunl
i
ket
hir
dst
ates
15.
Dur
ingFr
enchr
evol
uti
on“
Ther
eignoft
err
or”r
eachedi
tscl
i
maxbywhi
choft
he
f
oll
owi
ngpol
i
tical
wing?
A.Jacobi
ns B.Gi
rondi
sts C.Ur
banwor
ker
s D.Bour
geoi
sie
16.
Whent
heEur
opeancoal
i
tionf
orcesoccupi
edPar
is,onmar
ch31,
1814Napol
eonI
wasexi
l
edt
otheI
slandofA.
St.Hel
ena B.Wat
erl
oo C.Sedan
D.El
ba
17.
Ther
enai
ssanceper
iodmai
nlyemphasi
zed

A.t
hesuppor
toff
reedom oft
hought

B.dev
oti
ont
orel
i
gion

C.r
evi
val
oft
heLat
inl
anguagei
nst
eadofv
ernacul
arl
anguage

D.obedi
enceofgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
s.
18.
TheGl
ori
ousRev
olut
ioni
nEngl
andmar
ked(
1688-
1689)
 A.Thev
ict
oryoft
hepar
li
amentandt
hef
inal
def
eatoft
heEngl
i
shaut
ocr
acy
B.Thebl
oodl
esschangeoft
her
egi
mei
npl
aceofChar
lesI
I
C.Thedecl
i
neofTudordy
nast
yandt
hecomi
ngofSt
uar
tdy
nast
y
D.Thedecl
arat
ionofEngl
andasr
epubl
i
cadCr
omwel
lasl
ordpr
otect
or
19.
Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngwasNOTt
her
ootcauseoft
heopposi
ti
onsagai
nstHai
l
e
Sel
assi
e’
sgov
ernment
?
A.Nat
ional
oppr
essi
on
B.Absenceofdemocr
ati
cri
ght
s
C.Thepopul
arr
evol
uti
onof1974
D.Economi
candsoci
ali
nequal
i
ties
20.
Whatwast
heTenni
scour
toat
hoft
he1789Fr
enchnat
ional
assembl
yabout
?
A.Theov
ert
hrowoft
hemonar
chy
B.Thef
reei
ngofpol
i
tical
pri
soner
s
C.Thedr
aft
ingofanewconst
it
uti
on
D.Ther
educt
ionoft
hesi
zeoft
hemi
l
itar
y
21.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sNotcor
rectaboutt
hreeest
atesofFr
ance
A.Thef
ir
stest
atei
ncl
udedt
her
oyal
fami
l
yandcl
ergywher
east
hesecondest
ate
consi
stedofnobi
l
ity
B.Thet
hir
dest
atemadeupofpeasant
sandbour
geoi
sandhadbi
glands,f
ree
f
rom gov
ernmentt
axat
ion
C.Thet
hir
dandsecondest
ateswer
enotequal
l
ypr
ivi
l
eged
D.Thef
ir
standsecondest
ateswer
especi
ali
nsoci
o-economi
candpol
i
tical
pr
ivi
l
egesunl
i
ket
hir
dst
ates
22.
Dur
ingFr
enchr
evol
uti
on“
Ther
eignoft
err
or”r
eachedi
tscl
i
maxbywhi
choft
he
f
oll
owi
ngpol
i
tical
wing?
A.Jacobi
ns B.Gi
rondi
sts C.Ur
banwor
ker
s D.Bour
geoi
sie
23.
Whent
heEur
opeancoal
i
tionf
orcesoccupi
edPar
is,onmar
ch31,
1814Napol
eonI
wasexi
l
edt
otheI
slandof
A.St
.Hel
ena B.Wat
erl
oo C.Sedan D.El
ba
24.
TheFr
enchEmpi
rei
nNor
thAmer
icai
mmedi
atel
ycamet
oanend
A.WhenFr
enchdef
eat
edi
nsev
eny
ear
swarbyAmer
icans
B.WhenFr
enchdef
eat
edbyBr
it
ishatt
heBat
tl
eofQuebec
C.WhenFr
enchsi
gnedPar
ispeacet
reat
yin1763
 D.WhenBr
it
ishf
orceoccupi
edNewy
ork
25.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwat
erwayl
i
nkt
hatf
lour
ishedduet
oindust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm
whi
chi
nter
li
nkedt
het
wogr
eat
estoceansoft
hewor
ld
A.Suezcanal
B.Panamacanal
C.Er
iCanal
D.Russi
anCanal
26.
Thel
eaderoft
heconf
eder
acydur
ingt
heAmer
icanci
vi
lwarwas
A.Ul
ayssesGr
ant C.Abr
aham Li
ncol
n
B.Jef
fer
sonDav
is D.ThomasJef
fer
son
27.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sapol
i
ticalphi
l
osophyt
hatspr
eadt
othewor
ldi
nadv
entof
I
ndust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm byhav
ingmul
ti
-pol
i
tical
par
ti
eswi
thf
ull
right
sanddut
ies?
A.Nat
ional
i
sm B.Pl
ural
i
sm C.Li
ber
ali
sm D.Democr
acy
28.
Whatwasmai
ndr
ivi
ngagentt
owar
dBer
li
nconf
erence
A.
Por
ti
oni
ngofAf
ri
caamongt
hemsel
ves(
Eur
opeans)peacef
ull
y
B.
Openi
ng ofSuezCanaland r
api
dinv
olv
ementofBel
gium and Ger
manyt
owar
ds
col
oni
ali
sm
C.
Bat
tl
eofOmadur
manbet
weenSudan andAngl
oEgy
pti
an
D.
Dev
elopmentofdi
sagr
eement
sandr
ival
ri
esamongEur
opeansf
orcedt
hem t
ohav
e
agr
eement
.

29.
Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotconsequenceofAmer
icanci
vi
lwar
?
A.Sl
aver
yandsl
avet
radeabol
i
shed
B.Nor
ther
npr
eser
vedt
hei
rideol
ogy
,economyandpol
i
ticsunl
i
kesout
her
ner
s
C.Et
hni
csanddi
scr
imi
nat
ionsi
mmedi
atel
yst
oppedi
nAmer
icanl
and
D.USAemer
gedasgl
obal
orsuperpower
30.
whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
scor
rectaboutAmer
icanci
vi
lwar
A.Abol
i
tioni
stl
ostt
hewaragai
nstpr
eser
ves
B.I
tfast
enedi
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ionofNor
thAmer
ica.
C.I
tfast
enedi
nhumanact
sli
kesl
aver
yov
erAmer
icanLand
D.I
tmar
kedUSAt
obef
ormedandbecomegl
obal
power
CHAPTERFOUR
4.TheGondar
inePer
iodandI
tsSoci
oEconomi
candPol
it
icalDev
elopment
TheGondarper
iodr
efer
stot
hey
ear
sdur
ingwhi
cht
her
uler
soft
hehi
ghl
andChr
ist
ian
Ki
ngdom r
uled f
rom anew capi
talcal
l
edGondar
.Begi
nni
ngf
rom t
hemi
d-si
xteent
h
cent
ury
,theKi
ngdom gr
adual
l
yshi
ft
edi
tspol
i
ticalcent
erf
rom t
heShewanhi
ghl
andst
o
t
heLakeTanar
egi
on.Theshi
ftwascausedbyAdal
’
scont
inuedt
hreatandt
hepr
essur
e
oft
heOr
omopopul
ati
onmov
ement
.Af
tert
hedeat
hofGel
awdowsi
n1559,
Minas(
r.
1559
-63)
,br
otherandsuccessorofGel
awdewos,r
etr
eat
edt
othel
andsnor
thoft
heAbay
Ri
ver
.Howev
er,hi
ssuccessor
scont
inuedt
oli
vei
nmobi
l
ecapi
tal
s.Denqez,Gor
gor
a,
Azezo,Dembi
ya,andQogai
nGoj
j
am andBegemi
dirwer
esi
teswher
ethi
smobi
l
ecapi
tal
r
est
edatdi
ff
erentt
imes.Gondarwasf
oundedbyFasi
l
adasar
ound1636.Gondarwas
st
rat
egi
cal
l
ylocat
edont
hel
ong-
dist
ancet
rader
out
eli
nki
ngsout
hwest
ernr
egi
onswi
th
Massawaont
heRedSeaandMet
temaont
heEt
hio-
Sudanesebor
der
.It
sest
abl
i
shment
asaper
manentcapi
talci
tyendedt
het
radi
ti
onofr
uli
ngf
rom t
empor
arycamps.Gondar
cont
inuedt
oser
veasapol
i
ticalcent
erf
ort
henextt
wocent
uri
esGondarbecameknown
f
ori
tsar
chi
tect
uralachi
evement
sandbui
l
dingt
echnol
ogy
.Sev
eralki
ngswhor
uledf
rom
Gondarbui
l
tmagni
fi
centcast
lesaspal
aces.I
naddi
ti
on,
chur
ches,
bri
dgesandswi
mmi
ng
pool
s wer
e const
ruct
ed.Not
abl
y,dur
ing t
he r
eigns ofi
tst
hree successi
ve ki
ngs:
Fasi
l
adas(
r.1632-1667)
,YohanesI(
r.1667-1682)andI
yasuI(
1682-
1706)
,Gondar
at
tai
nedgr
eatpr
osper
it
yandt
echnol
ogi
caldev
elopment
s.Theci
tygr
ew,andt
radi
ti
onal
school
sofl
ear
ningwer
ebui
l
tandexpandedar
oundt
hei
rpal
acesandChur
ches.These
t
hree Gondar
ine r
uler
s wer
e al
so pol
i
tical
l
yst
rongert
han t
hei
rsuccessor
s.Gondar
dev
eloped cer
tai
n ur
ban f
eat
ures v
ery soon.I
thad about70,
000 i
nhabi
tant
s.I
ts
popul
ati
on was composed ofdi
ff
erentr
eli
gious,cul
tur
al,i
ndi
genous and f
orei
gn
communi
ti
es.Gondarbecame an i
mpor
tantcommer
cialcent
erwi
th a dai
l
ymar
ket
at
tr
act
ingmer
chant
s,cr
aft
sandr
uralpeopl
etoexchanget
hei
rrespect
ivepr
oduct
s.Thi
s
l
edt
oint
enseur
ban-
rur
ali
nter
act
ions.Tr
ader
swer
emost
lyEt
hiopi
anMusl
i
ms,
knownas
t
heJeber
ti
.Howev
er,
ther
ewer
eal
soot
heroccupat
ionalgr
oupsl
i
ket
heBet
eIsr
ael
.They
wer
eengaged i
n cr
aftact
ivi
ti
essuch asmasonr
y,pot
ter
y,basket
ryand i
ronwor
ks.
Ther
ewer
esepar
atel
i
vingquar
ter
sfort
heMusl
i
m communi
ti
es,f
ort
heBet
eIsr
aeland
al
sof
orsomef
orei
gncommuni
ti
esf
rom I
ndi
a,Gr
eek,
Armeni
aandPer
sia.Cashpay
ment
f
orl
abourser
viceswasal
soi
ntr
oduced.Ther
uli
ngcl
assenj
oyedl
uxur
iousl
i
feandl
i
ved
i
nthei
rbeaut
if
ulpal
acesandcast
les.Theyt
ookadv
ant
ageofGondar
'scommer
cialand
ur
banpr
osper
it
y.
Howev
er,i
twasonl
ydur
ingt
her
eignsoft
hef
ir
stt
hreeki
ngst
hatGondarl
edal
i
feof
gl
ory
.Lat
eron,
Gondardecl
i
nedasani
mpor
tantpol
i
ticalcent
erandeconomi
cpr
osper
it
y.
Pol
i
ticaldi
sor
derandsoci
alunr
estbecamecommoni
ntheci
ty.Cour
tint
ri
guesbecame
common,accompani
ed bypoi
soni
ng and assassi
nat
ionsofki
ngsand pr
inces.The
Gondar
inemonar
chycoul
dnotkeepi
tsf
ormerpol
i
tical
power
.Thi
swaspar
tl
ybecauseof
i
tsmi
l
itar
yweakness.Fi
nal
l
y,t
heywer
eunabl
etoi
mposecont
rolov
err
egi
onall
ordsand
pr
ovi
nces.Fol
l
owi
ngt
heassassi
nat
ionofI
yasuIi
n1706,t
hei
mper
ialcour
tit
sel
fhadt
o
beguar
dedbypower
fulwar
lor
dswi
thr
egi
onalbases.Theper
iodl
edt
othest
rengt
heni
ng
ofwar
lor
dsofdi
ff
erentr
egi
onswi
thl
i
ttl
eornocont
rolf
rom t
heweakeni
ngcent
re.The
l
astst
ageoft
heGondar
ineper
iodwasdomi
nat
edbyt
hegr
owi
ngpowerandi
mpor
tance
ofaQuar
abor
nwomancal
l
edI
tegeMent
ewab.Shewast
hewi
feofEmper
orBakaf
a(r
.
1721-
30)
.Soonaf
tert
hedeat
hofBakaf
a,shebegant
orul
eov
ert
heki
ngdom asar
egent
f
orhery
oungsonandt
hesuccessorofBakaf
a,I
yasuI
I(r
.1730-
55)
.Unt
ilhedi
edi
n1767,
shewasSuppor
tedbyherst
rongbr
other
,Wel
deLeul
,onwhom shebest
owedt
he
pr
est
igi
oust
it
leofRasBi
tweded.Thewar
lor
dswer
econt
endi
ngf
ort
het
it
leofRas
Bi
twededandposi
ti
ondur
ingt
hewhol
eper
iodoft
heZemeneMesaf
int
.Ment
ewabl
ost
poweri
n1769t
otheTi
greanwar
lor
dRasMi
chaelSehul
.Mi
chalSehulcamet
oGondar
,
ki
l
ledt
her
eigni
ngki
ng,
Iyoas(
1755-
1769)
,andt
ookov
ert
het
it
leofRasBi
tweded.Gondar
al
sosuf
fer
edf
rom i
nter
nalspl
i
tswi
thi
ntheEt
hiopi
anOr
thodoxChur
ch.I
naddi
ti
on,t
he
cl
ergywer
eengagedi
nconf
li
ctsov
err
eli
giouspr
inci
plesordoct
ri
nest
hatal
sohada
r
egi
onalchar
act
er.Thecombi
nat
ionofpol
i
ticalandr
eli
giousdi
sput
esf
inal
l
yledt
othe
per
iodoft
heZemeneMesaf
intort
heEr
aofwar
lor
ds
4.
1TheJesui
tandt
hei
rev
angel
izat
ioni
nEt
hiopi
a
Cat
hol
ici
zat
ionandCi
vi
lWar
s

Wedi
scussedt
hedev
elopmentofear
lycont
act
sbet
weent
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom and
Por
tugal
.Ont
hebasi
soft
hiscont
act
,Li
bneDi
ngi
lsental
ett
ert
oPor
tugali
nwhi
chhe
r
equest
edmi
l
itar
yassi
stancef
ort
hewaragai
nstI
mam AhmadI
brahi
m.Asst
atedear
li
er,
t
hatmi
l
itar
yhel
p came i
n 1541 and pl
ayed a deci
siv
erol
ein endi
ng t
he Musl
i
m
hegemonyi
ntheChr
ist
ianki
ngdom.ThePor
tuguesesol
dier
ski
l
ledI
mam Ahmadand
f
orcedt
heMusl
i
m ar
myt
oret
reatt
oAdal
.Howev
er,oncet
heyaccompl
i
shedt
hei
rtask,
t
hePor
tuguesesol
dier
sdi
dnotwi
thdr
awf
rom Et
hiopi
a.Rat
hert
heyst
ayedi
nthecount
ry
andi
nvi
tedt
heCat
hol
i
cmi
ssi
onar
ies,knownast
heJesui
ts,whosoughtt
oconv
ertt
he
Or
thodoxChr
ist
ianofEt
hiopi
atoCat
hol
i
cism.

Al
thoughwedonotknow whatwasdi
scussedbet
weent
heki
ngandhi
sPor
tuguese
messenger
,Ber
mudez,Li
bneDi
ngi
l
'sl
ett
erof1535di
dnotment
ionany
thi
ngabouthi
s
i
ntensi
ont
obeconv
ert
edt
oCat
hol
i
cis
m.Howev
er,
Ber
mudezl
atercl
aimedt
hati
nret
urn
f
ormi
l
itar
yassi
stance,
LibneDi
ngi
lhadpr
omi
sedt
ogi
veat
hir
dofhi
ski
ngdom t
othek
ing
ofPor
tugalandt
obeconv
ert
ed,
toget
herwi
thhi
ssubj
ect
s,t
oCat
hol
i
cism.Thi
scl
ai
m gav
e
t
hePor
tuguesegov
ernmentandt
hePopeofRomeagr
oundf
ort
hei
rst
eadyef
for
ttoconv
ert
t
heOr
thodoxChr
ist
iansoft
hek
ingdom t
oRomanCat
hol
i
cism.
Theat
temptatconv
ersi
on
beganassoonast
hePor
tuguesesol
di
ersent
eredt
heChr
ist
iank
ingdom i
n1541.
Att
het
ime,
Gel
awdewoshadal
readysucceededhi
sfat
her
,whodi
edi
n1540.Ber
mudezhear
doft
he
deat
hoft
hek
ingwhi
l
ehewasst
il
li
nGoa.

Theambi
ti
ousPor
tuguesesoonmadehi
msel
fpat
ri
archoft
heChr
ist
iank
ingdom.I
nfact
,he
wasnotor
dai
nedbyt
hePopeofRome.
Howev
er,
hecl
ai
medt
hatLi
bneDi
ngi
lhadnomi
nat
ed
hi
m pat
ri
archoft
hek
ingdom,pr
ovi
dedt
hathi
snomi
nat
ionwasappr
ovedbyt
hePopeof
Rome.Ont
hebasi
soft
hiscl
ai
m,Ber
mudezbegant
otr
ytof
orceGel
awdewost
oful
fi
llt
he
al
l
egedpr
omi
sesofhi
sfat
her
.Her
equi
redt
heEmper
ort
oconv
ertt
oCat
hol
i
cism and
r
ecogni
zehi
sposi
ti
onasapat
ri
archoft
hek
ingdom.Heal
soi
nsi
stedhi
mtoassi
sti
n
conv
ert
ing t
he subj
ect
s oft
he k
ingdom t
o Cat
hol
i
cism.Ber
mudez k
new how much
Gel
awdewosdependedont
hePor
tuguesear
myhebr
oughtf
rom I
ndi
a.Ther
efor
e,heused
t
hissi
tuat
ionasal
ever
aget
ofor
ceGel
awdewosi
ntof
ulf
il
li
nghi
sdemands.
ButGel
awdewos
whowaswi
thhi
sfat
herunt
ilt
heEmper
or'
sdeat
h,k
newt
hatLi
bneDi
ngi
ldi
dnotmak
ethe
al
l
egedpr
omi
se.Ther
efor
e,her
eject
edt
her
equestofBer
mudez
.Ber
mudezt
hen,t
ri
edt
o
i
nducet
hePor
tuguesesol
di
ersnott
ofi
ghtf
orGel
awdewos.Howev
er,t
hePor
tuguese
sol
di
erswhok
newaboutt
hest
oryr
eject
edBer
mudez
'sat
temptt
ost
opt
hem f
rom f
ight
ing
ont
hesi
deofGel
awdewos.

Thek
ingofPor
tugal
,JohnI
II
,al
sor
efusedt
orecogni
zeBer
mudezast
hepat
ri
archoft
he
k
ingdom.Fi
nal
l
y,t
he f
rust
rat
ed Ber
mudez r
eti
red t
o Debar
wa i
n 1553.The of
fi
ci
al
appoi
ntmentofpat
ri
archsandbi
shopsf
ort
heChr
ist
iank
ingdom beganaf
tert
her
eti
rement
of Ber
mudez
.The appoi
ntees wer
e sel
ect
ed f
rom t
he Soci
ety of Jesus or t
he
Jesui
ts.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
hef
ir
stat
temptatappoi
ntmentofapat
ri
archandbi
shopsf
ort
he
Chr
ist
iank
ingdom wast
her
esul
tofami
sunder
standi
ngoft
hel
ett
erofGel
awdewos.Af
ter
t
hewarwi
thAhmadI
brahi
m wasov
er,someoft
hePor
tuguesesol
di
erswhof
oughti
nthe
ar
myofGel
awdewosaccept
edt
her
equestt
heki
ngt
oli
veper
manent
lyi
ntheki
ngdom.So,
t
hegr
atef
ulki
ngwr
oteal
ett
ert
otheki
ngofPor
tugalt
osendCat
hol
i
cpr
iest
swhocoul
d
r
enderr
eli
giousser
vicesf
ort
hePor
tuguesesol
dier
s.
ButKi
ng JohnI
IIofPor
tugalt
houghtt
hatGel
awdewoswant
ed t
o beconv
ert
ed t
o
Cat
hol
i
cism.Ther
efor
e,t
heki
ngandt
hepope,deci
dedt
osendonepat
ri
archandt
wo
bi
shopswhower
esel
ect
edandor
dai
nedf
rom amongt
heJesui
ts.
WhenGel
awdewos
hear
daboutt
hear
rangement
smadei
nEur
opef
orhi
sconv
ersi
on,hewr
oteal
ett
erof
obj
ect
iont
othePor
tuguesegov
ernorofI
ndi
a.Thegov
ernorsentay
oungJesui
tpr
iest
cal
l
edRodr
iguezt
oconv
incet
heki
ngt
oacceptt
hepat
ri
archandbecomeaCat
hol
i
c.On
hi
swayt
othecour
t,Rodr
iguezmetBer
mudezwhoadv
icedhi
mtouset
hreati
nfor
cing
Gel
awdewost
oaccepthi
srequest
.Soonaf
terhear
ri
ved,t
hey
oungJesui
tpr
iestopenl
y
cr
it
ici
zedt
heOr
thodoxChr
ist
ianpr
act
icessuchasci
rcumci
sion,
foodt
aboos,
fast
ingand
t
heobser
vanceofSat
urday
sasher
esi
es.
Gel
awdewost
oler
atedt
hepr
iest
,becauseheneededt
hePor
tuguesear
my,
ast
hemi
l
itar
y
conf
li
ctwi
thAdalhadnoty
etabat
ed.Howev
er,Gel
adewosr
eject
edt
hedemandf
orhi
s
conv
ersi
onand Rodr
iguezr
etur
ned t
o Goa.Ther
ecr
uit
ed pat
ri
archand t
hebi
shops
deci
dedt
ogot
otheChr
ist
ianki
ngdom andaskedt
hegov
ernorofGoaf
oranar
med
escor
t.Butt
hegov
ernoropposedt
hei
deaofusi
ngf
orceandi
nst
eadsentagai
nabi
shop
cal
l
edAndr
edeOv
iedot
otr
ytoconv
inceGel
awdewos.Thebi
shopar
ri
vedatt
hecour
tof
Gel
awdewosi
n1557andf
oll
owedt
heki
ngf
rom onecampai
gnt
oanot
hert
ryi
ngt
o
conv
incehi
m.ButOv
iedof
ail
edt
oconv
incet
heki
ng.I
ndeed,
theki
ngwr
oteabookcal
led
Conf
essi
onsofGel
awdewos,
inwhi
chhedef
endedt
hepr
act
icesoft
heOr
thodoxf
ait
hof
hi
ski
ngdom agai
nstt
hecr
it
ici
smsoft
heCat
hol
i
cpr
iest
s.Asar
esul
t,Ov
iedor
etal
i
atedby
i
sol
ati
ngt
hePor
tuguesear
myf
rom Gel
awdewos.I
twasatt
hist
imet
hatGel
awdewos,
whowasabandonedbyt
hePor
tuguesear
my,f
acedt
hear
myofAdalwhodef
eat
edand
ki
l
ledhi
min1559.Af
tert
hedeat
hofGel
awdewos,Ov
iedomov
edwi
tht
hePor
tuguese
ar
myt
othepr
ovi
nceofTi
gray
,wher
ehej
oinedBahrNegashYeshaq,t
hel
eaderof
opposi
ti
onf
orcesagai
nstKi
ngMi
nas.Ov
iedoassur
edYeshaqt
hatPor
tuguesemi
l
itar
y
ass
ist
ancewoul
dcomesoont
odeposeMi
nasandappoi
ntapuppetki
ngoft
hei
rown
choi
ce.Yeshaq and hi
sfol
l
ower
s agr
eed t
o be conv
ert
ed when t
he sai
d mi
l
itar
y
assi
stancear
ri
ve.
But
,Ov
iedo'
spr
omi
sewasnotf
ulf
il
ledandhehi
msel
fdi
edi
n1597wi
thoutanysuccessi
n
hi
smi
ssi
on.Af
tert
hedeat
hofOv
iedo,t
wo ot
herbi
shops,Pedr
oPaezandAl
fonso
Mendezwer
esuccessi
vel
yor
dai
nedf
ort
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom.Paezcamei
n1603and
di
edi
n1622,whi
l
eMendezar
ri
vedi
n1622andst
ayedunt
ilal
lPor
tugueseandJesui
ts
wer
eexpel
l
edf
rom t
heki
ngdom i
n1632.Paezwaspar
ti
cul
arl
ysuccessf
uli
nconv
ert
ing
manyi
nfl
uent
ial
digni
tar
iesoft
heki
ngdom,
incl
udi
ngKi
ngSuseni
yos(
1607-1632)
.Letus
seehow hesucceededandt
heconsequencesofhi
ssuccessUpont
hedeat
hofSar
sa
Di
ngi
li
n1597,
theChr
ist
ianki
ngdom f
acedpol
i
tical
disor
derasar
esul
tofanacut
epower
st
ruggl
e.Si
ncet
hewar
sofI
mam Ahmad,t
her
ehasbeenagr
adualer
osi
onoft
hepower
oft
heki
ngs.Theweaknessoft
heki
ngsl
edt
heOr
thodoxChur
chl
eader
stoal
l
ywi
tht
he
mor
epower
fulpr
ovi
nci
algov
ernor
s.Besi
des,
theki
ngscoul
dnotdependont
hel
oyal
tyof
t
hear
my.Ther
efor
e,t
heybegant
oconsi
dert
headv
ant
ageofconv
ert
ingt
oCat
hol
i
cism,
i
.eget
ti
ngmi
l
itar
yassi
stance,et
c,f
rom Por
tugal
.Al
lJesui
tbi
shopswhocamet
othe
Chr
ist
ianki
ngdom knewaboutt
hesi
tuat
ioni
nwhi
cht
heki
ngsr
eigned.Butsomebi
shops,
par
ti
cul
arl
ythef
ir
star
ri
val
s,di
dnotsucceedi
nthei
rmi
ssi
on,mai
nlybecauset
heywer
e
notwi
sei
nthei
rdeal
i
ngswi
tht
heki
ngs.Amongt
hem,
Paezwast
hemostsuccessf
ul.
WhenPaezar
ri
vedatMassawai
n1603,t
her
eigni
ngki
ngwast
hef
our
teen-
year
-ol
d
Ya'
i
qob.Paezwasi
nfor
medt
hatt
hey
oungki
ngknew Ar
abi
candwasf
ondoft
he
l
anguage.Thebi
shopwhoal
soknewAr
abi
chopedt
ouset
hel
anguaget
ogetal
ongwi
th
t
heki
ngsmoot
hly
.But
,bef
oreher
eachedt
heChr
ist
iancour
t,Ya'
i
qobwasdeposedand
r
epl
acedbyZaDi
ngi
l
.ZaDi
ngi
lwasf
ull
yawar
eoft
hepol
i
ticalpr
obl
em f
acedbyhi
s
pr
edecessor
s.Ther
efor
e,hewasdet
ermi
nedt
ogetr
idoft
hedi
sloy
alsol
dier
sandt
hei
r
commander
saswel
last
hecl
ergy
,whom het
houghtwer
ethesour
cesoft
heweaknesses
oft
hemonar
chy
.WhenPaezunder
stoodt
hisat
ti
tudeoft
heki
ng,
hedi
rect
lyt
oldZaDi
ngi
l
t
hati
fheagr
eedt
obeconv
ert
ed t
oCat
hol
i
cism,hecoul
dgetPor
tuguesemi
l
itar
y
assi
stancewi
thwhi
chhecoul
ddeal
wit
hhi
senemi
esandconsol
i
dat
ehi
spol
i
tical
power
.
Ev
enbef
oret
heagr
eementcoul
dgetaccept
ancei
nPor
tugal
,thei
mpat
ientki
ngi
ntended
t
otakemeasur
esl
i
kebanni
ngt
heobser
vanceofSat
urday
stosat
isf
ythedemandofPaez.
Howev
er,
Paezadv
isedt
heki
ngt
obecaut
iousandnott
otakehast
ymeasur
est
hatmi
ght
l
eadt
ofai
l
ure.What
evert
hecase,
ZaDi
ngi
lhadal
readybeensuspect
edofbei
ngsecr
etl
y
conv
ert
ed,
andconsequent
ly,
hef
acedst
rongopposi
ti
onf
rom t
heOr
thodoxChur
chwhi
ch
accusedhi
m ofbei
ngconv
ert
edt
oCat
hol
i
cism.I
ntheci
vi
lwart
hatf
oll
owed,ZaDi
ngi
l
waski
l
ledi
n1604.Af
tert
hedeat
hoft
heki
ng,
Ya'
i
qobwasagai
nputont
het
hrone.Paez
cont
inuedt
hesamedeal
i
ngwi
thYa'
i
qob,whoagr
eedt
oacceptCat
hol
i
cism.But
,bef
ore
t
he agr
eementwas i
mpl
ement
ed,Ya'
i
qob was ki
l
led i
n bat
tl
ein 1607.
Ya'
i
qob was
succeededbySuseni
yos.
Ther
eignofSuseni
yossawt
hesuccessoft
hel
ongef
for
toft
heJesui
tbi
shops.Justl
i
ke
hi
simmedi
atepr
edecessor
s,Suseni
yosl
eaned t
owar
dsCat
hol
i
cism i
n or
dert
o get
Por
tuguesemi
l
itar
yassi
stancet
omai
ntai
nast
rongandpeacef
ulmonar
chy
.So,t
he
Jesui
tsgotf
reedom t
opr
eachandr
ecr
uitconv
ert
sev
eni
nthecour
tit
sel
f.Suseni
yosdi
d
nott
aket
hel
eadi
nbei
ngconv
ert
edt
oCat
hol
i
cism.Thef
ir
sti
mpor
tantconv
ertwashi
s
br
other
,theol
dpower
fulgener
al,Si
'
il
eKr
ist
os,whowasr
ebapt
izedpubl
i
clyi
n1611.The
pal
acecl
ergyandot
heri
nfl
uent
ialcousi
nsoft
heki
ngf
oll
owedt
heexampl
eofSi
'
il
e
Kr
ist
os.Begi
nni
ngf
rom 1612aser
iesofpubl
i
cdebat
esonCat
hol
i
cpr
inci
pleswer
ehel
d
i
nthecour
t.Thedebat
ewaschai
redbySuseni
yoshi
msel
f.I
nthedebat
e,t
heCat
hol
i
cs
wer
erepr
esent
edbySi
'
il
eKr
ist
os.
I
nthemeant
ime,
theOr
thodoxChr
uchpr
act
icessuchasci
rcumci
sion,
fast
ingonFr
iday
s
andWednesday
sandt
heobser
vanceofSat
urday
swer
econdemnedasher
esi
es.The
Or
thodoxcl
ergy
menwhost
oodagai
nstCat
hol
i
cism al
sof
acedmi
str
eat
menti
nthecour
t.
Al
lthesemeasur
esbr
oughtaboutt
her
ebel
l
ionoft
hepeasant
sheadedbyt
hecl
ergyand
t
henobi
l
ity
.Suseni
yos,hi
msel
f,wasof
fi
cial
l
yconv
ert
edt
oCat
hol
i
cism i
npubl
i
cand
madeCat
hol
i
cism t
heof
fi
cial
stat
erel
i
gioni
n1622.
Thef
ir
stpeasantr
ebel
l
ionagai
nstSuseni
yosandCat
hol
i
cism br
okeouti
n1617andf
rom
1626t
o1632Suseni
yosf
oughtmanybat
tl
es.Thi
swasmai
nlybecauseoft
hehast
y
i
mposi
ti
onoft
henewr
eli
gionont
hepeasant
soft
heki
ngdom.Besi
desmanyoft
hel
ong
est
abl
i
shedEt
hiopi
anChr
ist
ianpr
act
iceswer
eal
sobanned.So,bot
hthepeasant
ryand
t
hecl
ergyj
oinedi
nrebel
l
iont
odef
endt
hei
rrel
i
gionf
rom f
all
i
ngt
oCat
hol
i
cism andt
he
per
iodwi
tnessedoneoft
hel
argescal
epeasantupr
isi
ngi
nEt
hiopi
anhi
stor
y.
Ev
ent
ual
l
y,Suseni
yoscame t
o under
stand t
hathe coul
d notsuppr
esst
he st
aunch
opposi
ti
on oft
he Chur
ch and peasant
smi
l
itar
il
y.I
nthe meant
ime,t
he Por
tuguese
sol
dier
sand f
ir
ear
mswhi
chhehad hoped t
o obt
ainf
rom Por
tugalf
ail
ed t
o ar
ri
ve.
Ther
efor
e,her
eal
i
sedt
hathehadsi
mpl
yincur
redt
heenmi
tyofhi
speopl
eandt
hecl
ergy
i
nvai
n.Heunder
stoodt
hati
nanat
temptt
obui
l
dast
rongandpeacef
ulgov
ernmentusi
ng
Cat
hol
i
cism,hewasl
eadi
ngt
hecount
ryt
oabl
oodyci
vi
lwar
.So,af
terhi
slastbat
tl
e,t
he
Bat
tl
eofDenqezi
n1632,hedeci
dedt
owi
thdr
awf
rom t
heexper
imentwi
thCat
hol
i
cism.
I
nthesamey
earheabdi
cat
edi
nfav
orofhi
sson,
Fasi
l
edes,
whosef
ir
stmeasur
ewast
he
r
est
orat
ionoft
heOr
thodoxChur
cht
oit
str
adi
ti
onal
posi
ti
on.
I
nther
eact
iont
hatf
oll
owed,
manyCat
hol
i
cconv
ert
swer
eki
l
led.Thef
ir
stv
ict
im wasSi
'
il
e
Kr
ist
os,whowaspubl
i
clyhanged.Ont
heot
herhand,t
heCat
hol
i
cmi
ssi
onar
ieswer
enot
har
med,becauseFasi
l
edesf
ear
edPor
tuguesei
nter
fer
ence.I
nst
ead,Fasi
l
edesor
der
ed
t
heexpul
sionoft
heJesui
tmi
ssi
onar
iesf
rom t
hecount
ry.
Thet
heol
ogi
calcont
rov
ersi
est
hatshookt
hef
oundat
ionoft
heOr
thodoxChur
chi
nthe
subsequentcent
uri
eswer
etheconsequenceoft
her
eli
giousconf
li
ctbet
weenOr
thodox
Chr
ist
iani
tyandRomanCat
hol
i
cism.Ther
eli
giouscont
rov
ersyhadal
so al
ong-
ter
m
consequencef
ort
hef
orei
gnr
elat
ionsoft
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom.I
twasbel
i
evedt
hatt
he
bl
oodyci
vi
lwarwascausedbyt
hei
nter
fer
enceofal
i
enf
orces.Ther
eaf
ter
,al
lEur
opean
Chr
ist
ianswer
esuspect
edasCat
hol
i
cs.Ther
efor
e,t
oav
oidsi
mil
arpr
obl
emsi
nthef
utur
e,
Fasi
l
edesmadeanal
l
iancewi
tht
hehi
ther
tot
radi
ti
onal
l
yhost
il
eMusl
i
m nei
ghbor
s.He
si
gnedt
reat
ieswi
tht
heI
mamsofYemenandt
hePashasofSwaki
nandMassawa,who
agr
eedt
opr
eventorr
epor
tthecomi
ngofanyEur
opeant
otheChr
ist
ianki
ngdom.Thus,
t
heChr
ist
ianki
ngdom adopt
edacl
osed-
doorpol
i
cywhi
chi
sol
atedt
heki
ngdom f
rom t
he
Chr
ist
ianEur
opeansf
oraboutt
wo cent
uri
esi
.e.
,fr
om t
hesev
ent
eent
htot
heear
ly
ni
net
eent
hcent
uri
es.Dur
ingt
hisl
ongper
iodofi
sol
ati
on,onl
ytwoEur
opeanssucceeded
i
nreachi
ngt
heChr
ist
iancour
t.Theywer
eaFr
enchphy
sici
annamedJaquesPoncetand
t
heScot
ti
sht
rav
eler
,JamesBr
uce,
whocamet
odi
scov
ert
hesour
ceoft
heBl
ueNi
l
e.
4.
2Theascendancyoft
heYej
judy
nast
y
Af
tert
hedef
eatofMi
chaelSehul
,chaosanddi
sor
dercont
inuedunt
ilt
hecomi
ngt
o
powerofAl
iGwangul(
AliI
)fr
om t
heYej
j
uOr
omof
ami
l
y.Al
ifoundedanew r
uli
ng
dy
nast
yknownast
heYej
j
udy
nast
yort
heWar
raShehi
n1786.Thi
sdy
nast
ydomi
nat
ed
t
hepol
i
ticsofnor
ther
nEt
hiopi
aint
henameoft
hepuppetki
ngsofGonderunt
ilt
he
mi
ddl
eoft
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
.Dur
ingt
hisper
iodofYej
j
urul
e,t
hemosti
mpor
tant
cent
ersofpol
i
ticalpowerwer
ethet
err
it
ori
esoft
hepr
esent
-dayGoj
j
am,Gondar
,Ti
grai
andWol
l
o.
Whencompar
edt
oeachot
her
,the“
Yej
j
udy
nast
y”wast
hel
eadi
ngpowerdur
ingt
he
Zemen-
Mesaf
intwi
tht
hecent
eratDebr
e-Tabor
.Al
iGwangul(
AliIorAl
iTal
aq)was
consi
der
edt
hef
ounderoft
he“
Yej
j
udy
nast
y”i
n1786.TheYej
j
udy
nast
yst
rengt
hened
i
tspowerdur
ingi
tsst
rongestr
ulerRasGugsa(
1803-1825)
.Thet
wosuccessi
veTi
gri
an
r
uler
s,RasWal
daSel
l
aseofI
ndar
ta(
r.1790-1816)andDej
j
azmachSabagadi
s(r
.1822-
1831)
,resi
stedGugsa'
spoweri
nthenor
th.Nev
ert
hel
ess,het
ri
edt
oneut
ral
i
zet
hem
t
hroughmar
ri
ager
elat
ionsanddi
plomacy
.Mor
eov
er,Gugsa'
smi
l
itar
yanddi
plomat
ic
ski
l
lshel
pedhi
m exer
cisehi
spowerov
ert
hel
ordsofGoj
j
am,Wol
l
o,Last
a,Semen,
Wagar
aandDamby
a.
Fol
l
owi
ngt
hedeat
hofGugsai
n1825,t
heYej
j
udy
nast
ymetst
rongchal
l
engesf
rom
SemenandTi
grai
.Semenwasdef
eat
edbyGugsa'
ssonandsuccessor
,RasYemam
(
1825-
1828)
.RasMar
yesucceededYemam i
n1828.Howev
er,Daj
j
achSabagadi
sof
Ti
graideci
dedt
oendt
heYej
j
upol
i
ticaldomi
nat
ion.Thi
sledt
othebat
tl
ein1831ofMay
-
Asl
amay
,nearDabr
a Abay
,in west
ern Ti
grai
.The t
wo r
ival
s,Ras Mar
ye and
Dei
j
jazmachSabagadi
swer
eki
l
ledi
nthi
sbat
tl
e,butt
hef
inalv
ict
orywentt
otheYej
j
u
dy
nast
y.Ther
ulerofSemen,
Dej
i
azmachWube,
wasr
ewar
dedTi
grai
forhi
scont
ri
but
ion
si
dingwi
tht
heYej
j
ulor
dsdur
ingt
hebat
tl
eofMay
-Asl
amay
.Howev
er,
theYej
j
upol
i
tical
domi
nanceov
ernor
ther
nEt
hiopi
acont
inuedf
ort
henextt
wodecadesunderRasAl
i
Al
ulaorAl
iII(
r.1831-
1853)
.Yej
j
urul
ereachedi
tszeni
thunderGugsaMar
so(
r.
1803-
1825)
,whomadeani
ncessantst
ruggl
eagai
nstRasWal
de-
Sil
assi
eofEnder
taand
Dej
j
azmat
chSabagadi
sWol
duofAgame.I
n1826,
Gugsa'
ssuccessor
,Yi
mam (
r.
1825-
8),
def
eat
edHay
le-
Mar
iam Gebr
eofSi
men.Mar
uofDambi
yawasal
soki
l
ledatt
hebat
tl
e
ofKoso-
Beri
n1827.Theper
iodofzemenemesaf
intwasbr
oughtt
oanendbyKasa
Hai
l
uofQwar
athr
oughbat
tl
est
hatl
ast
edf
rom t
he1840st
o1855.
4.
3.Decadencewi
tht
her
uli
nghouseandt
heZemeneMesaf
int(
TheEr
aofWar
lor
ds)
Fr
om 1767t
o1769,
ther
ewasapowerst
ruggl
einGondarbet
weengr
oupsofWol
l
oand
Quar
apol
i
ticalf
act
ions.Wol
l
owasr
epr
esent
edbyWabi
,thewi
feofI
yassuI
Iand
mot
heroft
hey
oungmonar
ch,I
yoas(
r.1755-
1769)
.Quar
a,ont
heot
herhand,was
r
epr
esent
edbyhermot
heri
n-l
aw,
ItegeMent
ewab,
whot
hencont
rol
l
edst
atepoweri
n
t
henameofhergr
andson,I
yoas.Thi
sri
val
ryt
ookpl
acef
oll
owi
ngt
hedeat
hofRas
Bi
twededWel
deLeuli
n1767.Ment
ewabhadgi
venapowerbaset
otheWal
l
oOr
omoby
ar
rangi
ngapol
i
ticalmar
ri
agebet
weenhersonI
yassuI
IandWabi
,fr
om t
heWol
l
o
Or
omof
ami
l
y.I
naddi
ti
on,shei
ntendedt
osecur
ethei
rmi
l
itar
ysuppor
ttoconsol
i
dat
e
herpoweri
ntheGondar
inest
ate.

Af
tert
hat
,howev
er,t
heWol
l
oOr
omogr
adual
l
ybegant
oenj
oyal
eadi
ngpol
i
ticalr
ole
and i
nfl
uence.Theconf
li
ctbet
weenQuar
aand t
heWol
l
o Or
omo f
act
ionscr
eat
ed
pol
i
ticaldi
sor
derar
oundt
hecapi
tal
.Thi
sendanger
edMent
ewab'
spower
.Shewast
hus
f
orcedt
olookf
oranyst
rongper
sonal
i
tywhocoul
dhel
phercont
rolt
hesi
tuat
ion.The
mostpower
fulcandi
dat
ein1768wasRasMi
chaelSehulofTi
grai
.Hehadabi
gar
my
andmor
emoder
nfi
rear
msduet
ohi
saccesst
ofor
eignt
radet
hrought
heRedSea.
Mi
chaelSehulwasi
nvi
tedt
oGondarbyMent
ewabandsoonr
est
oredpeaceandor
der
i
ntheci
ty.Hewasawar
dedt
hehi
ghestt
it
leofRasBi
tweded.Whenki
ngI
yoasor
der
ed
hi
mtogobackt
oTi
grai
,Mi
chaelf
eltst
rongandr
efusedt
oobeyt
heki
ng'
sor
der
.He
assassi
nat
edKi
ngI
yoasi
n1769.Thi
sev
entmar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngofanewer
ainwhi
ch
power
ful
regi
onal
war
lor
dsunder
minedt
hemonar
chy
'spower
.
Zemene-
Mesaf
intr
efer
stot
heper
iodwhent
heact
ualposi
ti
onofpol
i
ticalpowerwasi
n
t
hehandsofdi
ff
erentr
egi
onall
ords.Theper
iodf
rom1769whenRasMi
chaelSehul
"
assassi
nat
ed"ki
ngI
yoast
o1855whenKasaHai
l
uwascr
ownedasTewodr
osI
I.Ras
Mi
chael
,aki
ngmakerdur
ingt
heper
iod,t
ookst
rongmeasur
esagai
nstt
henobi
l
ity
.A
coal
i
tionofl
ordsofGoj
j
am,Amhar
a,Last
aandWol
l
odef
eat
edhi
m att
hebat
tl
eof
Sar
ba-
Kussai
n1771andf
orcedhi
mtogobackt
ohi
spowerbasei
nTi
grai
.Her
uled
ov
erTi
grayf
ort
henextni
ney
ear
sunt
ilhi
sdeat
hin1780.
Af
tert
hedef
eatofMi
chaelSehul
,chaosanddi
sor
dercont
inuedunt
ilt
hecomi
ngt
o
powerofAl
iGwangul(
AliI
)fr
om t
heYej
j
uOr
omof
ami
l
y.Al
ifoundedanew r
uli
ng
dy
nast
yknownast
heYej
j
udy
nast
yort
heWar
raShehi
n1786.Undert
her
eignsofhi
s
successor
s,t
her
ewasr
elat
ivest
abi
l
ity
,butsev
eralr
egi
onall
ordsev
olv
ed.Themai
n
pol
i
ticalr
egi
ons t
hatZemene-
Mesaf
intl
ords r
uled wer
e Ti
gray
,Semen,Deby
e,
Begemedi
r,Last
a,Yej
j
u,Wol
l
o,Goj
j
am andShewa.Thi
ser
aiscommonl
yknowni
n
Et
hiopi
anhi
stor
yast
heZemeneMesaf
int(
1769–1855)
.
Thedi
ff
erentr
egi
onal
l
ybasednor
ther
nEt
hiopi
anwar
lor
dsoft
heZemeneMesaf
int
f
oughtagai
nsteachot
herf
orv
ari
ousobj
ect
ives:
•Theywant
edt
oexpandt
hei
rter
ri
tor
iesatt
heexpenseoft
hei
rnei
ghbour
sbecause
l
arget
err
it
orymeansenor
moushumanandmat
eri
alr
esour
ces.
•Theywant
edt
ohav
ethet
it
leofRasBi
twededt
obecomeguar
diansoft
heweak
Gondar
ineki
ngsandt
hei
rcour
t.
•Theywant
edt
ocol
l
ectasmucht
ri
but
easpossi
blei
nthenameoft
heseweakki
ngs.
•Rel
i
giousconf
li
ctswor
senedt
her
egi
onalpowerconf
li
ctsoft
heZemeneMesaf
int
.
Ther
ewasani
ntensedoct
ri
nalcont
rov
ersywi
thi
ntheOr
thodoxChur
chdur
ingt
he
per
iod.Thi
sweakenedt
heposi
ti
onofbot
htheEt
hiopi
anst
ateandt
heChur
ch.The
Or
thodoxChur
chcoul
dnotenf
orceuni
tyamongt
heChr
ist
ianmassesbecausei
twas
deepl
y di
vi
ded i
nto di
ff
erentf
act
ions wi
thi
nit
sel
f.The di
vi
sions t
ook a r
egi
onal
char
act
er.Thei
nter
nalr
eli
giousdi
vi
siongav
eani
deol
ogi
caldi
mensi
ont
othepower
conf
li
ctandf
urt
heri
ntensi
fi
edt
hepowerst
ruggl
eoft
heZemeneMesaf
int
.Theendl
ess
war
soft
heZemeneMesaf
intaf
fect
edt
hesoci
alandeconomi
cli
feoft
hepeasant
ry.
Thepeasant
ssuf
fer
edf
rom f
requentwar
s.Thepeasant
swer
efor
cedt
ofeedt
he
enor
mousar
miesoft
hel
ocalandr
egi
onall
ords.Themanyshi
ft
as(
bandi
ts)al
sof
orced
t
hepeasantt
osuppl
ythem f
ood.Ther
efor
e,t
hev
ari
ousdependent
sdi
scour
agedt
he
peasant
ryf
rom wor
king har
d and pr
oduci
ng sur
plus pr
oduct
ion.Mor
eov
er,t
he
f
arml
andsoft
hepeasant
ryof
tenbecamebat
tl
efi
elds,andt
hei
rvi
l
lageswer
ebur
nt
down.Ther
efor
e,agr
icul
tur
ewhi
chf
ormedt
hebackboneoft
hepeasanteconomy
,was
depr
essedi
ntheper
iodoft
heZemeneMesaf
int
.Thecont
inuouswar
soft
heZemene
Mesaf
intal
soaf
fect
edt
hedev
elopmentoft
rade.Mer
chant
scoul
dnott
rav
elpeacef
ull
y
al
ongt
hel
ong-
dist
ancet
rader
out
esduet
oendl
esswar
sandr
obber
y.Mor
eov
er,t
hey
wer
efor
cedt
opayheav
ytaxesatt
hedi
ff
erentwar
lor
ds'
gat
es(
taxst
ati
ons)
.Themost
i
mpor
tantt
radei
temsdur
ingt
heZemeneMesaf
intwer
enat
uralpr
oduct
ssuchasi
vor
y,
gol
d,andci
vet
.Ensl
avedpeopl
efor
medani
mpor
tantel
ementoft
radi
ngi
tems.Asa
r
esul
toff
eudalwar
s,warcapt
ivesi
ncr
easedt
hesuppl
yofensl
avedpeopl
ewhower
ein
hi
ghdemandi
nAr
abi
a.Byandl
arge,t
hecont
inuouswar
soft
heZemeneMesaf
inthad
under
minedt
hesenseofnat
ional
i
sm.I
twasaper
iodofweaknat
ionalf
eel
i
ngand
nat
ional
power
4.
4.Pol
it
iesofShoa,
Omoandt
heGi
ber
egi
ons,
theEmi
rat
eofHar
arandShi
ekdom of
Assosa
TheOmot
icSt
ates
Thepeopl
esandt
hest
ateswhi
choccupi
edt
het
err
it
oryar
oundt
heOmor
iverbasi
n
speakv
ari
ousl
anguagescol
l
ect
ivel
yknownbyl
i
ngui
stsasOmot
icl
anguages.The
peopl
esandt
hest
atesar
eal
soknownbyt
hegenet
icl
i
ngui
sti
cter
m ofOmot
ic.So
ar
oundt
hir
tydi
ff
erentl
anguagesar
ecl
assi
fi
edundert
heOmot
icf
ami
l
y.Themost
i
mpor
tantl
anguagesundert
heOmot
icl
anguagef
ami
l
yar
eKaf
fa,Wal
ayi
ta,Dawur
o,
Bench,
Dor
zeGamo,
Gof
a,Koy
ra,
Yem,
Sheka,
andMaj
i
.
TheKi
ngdom ofKaf
fa
I
tisf
oundsout
hoft
heGoj
ebr
iver
.Thel
andi
sKaf
faandt
hepeopl
ear
ecal
l
edKaf
fecho.
Theor
igi
nsoft
heki
ngdom canbet
racedasf
arbackast
hef
our
teent
hcent
ury
.The
namesoft
wody
nast
iesar
ever
yimpor
tanti
nthehi
stor
yoft
heKaf
faKi
ngdom.These
dy
nast
ieswer
eMat
toandMi
njo.TheMat
tody
nast
yrul
edKaf
fabef
ore1390.Thef
ir
st
ki
ngoft
heMi
njody
nast
ywasMi
nji
l
oandaf
terwhom,t
her
uli
ngdy
nast
ycamet
obe
knownasMi
njo.
Int
he19t
hcent
ury
,par
ti
cul
arl
ybet
ween1821and1897,
fiv
epr
omi
nent
ki
ngssuccessi
vel
yrul
edKaf
fa.Theywer
e:GaheNhchochi
(r.
1821-
1841)
,KaweEr
ochi
(r.
1841-
1843)
,Kaj
iShar
ochi(
r.
1843-
1868)
,(Gal
iSar
ochir
.1868-1890 (
Gal
i
to)
,Gaki
Shar
ochi
.(r1890-
1897)
.

Dur
ingt
her
eignoft
heseki
ngs,
theki
ngdom dev
elopedi
tsmonar
chi
calsy
stem andwas
ext
endedt
osout
h,sout
hwestnor
theastofKaf
fa.Theadmi
nist
rat
ionoft
heki
ngdom
wasdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wel
veandl
ateri
ntoei
ght
eenpr
ovi
nces.TheKaf
faki
ngshel
dar
oyal
t
it
lecal
l
edt
ato.Thet
atowasassi
stedbyast
atecounci
l
orscal
l
edMi
ker
echo.Ther
e
wer
eei
ghtMi
ker
echowi
thonenon-per
manentmember
.Thel
andi
ntheKi
ngdom was
consi
der
edast
hepr
oper
tyoft
heki
ng.Her
etheconceptoft
heki
ngandt
hest
atear
e
ov
erl
apped.Theki
ngdom ofKaf
fawasknownt
ohav
eanef
fi
cientsy
stem off
ront
ier
def
ense.Al
lal
ongt
het
err
it
oryofKaf
fa,wat
cht
ower
swer
esecr
etl
yer
ect
edathi
gh
poi
ntst
owat
chanddet
ectt
heappr
oachoft
heenemy
.Theappr
oachoft
heenemywas
si
gnal
edbybeat
ingdr
umst
hati
mpl
ycal
lformobi
l
izat
ion.Thedr
umsf
rom t
hebor
der
wer
ebeat
enbyassi
gnedcl
anscal
l
edt
heManj
o.TheManj
oar
eknownt
ohav
ebeen
out
cast
ecl
ansi
nKaf
fa.
TheeconomyofKaf
fawasbasedonagr
icul
tur
e.Thepeasant
spr
oduceddi
ff
erentki
nds
ofcr
ops.Theyal
sokeptCi
vetcatt
ocol
l
ectmusk.Thepeasant
spai
dtaxesf
rom t
hei
r
pr
oduct
sincl
udi
ngt
hecol
l
ect
edmusk.Taxeswer
ecol
l
ect
edbyassi
gnedcol
l
ect
ors
cal
l
edTat
e-ki
sho,meani
ngt
hehandoft
heki
ng.Taxeswer
ecol
l
ect
edi
nki
nds.The
economyofKaf
fawasal
sosuppl
ement
edbyt
rade.Themostt
radei
temsofKaf
fawer
e:
cof
fee,
ivor
y,musk,
slav
eandgol
d.Longdi
stancet
rader
out
esl
i
nkedBonga,
thecent
er
oft
heki
ngdom wi
tht
hecent
erandt
hecoastofEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Manymer
chant
sfr
om
di
ff
erentdi
rect
ionscamet
oKaf
famar
ketpl
acesi
nsear
chofl
ucr
ati
vecommodi
ti
es,
whi
char
ement
ionedabov
e.Kaf
fai
sal
soknownf
ori
tscof
feepr
oduct
ion.Beads,sal
t
bar
sandi
ronbar
swer
eusedasmedi
um ofexchange.Ther
eal
soexi
stedt
radi
ti
onal
i
roni
ndust
ry.Fol
l
owi
ngt
heexpansi
onofMeni
l
ik,
Kaf
fawasf
inal
l
yincor
por
atedi
ntot
he
Et
hiopi
anEmpi
rei
n1897.
Theki
ngdom ofYem
Anot
herOmot
icst
atewast
heki
ngdom ofYem.TheYem peopl
eoccupi
edt
hewest
ern
bankofGi
ber
iver
.Yem exi
stedaspol
i
ticalent
it
ysi
ncet
hef
our
teent
hcent
ury
.Int
he
ni
net
eent
hcent
uryt
heki
ngdom ofYem wasr
uledbyady
nast
ycal
l
edt
heMowa.The
ki
ngsofYem adopt
edat
it
lecal
l
edano.Theki
ngswer
ebot
hrel
i
giousandpol
i
tical
headsoft
hei
rpeopl
e.Theadmi
nist
rat
ionoft
heki
ngdom washi
erar
chi
cal
l
yor
gani
zed.
Theki
ngwasatt
het
opoft
hesoci
alpy
rami
d,andhewast
hemostpower
fulf
igur
ein
t
heki
ngdom.Bel
owhi
m,t
her
ewasacounci
lofof
fi
cial
sknownasast
esor
.
Theast
esorwaschai
redbyanof
fi
cialwhohadt
het
it
lecal
l
edwaso.Theki
ngdom of
Yem wasdi
vi
dedi
ntopr
ovi
ncesandsubpr
ovi
nces.Thesepr
ovi
ncesandsubpr
ovi
nces
wer
erul
edbyof
fi
ci
alsknownaser
asho(
rasho)
andgenar
espect
ivel
y.Theeconomyof
t
heki
ngdom wasbasedonagr
icul
tur
e.Thepeasant
spai
dtr
ibut
esdi
rect
lyt
otheki
ng.
Tr
adeandhandi
craf
tssuchasweav
ingandi
ronwor
k,wer
eauxi
l
iar
yeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
es
f
ort
hepeopl
eofYem.Thi
ski
ngdom wasf
inal
l
yconquer
edbyt
hef
orceofMenel
i
kin
1894.
TheKi
ngdom ofWol
ait
a
Theot
herpr
omi
nentst
atei
nsout
hwest
ernEt
hiopi
awast
heki
ngdom ofWal
ayi
ta.Thi
s
ki
ngdom hadast
rongconnect
ionwi
tht
hemedi
evalst
ateofDamot
.Thef
ounderoft
his
ki
ngdom wasMot
alami
.Mot
alamif
oundedady
nast
ycal
l
edWal
ayi
taMal
l
a.Wal
ayi
ta
Mal
l
awasest
abl
i
shedar
oundt
hebegi
nni
ngoff
our
teent
hcent
ury
.Int
hef
if
teencent
ury
t
heWal
ayi
taMal
l
ady
nast
ywasoust
edf
rom powerandr
epl
acedbyar
ivaldy
nast
y
cal
l
ed“
Tigr
e”.TheTi
gredy
nast
yrul
edWal
ayi
taunt
ilt
heendofni
net
eent
hcent
ury
.
Whi
l
ethi
sdy
nast
ywasi
npower
,Wal
ayi
taexpandedi
tst
err
it
oryt
owar
dst
hesout
hand
west
.Theki
ngsofWal
ayi
tausedt
her
oyalt
it
lecal
l
edKawo.The“
goqa”
wer
ethe
pr
ivi
l
egedwar
ri
orcl
assofWal
ayi
taki
ngdom.TheeconomyofWal
ayi
tawasbasedon
Agr
icul
tur
e.Al
llandi
ntheki
ngdom wast
hepr
oper
tyofaki
ng.Theki
nghadal
so
absol
utepowerov
ert
hel
i
feandpr
oper
tyofhi
speopl
e.Thesewar
ri
orcl
assesr
esi
ded
ar
oundt
hecour
toft
heWal
ayi
taki
ngs.Thel
astki
ngt
orul
eindependentWal
ayi
tawas
KawoTona.Wal
ayi
tawasf
inal
l
yconquer
edbyMeni
l
ikI
Iin1894af
terast
if
fresi
stance.
TheKi
ngdom ofSheka
Thi
ski
ngdom wasf
oundt
otheeastofBar
oandwestofGoj
ebRi
ver
sort
othewestof
Kaf
faki
ngdom.Shekahadt
wor
uli
ngdy
nast
iesbef
oret
heendoft
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
.
Theser
uli
ngdy
nast
ieswer
eBat
toandBushasho.Muchi
snotknownaboutt
heBat
to
dy
nast
y.Thef
ir
stShekaBushashoki
ngmi
grat
edf
rom nei
ghbour
ingAnf
il
lot
oShekaat
t
heendofsi
xteencent
ury
.TheBushashody
nast
yofShekar
uledf
rom t
heendof16t
h
t
othe19t
hcent
uri
es.Chr
ist
iani
tyi
sbel
i
evedt
ohav
ebeeni
ntr
oducedt
oShekai
nthel
ate
si
xteent
hcent
ury
.Fort
hebr
iefper
iodi
nthesev
ent
eencent
ury
,Shekawasconquer
ed
byt
heMechaOr
omoTr
ibe.Buti
tregai
nedi
tsi
ndependenceatt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
he
ni
net
eencent
ury
.Theki
ngsofShekal
i
keKaf
fausedt
her
oyalt
it
le“
tat
o”.Theki
ngdom
ofShekahadacl
oseeconomi
c,pol
i
ticalandhi
stor
icalr
elat
ionshi
pwi
thEnar
ya,Kaf
fa
andAnf
il
lo.
Tr
adi
ti
onsofShekaki
ngdom r
ecogni
zedt
henamesoff
iveki
ngsoft
heni
net
eencent
ury
Thesewer
e:BediNechochi(r
.1800-
1805)
,TachiNechechi (
r.
1805-
1810)
,Gal
iGoechi
(r
.1820-
1850)
,Dej
iGoechi
(r.
1850-
1887)
,Techi
Goechi
(r.
1887-
1898)
Besi
dest
heabov
est
ates,t
her
ewer
eal
soot
herOmot
icst
ates.Amongt
heset
hemost
i
mpor
tantwer
etheki
ngdomsofDawur
o,Kont
a,GamoandGof
a.
TheOr
omoMonar
chi
es
Whatwas t
he maj
orpol
i
ticalt
ransf
ormat
ion t
he Or
omo oft
he Gi
be v
all
ey had
under
gonei
nthe19t
hcent
ury
?
Anot
hergr
oupofst
atesemer
gedi
nthesout
h-west
ernEt
hiopi
aint
heei
ght
eent
hand
ni
net
eent
hbel
ongedt
otheOr
omopeopl
e.Att
hebegi
nni
ngofni
net
eent
hcent
ury
,
monar
chi
calst
atesemer
gedi
nOr
omoset
tl
edar
easofGi
beVal
l
ey.Att
het
imeoft
he
Or
omo popul
ati
onmov
ementand expansi
on,t
heGi
bebasi
nwasoccupi
ed byt
he
v
ari
ouscl
ansoft
heMachaOr
omo.Att
het
imeoft
hei
rexpansi
onandt
heMechaOr
omo
mai
nlyl
edpast
ural
li
feandt
heywer
egov
ernedbyt
hegadasy
stem.
Byabout1800,howev
er,t
heOr
omooft
heGi
beVal
l
eyhadunder
goneapr
ofound
pol
i
ticalt
ransf
ormat
ion.Thet
radi
ti
onalgadasy
stem wast
ransf
ormedi
ntomonar
chi
cal
sy
stem ofgov
ernment
.
Manyf
act
orsaccount
edf
ort
hist
ransf
ormat
ion.Fi
rst
ly,t
heOr
omooft
hisr
egi
onhad
comei
nto cont
actwi
th Omot
icst
ateswhi
ch had a l
ong t
radi
ti
on ofmonar
chi
cal
gov
ernment
.Secondl
y,t
heexpansi
onofOr
omoi
ntowi
dear
eaaf
fect
edt
hesy
stem
whi
chwor
kedv
erywel
linsmal
lgr
oups.Thi
rdl
y,t
hel
ongdi
stancet
radeandt
hespr
ead
ofI
slam seem t
ohav
eunder
minedt
hepoweroft
hegadagov
ernment
.Fi
nal
l
y,f
requent
war
sgav
eri
set
opower
ful
lindi
vi
dual
ssuchast
heAbbadul
aswhobecamei
nfl
uent
ial
.
Ont
hewhol
e,t
hecombi
nat
ionoft
heabov
efact
orswer
eresponsi
blef
ort
hedecl
i
neof
t
hegadasy
stem andt
her
iseofmonar
chi
cal
gov
ernment
.
The monar
chi
calsy
stem ofgov
ernmentf
ir
stemer
ged ar
ound t
he begi
nni
ng of
ni
net
eent
hcent
ury
.Thi
shi
stor
icaldev
elopmentt
ookpl
aceamongt
heOr
omoar
ound
t
heGi
beRi
verandWel
l
ega.Fi
vest
atesemer
gedar
oundGi
beRi
verwhi
chcamet
obe
knownast
he“
Gibemonar
chi
es”
.Thesewer
eGer
a,Goma,Guma,Ji
mmaandLi
mu-
Enar
ya.
Theear
li
estoft
hesemonar
chi
calst
ateswasLi
mu-
Enar
ya.Thi
sst
atewasbui
l
t
ont
her
uinsoft
hemedi
evalki
ngdom ofEnar
ya/Hi
nnar
io.Enar
yawasdef
eat
edaf
ter
l
ongper
iodofr
esi
stancebyt
heMechaOr
omo.
Li
mu-
Enar
yabecamepower
fulbecausei
tcont
rol
l
edt
hel
ongdi
stancet
rader
out
eoft
he
r
egi
on.Li
mu-
Enar
yar
eachedt
hehei
ghtofi
tspowerdur
ingt
her
eignofAbba-Bagi
bo,
or
I
bsa(
r.
1825-
1861)
.Fr
om t
hemi
ddl
eofni
net
eent
hcent
uryonLi
mu-
Enar
yadecl
i
nedand
gav
ewayt
oit
sri
val
,Ji
mmaKaka.Ji
mmaunderi
tsr
uler
,AbbaJi
farbecamepower
ful
andcont
rol
l
edt
radeandt
rader
out
es.Ataboutt
hesamet
ime,t
hreeOr
omoki
ngdoms
emer
gedt
othewestandsout
hwestofJi
mma.Thesewer
eGer
aGomaandGuma.Al
l
t
heGi
best
ateswer
elocat
edal
ongt
het
rader
out
ewhi
chaccount
edf
ort
hei
rri
seand
pr
osper
it
y.
Ataboutt
hemi
ddl
eofni
net
eent
hcent
ury
,twoot
herOr
omost
atesemer
gedi
nWol
l
ega
r
egi
on.Oneoft
hesest
ateswasLeqaNeqemt
.Thi
sst
atewasf
oundedbyaBakar
e
Godana.Thi
sst
ater
eachedatt
hehei
ghtofi
tspowerdur
ingt
her
eignsofMor
odaand
hi
ssonKumsa.Kumsawasl
aterbapt
izedt
aki
ngt
heChr
ist
ianname,Gebr
eIgzeber
.
WhenMenel
i
k’st
err
it
ori
alexpansi
onwasunderway
,Kumsapeacef
ull
ysubduedand
wasabl
etomai
ntai
nhi
slocalaut
onomy
.Kumsar
uledLeqaNeqemti
nthe2ndhal
fof
t
heni
net
eencent
ury
.
Theot
herOr
omost
atei
nWol
l
egar
egi
onwasLeqaQel
l
am.LeqaQel
l
am wasf
ounded
byTul
l
uandbecamepower
ful
dur
ingt
her
eignofhi
ssonJot
eTul
l
u.Themai
nsour
ceof
LeqaQuel
l
am weal
thandpowerwasi
tscr
oss-
fr
ont
iergol
dtr
adeandt
het
radewi
th
nei
ghbour
ingShi
ekdomsofAqol
dyandBel
aShangul
.
TheEmi
rat
esofHar
ar
Expl
ainwhyt
heHar
ari
peopl
ebui
l
dwal
lar
oundt
heci
tyofHar
ar.
TheHar
aripeopl
eli
vedi
ntheci
tyofHar
ar.I
ntheni
net
eent
hcent
ury
,theypossesseda
hi
ghl
yor
gani
zedsy
stem ofgov
ernment
.Thepol
i
ticalor
gani
zat
ionofHar
aripeopl
ewas
t
her
esul
tofpol
i
ticaldev
elopment
soft
hepastcent
uri
es.TheSul
tanat
eofAdalwast
he
mostpower
fulst
atei
nthe15t
hand16t
hcent
uri
esandmuchoft
het
err
it
oryi
ntheEast
hadbeenundert
hehegemonyoft
hissul
tanat
e.Formostoft
hisper
iod,t
hesul
tanat
e
r
uledt
her
egi
onf
rom i
tscent
eri
nHar
ar.
I
n1577t
hepr
essur
eoft
heOr
omoexpansi
onf
orcedt
hesul
tanat
eofAdalt
oshi
fti
ts
cent
erf
rom Har
art
oAusai
nthenor
theastoft
heAwashv
all
ey.Al
i
ttl
ebef
oret
hist
ime,
Har
arci
tywasal
sosur
roundedbyast
onewal
ltor
esi
stt
heOr
omopr
essur
e.Thi
swal
l
wasbui
l
tbyEmi
rNur
,thei
mmedi
atesuccessorofAhmed I
brahi
m I
binElGhazi
,
commonl
yknownasAhmedGr
agn.
Theshi
ftoft
heAdal
i
tepol
i
ticalcent
erhadonei
mpor
tantconsequence.Thi
swast
he
emer
genceoft
heHar
arEmi
rat
e.Fr
om 1577t
othemi
ddl
eoft
hesev
ent
eent
hcent
ury
on,t
heemi
rsofHar
arpai
dannualt
ri
but
etot
heI
mam ofAussa.Thet
ri
but
aryr
elat
ion
camet
oanendwi
thr
iseofEmi
rAl
iDawud.Al
iDawud(r
.1647-
1662)
.Hedecl
aredt
he
i
ndependenceoft
heHar
aremi
rat
e.TheEmi
rest
abl
i
shedady
nast
ythatwast
orul
e
Har
arupt
othel
astquar
teroft
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
.
Formor
ethant
wocent
uri
es,
Har
arbecamet
hemosti
mpor
tantt
radecent
eri
ntheEast
.
Theci
tywasst
rat
egi
cal
l
ysi
tuat
edbet
weent
het
rader
out
esoft
henor
ther
nSomal
i
Coast
sandt
heI
nter
ioroft
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Twor
out
esf
rom t
henor
ther
nSomal
i
por
tsofZei
l
aandBer
ber
ameetatHar
ar.Theset
rader
out
esf
urt
herpr
oceededt
othe
i
nter
ioroft
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Theset
rader
out
eswer
econt
rol
ledbyt
hest
ateofHar
ar,
whi
chmadei
tver
ypr
osper
ous.Thecommer
ceofHar
arwasani
mpor
tanteconomi
c
assett
othesur
roundi
ngOr
omosandSomal
i
s.Dur
ingt
hef
ir
stwav
eoft
heOr
omo
expansi
on,t
heci
tyhadsecl
udedi
tsel
ffr
om t
hecommuni
ti
esoutsi
det
heci
ty.Ast
he
i
nit
ialwav
es oft
he Or
omo expansi
on subsi
ded,t
he secl
usi
on gav
e wayf
ort
he
economi
cint
eract
ionbet
weent
heHar
aribehi
ndt
hewal
landt
heOr
omosandt
he
Somal
i
soutsi
det
hewal
l
.Whent
hispr
ocessst
art
ed,t
hecont
actbet
weent
wogr
oups
wasv
eryl
i
mit
ed.Thegat
esoft
hewal
lwer
eopenedonl
yfort
radi
ngpur
poses.The
mer
chant
sandl
ocalt
rader
sfr
om outsi
det
hewal
lwer
efor
cedt
osur
rendert
hei
r
weaponsatt
heci
tygat
es.
Thesecur
it
ymeasur
eswer
egr
adual
l
yabandonedandf
reemov
ementi
nsi
deandout
si
de t
he ci
ty st
art
ed.I
nfact
,common economi
cint
erest
s det
ermi
ned cl
oserand
peacef
uli
nter
act
ionsamongt
hepeopl
es.TheOr
omosar
oundt
heci
tybecamegood
f
armer
s.Thesef
armer
sexchangedt
hei
ragr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
sfori
temsbr
oughtt
othe
ci
tybyf
orei
gnmer
chant
s.
Thef
ert
il
eter
ri
tor
iesar
oundHar
arpr
oducedgr
ain,v
ari
eti
esoff
rui
tsandv
eget
abl
es,
cof
feeandchat
.Abov
eal
l
,thel
astt
woi
tems,cof
feeandchat
,toget
herwi
thdy
esand
ost
ri
chf
eat
her
s,f
ormedt
hemaj
orexpor
tofHar
ar.Thesei
temswer
esuppl
i
edbyt
he
communi
ti
esar
oundt
heci
tyofHar
ar.Ther
efor
e,economi
cint
erdependencecr
eat
ed
t
hegr
oundf
ormor
eandbr
oaderi
nter
act
ionamongt
hepeopl
esoft
her
egi
on.
Thegr
owt
hoft
het
radeoft
her
egi
onmadeHar
arweal
thyandpr
osper
ous.Theci
ty
dev
elopedi
tsowncur
rencyasear
l he17th cent
yast ury
.Theweal
thmadet
heemi
rat
e
v
erypower
fulandi
tgr
adual
l
yext
endedi
tshegemonyov
ert
hesur
roundi
ngOr
omosand
t
heSomal
i
s.Theext
ensi
onofhegemoni
cpowerwasf
aci
l
itat
edbyeconomi
cli
nksand
mar
ri
ager
elat
ions.Abov
eal
l
,thespr
eadofI
slam amongt
heOr
omosandt
heSomal
i
s
wasi
mpor
tanti
npr
omot
ingt
hepoweroft
heHar
arEmi
rat
e.
Har
ari
soneoft
heear
li
estcent
ersofI
slam i
nEt
hiopi
anr
egi
on.Theci
tyofHar
ar
cont
inuedt
oser
veast
hecent
erofI
slami
crel
i
giousst
udyandt
rai
ning.I
nthi
sway
,the
Emi
rat
ebecameacent
eroft
heI
slami
ccul
tur
e.Anumberofmosqueswer
ebui
l
tint
he
ci
ty.TheGr
andMosqueandt
hepal
aceofEmi
rwer
ethemosti
mpor
tantedi
fi
cesoft
he
ci
ty.Ther
ewer
eal
sosev
eralr
eli
giousshr
inesi
ntheci
ty.TheHar
aripossessedwel
l
dev
elopedhandi
craf
ts.Theemi
rat
ehadmai
ntai
nedcl
oseeconomi
candpol
i
ticalt
ies
wi
th Yemen and t
he Ar
abi
an Peni
nsul
athr
ough Zei
l
la and Ber
ber
a por
ts.Many
f
orei
gner
sli
vedi
ntheci
tyofHar
ar.Amongt
hese,t
hemosti
mpor
tantwer
etheAr
abs,
Per
sians,
Tur
ks,
Armeni
ansandt
heGr
eeks.Butt
heemi
rat
ehadnodi
rectr
elat
ionswi
th
Eur
opeans.Theemi
rswer
esuspi
ciousofEur
opeanswhom t
heydi
dnotal
l
owt
oent
er
i
ntot
hei
rter
ri
tor
y.Eur
opeanswhot
ri
edt
oent
erHar
arwer
eof
teni
mpr
isonedorki
l
led.
Buti
n1855,t
heBr
it
isht
rav
elerSi
rRi
char
dBur
tonwasabl
etost
ayi
ntheci
tyf
ort
en
day
s.Bur
ton’
svi
sithadst
rongi
mpactont
heemi
rat
esf
utur
e.Thi
str
avel
erdi
scl
osedt
he
weal
thoft
heci
tyaswel
last
hest
rat
egi
cimpor
tanceoft
heemi
rat
etot
heout
sidewor
ld.
I
ntheconsequencet
hef
ir
stt
hreatcamef
rom t
heEgy
pti
ans.I
n1875t
her
ulerofEgy
pt,
Khedi
veI
shmael(
r.
1863-
1879)sentami
l
itar
yex
pedi
ti
onl
edbyMohammedRaufPasha
andoccupi
edHar
ar.Af
tert
eny
ear
sofoccupat
ion.TheEgy
pti
anar
mywi
thdr
ewi
n1885.
Soonaf
tert
hewi
thdr
awaloft
heEgy
pti
ant
roopsMenel
i
kofShawa,def
eat
edt
hef
orce
oft
hel
astEmi
rofHar
ar,Emi
rAbdul
l
ahiatt
hebat
tl
eofChal
enqo,onJanuar
y6,1887
andconquer
edHar
ar.
Wit
hthatt
hei
ndependentexi
stenceofHar
arcamet
oanend.The
Emi
rat
easwel
last
hesur
roundi
ngOr
omosandSomal
i
swer
eincor
por
atedi
ntot
he
Et
hiopi
anEmpi
re.
TheShei
kdomsAsosa,
Beni
shangulandKomosha
Dur
ingt
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
,ther
eexi
stedMusl
i
m st
atesorShei
kdomssi
tuat
edal
ong
t
heEt
hio-Sudanbor
der
.Thesewer
eAsosa,orAqol
di,BeniShangulandKhoosha.The
mai
nfact
orf
ort
her
iseoft
heseMusl
i
m St
ateswast
hei
nfl
uenceofI
slam andt
he
bor
dert
rade.Thi
sregi
onwasv
eryr
ichi
ngol
d.Thi
sandot
hernat
ural
resour
cesoft
hese
st
atesat
tract
edt
heSudanese(
theMahdi
sts)andt
heEgy
pti
anst
odev
elopaspeci
al
i
nter
esti
nther
egi
on.Howev
er,
thei
rat
temptt
ocont
rolt
her
egi
onf
ail
edast
her
esul
tof
t
hei
ncor
por
ati
onoft
hewhol
eregi
oni
ntoMenel
i
k’sEmpi
rei
n1880sandi
n1890s.
TheShawanKi
ngdom
Howdoy
ouaccountt
othegr
owt
hofShawanaut
onomy
?
Shawawasf
oundedi
n1695byt
hel
ocalar
ist
ocr
atcal
l
edNegasiKi
rst
os.Thecor
ear
ea
oft
heShawast
atewasal
ocal
i
tycal
l
edMenz
.Af
terNegasiKi
rst
os,
Shawawasr
uledby
hi
ssuccessor
s;Si
bst
e(r
.1703-1745)
,AmhaYesus(
r.
1745-
1775)
,Asf
aWossen(
r.
1775-
1808)
,andWosenSeged(
r.
1808-
1813)
.Thesesuccessor
sofNegasiexpandedt
he
f
ront
ier
sofShawai
ntot
het
err
it
ori
esoft
henei
ghbour
ingOr
omoandGur
agel
ands.
Thedi
stanceShawahadf
rom t
hecent
erofChr
ist
ianki
ngdom (
Gondar
)al
l
owedt
he
Shawanr
uler
stoexer
cisef
ullaut
hor
it
yint
hei
rki
ngdom.Fr
om aboutt
hemi
ddl
eof
ei
ght
eent
h cent
ury
,Shawa ceased t
o payt
ri
but
eto Gondarand became v
irt
ual
l
y
i
ndependentf
rom Gonder
ianr
ule.
Shawar
eachedt
hehei
ghtofi
tspowerdur
ingt
her
eignofShal
eSel
assi
e(r
.1813-
1847)
.
Hewast
hef
ir
stShawanr
ulert
oadoptt
het
it
leNegusf
orhi
msel
f.Thef
ormerr
uler
sof
Shawa wer
e si
mpl
ycont
ained wi
tht
he t
it
les l
i
ke Mer
idazmach and Abet
o.Shal
e
Sel
assi
ewasabl
etoor
gani
zeanef
fect
iveadmi
nist
rat
ivesy
stem f
orhi
ski
ngdom.The
admi
nist
rat
ionofShawawassub-
div
idedi
ntoni
nepr
ovi
nces,namel
y,Mi
njar
;Bul
ga,
Yaf
at,Gi
dim,Tegul
et,Menze,Gi
she,Mor
etandShawa-
Meda.Thesewer
eadmi
nist
ered
byt
hei
rrespect
ivegov
ernor
swhower
eappoi
ntedbyt
heki
ngandanswer
abl
etohi
m.
TheeconomyofShawawasbasedonagr
icul
tur
e.Tr
adeal
socont
ri
but
edagr
eatdeal
to
t
heweal
thandconsol
i
dat
ionoft
heki
ngdom.Thet
err
it
ori
alexpansi
onsofki
ngShal
e
Sel
assi
eenabl
edt
heki
ngdom t
ohav
eaccesst
oasuppl
yofi
vor
y,cof
fee,
Gol
d,ci
vetcat
andsl
aves.Theset
radei
temswer
ever
yimpor
tantt
ogetf
ir
ear
ms.Ki
ngShal
eSel
assi
e,
l
i
keot
herr
uler
sandchi
efofhi
sti
me,
wasi
nter
est
edi
nfi
rear
msandmi
l
itar
ytechnol
ogy
ast
hiswoul
denabl
ehi
mtosi
l
encehi
sri
val
s.
Theeconomi
cpr
osper
it
yandpol
i
ticalst
abi
l
ityoft
heKi
ngdom at
tr
act
edaconsi
der
abl
e
Eur
opeani
nter
esti
nShawa.Dur
ingt
her
eignofki
ngShal
eSel
assi
e,manyEur
opeans
whov
ist
edshewat
ri
edt
oinf
luencet
hei
rgov
ernment
stoest
abl
i
shr
elat
ionswi
tht
he
Shawanr
uler
s.Thef
ir
stEur
opeanst
oappr
oacht
heShawanki
ngwer
ethemi
ssi
onar
ies
I
senber
gandKr
apf
,whoar
ri
vedatt
hecour
tofShal
eSel
assi
ein1837.I
n1839anot
her
Eur
opean,
theFr
enchchemi
stRochetd’
Her
icour
t,camet
oShewa.Het
ri
edt
oinf
luence
t
heFr
enchgov
ernmentt
oest
abl
i
shr
elat
ionswi
tht
heki
ngdom.
Howev
er,
theBr
it
ishgov
ernmentt
ookt
hel
eadi
nest
abl
i
shi
ngr
elat
ionwi
tht
heki
ngdom.
Ont
hebasi
sofKr
apf
’sr
ecommendat
ion,Br
it
ainsentanenv
oyt
oShawai
n1841.Thi
s
env
oywasl
edbyW.
C.Har
ri
swhosucceededi
nsecur
ingaf
ormalt
reat
ybet
weent
he
Br
it
ishandShawa.Lat
eri
n1843t
heFr
enchenv
oyRochetd’
Hei
rcour
t,ont
hebehal
fof
hi
sGov
ernmentsi
gnedat
reat
yofcommer
ceandf
ri
endshi
pwi
thSahl
eSel
assi
e.These
f
orei
gncont
act
shel
pedki
ngSahl
eSel
assi
etogetf
ir
ear
mswi
thwhi
chhewasabl
eto
expandhi
ski
ngdom.
Ki
ngSahelSel
assi
edi
edi
n1847andwassucceededbyhi
ssonHai
l
eMel
ekot
.The
r
eignofHai
l
eMel
ekot(
r1847-
1856)
,mar
kedt
heendoft
heaut
onomousexi
stenceof
Shawa.Thi
swasbecauseEmper
orTewodr
osI
I(r
.1855-
1868)campai
gnedt
oShawa
i
n1856 and madei
toneofhi
spr
ovi
nces.Ki
ng Hai
l
eMel
ekotdi
ed al
i
ttl
ebef
ore
Tewodr
osdef
eat
edt
heShawanf
orceatt
heBat
tl
eofBer
eket
,inNov
ember1855.
Att
he
endofhi
sShawancampai
gnTewodr
oscapt
uredMeni
l
ik,t
hesonofHai
l
eMel
ekotand
br
oughthi
mtohi
scour
twher
ehest
ayedf
ort
hecomi
ngt
eny
ear
s.I
n1865,Meni
l
ik
escapedf
rom Meqdel
l
aroy
alpr
isonandest
abl
i
shedhi
spoweri
nShawa.Hi
sfi
rst
capi
talwasatAnkoberandwi
tht
heexpansi
onofhi
sdomai
n;heshi
ft
edhi
scent
ert
o
Ent
otount
ilt
hef
oundi
ngofAddi
sAbaba.

Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswer
sfr
om t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.I
nthel
astquar
terof19thCMenel
i
kal
l
owedf
orI
tal
i
anGeogr
aphi
calsoci
etya
campi
ng si
te,LetMar
efi
ainShoa.An I
tal
i
an soci
ety whi
ch was under
l
eader
shi
pof
A.Ant
oner
i B.Ant
onel
l
i C.Bar
ater
i D.Cr
ispi
2.Whydi
dki
ngSuseny
osof
fi
cial
l
yembr
acedCat
hol
i
cism i
n1612andmadei
t
of
fi
cial
rel
i
gioni
n1622?
A.I
nor
dert
oanendpeasant
ryandnobl
eopposi
ti
ons
B.Becausehehadconf
li
ctwi
thOr
thodoxchur
ch
C.I
nor
dert
ogai
nmi
l
itar
ysuppor
tfr
om Por
tugueset
obui
l
droy
alpowerbase.
D.Becauset
her
emnantPor
tuguesesol
dier
sref
usedt
ofi
ghtf
orGel
adi
wosand
r
eadyt
ofi
ghtf
orSusy
nosagai
nstenemi
es.
3.Whower
etheJesui
ts?Theywer
e
A.Cat
hol
i
cmi
ssi
onar
ieswhoat
tempt
edt
ocov
ertGel
adi
wost
oCat
hol
i
cism but
unsuccessf
ul,
for
medbyI
gnat
osLoy
ala
B.Whodecl
aredCat
hol
i
cism asof
fi
cialr
eli
gionofEt
hiopi
a,si
ncet
hei
rmai
n
obj
ect
ivewasspr
eadi
ngCat
hol
i
cism
C.WhoI
sol
atedEt
hiopi
afr
om Musl
i
m wor
ld
D.Whoconv
ert
edZaDi
ngi
ltoCat
hol
i
cism
4.Whydi
dki
ngsofCHKusedMobi
l
ecampsbef
oret
hef
oundat
ionofGondori
n
1636ast
hei
rseat
?
A.Becauset
heshi
ftwascausedbyAdal
i
’scont
inuedt
hreataswel
last
he
pr
essur
eoft
heOr
omomov
ement
B.Becauset
het
heyr
egar
dedmobi
l
ecampsasmor
esaf
ethanper
manent
camps.
C. Becauset
heydi
dnotgai
ntownst
hatwer
eint
hecent
er
D.Becauset
heycal
cul
atedt
heshi
fthadt
radebenef
it
5.NotTr
ueaboutsoci
eti
esdwel
l
eratGondor
A.Jebar
ti
 Musl
i
m cl
eri
csi
nGondor
B.Fel
asha Bet
aIsr
ael
(Jewi
sh)i
nGondor
C.Musl
i
m communi
ti
es Set
tl
edi
nAddi
sAl
em
D.For
eigner
s Per
sians,
Greeks,
Arabs…et
c.E.
None
6.I
mmedi
atef
act
orf
ort
hedecl
i
neofGondor
ianper
iodwas?
A.Assassi
nat
ionofki
ngI
yasuI
IbyMi
kael
Sehul
B.Thecomi
ngofMi
chael
Sehul
aski
ngmaker
C.Chur
chspl
i
tindi
ff
erentdoct
ri
nes
 D.Soci
ali
nst
abi
l
ityandci
vi
lwar
s
E.Assassi
nat
ionofki
ngI
yoasbyMi
kael
Sehul
7. Whatwast
her
easonbehi
ndf
ormat
ionofShei
kdomsi
nWest
ern
Bor
deroft
heCount
ry?
A.
Gol
dtr
adeandI
slam B.pol
i
tical
powerandRgy
pti
anscame
C.f
orei
gnr
elat
ionwi
thSudan D.Absenceoff
orei
gnt
hreatand Long
di
stancet
rade
8.Whydi
dEmi
rNur
iMuj
ahi
dbul
dJegol
Gimb?
A.Todef
endemi
rat
efr
om CHK
B. Todef
endemi
rat
efr
om Or
omo
C.Tospecul
ateemi
rat
efr
om Somal
i
D.Nott
oConv
ertt
heemi
rat
etoI
slam
9.Whatwaseconomi
ccondi
ti
onl
ookl
i
kedur
ingZemeneMesf
ant
?
A.Peasant
sbecameexpor
ter
sandi
mpor
ter
sthansl
avet
rader
s
B.Agr
icul
tur
ebecamebasi
ceconomi
cact
ivi
tyofr
uli
ngcl
asses
C.Economydegr
adat
edbecausepeasant
sfor
cedt
ofeedhor
ses,r
obber
sand
askedhi
ght
axandf
arml
andsbecamebat
tl
efi
elds
D.Or
thodoxchur
chsuppor
tedsl
avet
radi
ngCompani
es
10.
FounderofYej
j
uort
hewar
rashehdy
nast
yin1786was
A.Al
iI
I B.RasGugsa C.RasYemam D.Al
iGwang
11.
Thet
wosi
deswarcommander
sRasMar
yaandDejSabagadi
ski
l
led att
he
bat
tl
eof_
_
A.Sabar
kus B.MayAsl
amay C.Ay
shal D.Der
essgi
e
12.
Thef
act
orwhi
chcont
ri
but
edmostofr
egi
onal
i
sm dur
ingt
heZemeneMesaf
int
f
rom t
her
eli
giouspoi
ntv
iewwas
A.Thechal
l
engef
rom Musl
i
m Cl
eri
cs
B.Thei
nfl
uenceChr
ist
ianmi
ssi
onar
iesandt
heneedt
ohol
dti
tl
e“RasBi
tuwaded”
C.Thepl
otbycat
hol
i
candr
educt
ionofpr
iest
sanddeaconst
o2:
3.
D.Thedoct
ri
nal
conf
li
ctwi
thi
nOr
thodoxChur
chanddi
suni
tyi
nsect
s.
13.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwast
rueaboutZemenaMesaf
int
A.I
tOut
breakbecauseofassassi
nat
ionofI
yasuI
I
 B.I
tendedwi
thcomi
ngofKassaHai
l
u
C.I
twast
heper
iodwhent
hepoweroft
her
egi
onal
lor
dswasweakbyemper
or
D.I
twaschar
act
eri
zedbyi
dent
ical
doct
ri
neofchur
ch
14.
HeydayofGondarendedbecauseof
A.Bet
eIsr
ael
(Fel
asha)i
ntr
oducedt
hei
rownar
tst
yle
B.Thr
oughMusl
i
msat
tackov
erAddi
sZemencour
t
C.Cour
tint
ri
gue,pol
i
ticaldi
sor
der
,soci
alunr
est&mi
l
itar
y weaknessaswel
las
assassi
nat
ionofki
ngs
D.Thedomi
nanceofGondart
radebyOr
omoMusl
i
m mer
chant
scal
l
edJebar
t
15.Oft
hef
oll
owi
ng i
ndi
vi
dualwho expel
l
ed outcat
hol
i
cmi
ssi
onar
iesoutof
GondarandDeJacobi
nsf
rom hi
scount
ryr
espect
ivel
y
A.
Susy
nos,Li
jIy
asu B.Gal
adi
wos,Yohanni
sIC.Fasl
i
des,Tewodr
os I
ID.I
yasuI
,
I
yoas
16.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngev
entmar
kedi
mmedi
ateout
breakofZemeneMesf
ani
t
A.Comi
ngofkasssHai
l
utot
hepoweri
n1769
B. Assassi
nat
ionofI
yoasi
n1769
C.Assassi
nat
ionofI
yasui
n1769
D.Comi
ngMi
chael
Sehul
tot
heGondar
iancour
tfr
om Ti
grai
CHAPTERFI
VE
Af
ri
caandt
heout
sideWor
ldt
o1900s
5.
1Genesi
s,dev
elopmentandConsequencesoft
rans-At
lant
icSl
avet
rade
Thebackgr
oundt
othebegi
nni
ngoft
heAt
lant
icsl
avet
radehadbeensetupbyt
he
v
oyage ofChr
ist
opherCol
umbus t
othe new cont
inent
,Amer
ica i
n 1492.Soon
af
ter
war
ds,
theSpani
shconquer
orsandot
heradv
ent
urer
sent
eredt
het
err
it
oryofNor
th,
Cent
ralandSout
hAmer
ica.I
nthesear
eas,v
eryl
argepl
ant
ati
onswer
eest
abl
i
shedby
t
heEur
opeans.Thenat
iveAmer
icans,t
heAmer
icanI
ndi
ans,cal
l
edRedI
ndi
ansby
Eur
opeansi
nthepast
,hadbeenbr
utal
l
yext
ermi
nat
edbyt
heEur
opeans.ThoseRed
I
ndi
answhoescapedt
hebr
utalext
ermi
nat
ionwer
efor
cedt
owor
kint
heEur
opean
pl
ant
ati
onsandmi
nef
iel
dsunderdr
eadf
ulcondi
ti
ons.Thi
swascompl
etel
yunknownt
o
t
henat
ivesofAmer
icai
nthei
rtr
adi
ti
onalwayofl
i
fe.Whent
heyt
ri
edt
orebeli
nmass
t
heywer
esuppr
essedwi
thgr
eatat
roci
ti
es.
Mostoft
heAmer
icanI
ndi
ansdi
edf
rom Eur
opeandi
seasesandhar
sht
reat
ment
.Asa
r
esul
t,asev
ereshor
tageoff
reel
abourwascr
eat
edi
ntheEur
opeanpl
ant
ati
ons.The
Eur
opeanst
ri
edt
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em byt
ranspor
ti
ngt
hei
ndent
uredwhi
tesl
avesf
rom
Eur
ope.Howev
er,t
hewhi
tesl
aveswer
eunabl
etor
esi
stt
hehar
dshi
ps.Ther
efor
e,t
he
i
deaoft
ranspor
ti
ngt
henat
ivesofWestAf
ri
caor
igi
nat
edatt
hiscr
it
ical
poi
nt.
Por
tugalwast
hef
ir
stEur
opeancount
ryt
hatbegant
hesl
avet
radei
nAf
ri
ca.ThenSpai
n
f
oll
owed.ThePor
tugueseandt
heSpani
shhadal
readyt
ranspor
tedal
i
mit
ednumberof
WestAf
ri
cansl
avest
othei
rowncount
ri
esbef
oret
hedemandf
orf
reel
abourar
osei
n
t
heAmer
icanpl
ant
ati
ons.Af
tert
hedemandf
orsl
avesgr
ewi
ntheAmer
icanpl
ant
ati
ons,
t
heynow began t
o expor
tWestAf
ri
can sl
avesacr
osst
he At
lant
icOcean t
othe
Amer
icancont
inent
.
I
nAf
ri
ca,t
hesl
avet
radewasconduct
edf
orov
er300y
ear
s.Dur
ingt
hesey
ear
s,t
he
At
lant
ic sl
avet
rade passed t
hrough t
hree di
sti
nctphases.The f
ir
stphase was
commonl
yknownast
hepi
rat
icsl
avet
rade.I
nthi
sphasest
het
rader
swhohunt
ed
sl
avesi
nWestAf
ri
cawer
eindi
vi
dual
mer
chant
s,adv
ent
urer
s,nav
igat
orsorsear
obber
s.
I
nthi
sphase,Eur
opeangov
ernment
sdi
dnott
akepar
tint
hesl
avet
radenordi
dthey
gi
veof
fi
cialsuppor
ttot
hei
rci
ti
zensengagedi
nthi
sev
ilbusi
ness.Thesl
avet
rade
whi
chbegani
nthi
smanneri
nthe15thcent
urycont
inuedupt
othel
astquar
t he16th
eroft
cent
ury
.
Thesecondphase,whi
chbegani
nthe1580’
s,wasknownast
hemonopol
ist
icsl
ave
t
rade.I
nthi
sphaset
het
radewasconduct
edbymonopol
i
sti
csl
avet
radi
ngcompani
es,
whi
chwer
eof
fi
ci
all
ychar
ter
ed byt
hei
rrespect
ivegov
ernment
s.Thesecompani
es
oper
atedi
nahi
ghl
yor
gani
zedsy
stem whi
chwasassi
stedbyr
egul
arar
medf
orces.
Wi
tht
hehel
poft
hesef
orcest
heypenet
rat
eddeepi
ntot
hei
nter
iorofWestAf
ri
cawher
e
t
heycapt
uredt
henat
ivesi
ngr
eatnumber
s.Thesl
ave-
hunt
inggr
oundwaswi
denedand
t
he v
olume oft
he t
rade al
so i
ncr
eased.Sl
ave mer
chant
s and compani
es made
enor
mouspr
ofi
t.Thepr
iceofasl
avei
nAf
ri
cawas100-
200f
rancs.Buti
nAmer
icat
he
mar
ketpr
iceoft
hesamesl
avewas1000-
2000f
rames.
Thesecondphasei
sal
soknownast
het
ri
angul
art
rade,
becauset
her
out
eoft
hist
rade
t
ied,i
nsomewhatat
ri
angul
arshapet
hreecont
inent
s-t
heAmer
icas,Eur
opeandAf
ri
ca.
Fr
om west
ernEur
opeanpar
ts,goodssuchascot
ton,al
cohol
i
cbev
erages,met
alwar
es
andf
ir
ear
mswer
etr
anspor
tedt
oWestAf
ri
ca,wher
etheywer
eexchangedf
orsl
aves.
Af
ri
cansl
aveswer
etr
anspor
tedacr
osst
heAt
lant
ict
obesol
dtot
hepl
ant
ati
onowner
s
i
nexchangef
orsugar
,tobacco,r
um andot
herpr
oduct
swhi
chi
ntur
nwer
etakenback
t
oEur
opeandsol
dathi
ghpr
ices.
TheWestEur
opeannat
ionsaccumul
atedenor
mousweal
thasar
esul
toft
het
ri
angul
ar
t
rade.These accumul
ated weal
th hel
ped t
he i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion ofWest
ern Eur
ope
st
art
ingf
r he18thcent
om t ury
.
Thet
hir
dphasewhi
chbegani
nthesecondhal he17thcent
foft ury
,wascal
l
edf
reet
rade.
I
n1689,t
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmentt
ookal
egalact
ionbyi
nst
it
uti
ngf
reet
rade.Thel
aw
pr
ovi
dedf
orev
eryi
ndi
vi
dualoft
heBr
it
ishEmpi
ret
her
ightofpar
ti
cipat
ioni
nanyki
ndof
busi
ness,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hesl
avet
rade.Sev
eralmenj
oinedt
hesl
avet
radeonani
ndi
vi
dual
bases.Thei
ncr
easi
ngnumberofsl
avedeal
ers,
inci
tedaf
ier
cecompet
it
ionbet
weent
he
compani
esaswel
lasamongt
hei
ndi
vi
dual
trader
s.
TheHor
ror
soft
heSal
veTr
ade
Af
ri
cansl
avessuf
fer
edt
ort
ureofv
ari
ousdegr
eeatdi
ff
erentst
agesoft
het
rade.Fi
rst
,
sl
aveswer
ecapt
uredl
i
kebeast
s.Thent
heywer
echai
nedandhur
ri
ed,of
tenbear
ing
heav
ybur
denofi
vor
y,t
othecoast
alpor
tswhi
chmi
ghtbel
ocat
edhundr
edsofmi
l
es
f
rom pl
acesofor
igi
n.TheAf
ri
cansl
avesunder
wentabi
tt
erhar
dshi
pint
hev
oyage
acr
osst
heAt
lant
ic.Thef
oll
owi
ngdescr
ipt
iongi
venbyoneschol
arseemst
ogi
veus
somei
deaaboutt
hehar
dshi
p.
-
--
--t
heywer
est
ri
pped,br
andedandpushedi
ntoai
rl
essunderdecks,cr
ushedt
oget
her
,
of
tenchai
nedbyhandandf
oot
.Li
ket
his,t
heycr
ossedt
heAt
lant
ici
nhar
shweeksof
sai
l
ing.Per
hapsasmanyasonei
nev
erysi
xcapt
ivesdi
edont
hei
rvoy
ageacr
osst
he
ocean.
Thel
astst
ageoft
hehor
ror
,whi
chwasal
i
fel
onghar
dshi
p,begani
ntheAmer
ican
pl
ant
ati
ons.Theyt
oil
eddai
l
yfr
om dawnt
odusk,of
teni
nchai
ns.Dur
ingt
hisl
i
fel
ong
t
ort
ure,t
hei
rowner
spr
ovi
dedt
hem onl
ywi
thbasi
cnecessi
ti
esbar
elyenought
okeep
t
hem al
i
veandwor
k.Deat
hwaspr
efer
abl
etol
i
vingandwor
kingi
nthepl
ant
ati
ons.
TheAbol
it
ionoft
heSl
aveTr
ade
Wi
tht
hegr
owt
hoft
heabol
it
ioni
stmov
ementi
nEur
ope,
thev
olumeoft
hesl
avet
rade
st
art
edt
oshowamar
keddecl
i
ne.Fr
om t
hev
erybegi
nni
ngt
her
ehadbeenmov
ement
s
agai
nstt
hesl
avet
radei
nAf
ri
ca.Buti
twasnotwel
l
-or
gani
zedati
tsear
lyst
age.
Rel
i
giouspeopl
eandhumani
tar
ianswhohadr
eadt
heaccount
soft
rav
eler
sont
heev
il
t
radeputpr
essur
eont
hei
rgov
ernment
sfort
heabol
i
tionoft
heci
vi
lbusi
ness.Howev
er,
t
heEur
opeangov
ernment
signor
edt
hepr
essur
eoft
heabol
i
tioni
sts.Asamat
eroff
act
,
i
twasonl
ywhent
heyf
oundt
hatt
heabol
i
tionoft
hesl
avet
radeser
vedt
hei
reconomi
c
i
nter
estt
hatt
heEur
opeangov
ernment
sbegant
otakeact
ionagai
nstt
hesl
avet
rade.
Oneoft
hel
eadi
ngEur
opeannat
ionst
ochampi
ont
heabol
i
tioni
stmov
ementwasGr
eat
Br
it
ain.I
n1807,Br
it
ainabol
i
shedt
het
radei
nsl
avesi
nherempi
reandputpr
essur
eon
ot
herEur
opeannat
ionst
ofol
l
owsui
t.Thi
schangei
ntheBr
it
ishpol
i
cywast
her
esul
tof
i
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ion.Thepr
ofi
toft
hesl
avet
radehad hel
ped Br
it
aint
o bui
l
d moder
n
i
ndust
ri
es.Br
it
isheconomi
cint
erestshi
ft
edf
rom sl
avet
radet
othesear
chf
orcheap
l
abourpower
,rawmat
eri
alsandmar
ket
s,f
ori
ndust
ri
alpr
oduct
s.
Thei
reconomi
cint
erestcoul
dbeser
vedonl
ywi
tht
heabol
i
tionoft
hesal
vet
rade.
Af
ri
canmanpowerhadt
oremai
ninAf
ri
cat
obeusedbyEur
opeanst
oext
ractr
aw
mat
eri
alsi
nsi
de Af
ri
ca f
ort
he Eur
opean i
ndust
ri
es.Ther
efor
e,Br
it
ain or
gani
zed a
mi
l
itar
ycampai
gnwhi
chwassuppor
tedbyt
heBr
it
ishnav
y.I
twast
hisconcer
tedact
ion
t
hatbr
oughtt
heAt
lant
icsl
avet
radet
oanendi
nthemi
ddl he19thcent
eoft ury
.
Consequencesoft
heSl
aveTr
ade
Thesl
avet
radehadmanyconsequencesf
orAf
ri
ca.I
nthewhol
ecour
seoft
hesl
ave
t
rade,mor
ethan15mi
l
li
ony
oungAf
ri
canswer
eexpor
tedt
otheAmer
icas.Asar
esul
t,
Af
ri
cal
osti
tsmostv
aluabl
ehumanr
esour
ce.Wi
tht
hei
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ionofEur
opeand
Amer
ica,t
hemar
ket
s,ofAf
ri
cawer
efl
oodedwi
thcheapi
ndust
ri
alpr
oduct
sthatr
uined
t
het
radi
ti
onalcr
aft
soft
hecont
inent
s.Thel
i
vel
i
hoodofAf
ri
cancr
aft
smenhadal
so
beenr
uined.
Thepol
i
ticalconsequencesoft
hesl
avet
radewer
eequal
l
yfat
alf
ort
hecont
inent
.
Af
ri
canchi
efsandki
ngsacqui
redal
argeamountoff
ir
ear
ms.Thepossessi
onoft
his
l
arge quant
it
ies off
ir
ear
ms i
ntensi
fi
ed warand conf
li
cti
n Af
ri
ca.On t
he ev
e of
Eur
opeancol
oni
alexpansi
on,t
her
ewassev
eredi
vi
sionsamongpeopl
esandst
atesof
Af
ri
ca.Asar
esul
t,t
heAf
ri
canscoul
dnotputupauni
tedr
esi
stanceagai
nstt
he
Eur
opeancol
oni
zer
s.I
nthi
sway
,theAt
lant
icsl
avet
radehel
pedt
oopent
hewayf
ort
he
col
oni
zat
ionofAf
ri
ca.
5.
2Scr
ambl
eofAf
ri
ca
Bef
ore1870,t
heEur
opeanshadt
rader
elat
ionwi
thAf
ri
ca.Thet
radei
temswer
egol
d,
i
vor
y,cof
fee,
sal
ve,
andsoon.Butwi
tht
hedev
elopmentofcapi
tal
i
sm (
1769-
1870)
,the
needf
orr
awmat
eri
alsandmar
ketpl
acesf
orf
ini
shedgoods(
sur
pluspr
oduct
s)became
v
eryi
mpor
tant
.Meanwhi
l
e,t
hesl
avet
radeandunexpl
oredpar
tofAf
ri
cabecame
obst
acl
etof
ulf
il
lthei
rneedi
nAf
ri
ca.Ont
opoft
his,t
hemaj
orEur
opeanpower
swer
e
pr
eoccupi
edwi
thdomest
icpr
obl
ems.Fori
nst
ance,
Ger
manyandI
tal
ydi
dnotcompl
ete
t
hei
runi
fi
cat
ionunt
il1870,
Francehadr
evol
uti
onar
youtbr
eaksi
n1789,
1830,
1848,
and
i
n
1870-
71.Amongmaj
orpower
sBr
it
aindi
dnotf
alli
nthei
nter
nalpol
i
ticaldi
stur
bance.
Thus,i
twasbusyi
ncol
oni
zi
ngandgi
vi
ngmor
eat
tent
iont
oFarEastandSout
hEast
Asi
anr
egi
onl
i
keI
ndi
a,New Zeal
and,andAust
ral
i
a.Thi
sregi
onseemedt
obemor
e
at
tr
act
ive,r
ichandhadl
essr
esi
stancet
hanAf
ri
ca.Undert
heseci
rcumst
ancesf
ew
coast
alar
easofAf
ri
cawer
eoccupi
edbyFr
anceandBr
it
ain.I
n1830Fr
anceoccupi
ed
Al
ger
iaandl
aterSenegal
.Ont
heot
herhand,Br
it
ainal
sooccupi
edCapecol
onyand
Gol
d Coast(
Ghana)
.Por
tugalwasdeepl
yinv
olv
ed i
nMozambi
queand i
nAngol
a.
Howev
er,al
lcol
oni
alpower
sdi
dnotest
abl
i
shf
ir
m admi
nist
rat
ioni
ntheabov
ear
eas
excepti
nCapeCol
onyandi
npar
tofAl
ger
ia.Thecoast
alpost
shadbeenest
abl
i
shed
pr
imar
il
ytoser
vet
hepur
poseoft
radepar
ti
cul
arl
y,t
heAt
lant
icsl
avet
rade.Thenames
gi
vent
othesepost
sindi
cat
edt
hatt
heEur
opeanswer
emor
einv
olv
edi
ntr
adeact
ivi
ti
es
t
hancol
oni
zat
ionbef
oreI
ndust
ri
alCapi
tal
i
sm.Thus,someoft
heset
radi
ngpost
swer
e
namedasSl
aveCoast
,Gol
dCoast
,PepperCoastandt
hel
i
ke.
Whati
ntensi
fi
edt
hepar
ti
ti
onofAf
ri
caaf
ter1882?
Ther
ewer
etwomai
nfact
orsf
ort
hegr
owt
hoft
hedesi
ref
ort
hecol
oni
zat
ionofAf
ri
cai
n
t
hemi
ddl
eof1880s.Thef
ir
stwast
heBr
it
isht
akeov
erofEgy
pti
n1882.Si
ncet
he
openi
ngofSuezCanali
n1869,Egy
pthadbecomet
hef
ocusofBr
it
ishandFr
ench
pol
i
ticalandeconomi
cint
erest
.Thecanalwasbui
l
tbyt
heFr
enchengi
neercal
l
ed
Fer
dinanddeLesseps.Thus,Fr
anceownedabi
gshar
eint
heCanalCompany
.Br
it
ain
hadal
soboughtt
heEgy
pti
anshar
eoft
hecompanyf
rom Khedi
veI
shmael
,thet
hen
r
ulerofEgy
pt,sol
dtheshar
etoov
ercomet
hebankr
upt
cyhef
acedast
her
esul
tofhi
s
v
ent
ureofcol
oni
alexpansi
on.Mor
eov
er,t
heopeni
ngoft
heSuezCanali
ncr
easedt
he
i
mpor
tanceofEgy
ptespeci
all
ytoBr
it
ain.TheCanalwasast
rat
egi
cli
nkwi
thBr
it
ish
I
ndi
anEmpi
reandt
heFarEast
.
Tosecur
ethei
rloans,
Egy
ptst
wobi
gcr
edi
tor
’s.Br
it
ainandFr
ancecr
eat
edDualCont
rol
ov
erEgy
ptsi
nce1879.TheEgy
pti
annat
ional
i
stswhoopposedf
orei
gni
nfl
uencer
oseup
i
nar
medr
ebel
l
ion.Thi
srev
oltwasl
edbyaseni
orEgy
pti
anof
fi
cer
,Col
onelAhmedUr
abi
(
ArabiPasha)
.InMay1882,Ur
abiandt
heEgy
pti
annat
ional
i
stssuccessf
ull
ygai
ned
cont
rolofcer
tai
npar
toft
hecount
ry.Att
hisst
ageoft
imet
heBr
it
ishf
orcei
nter
venedi
n
t
he i
nter
nalaf
fai
rs ofEgy
ptand cr
ushed t
he f
orce ofUr
abi
.Due t
o change of
gov
ernmenti
nFr
anceandt
heFr
enchcoul
dnotpar
ti
cipat
eint
hei
nter
vent
ion.Ther
efor
e,
Br
it
ainal
onei
nter
venedandoccupi
edEgy
pti
nJune1882.Then,Fr
anceasEur
opean
powermov
edt
oactqui
ckl
ytomakecol
oni
alconquest
sinot
herpar
tsofAf
ri
ca.
TheSecondf
act
orwast
hei
nvol
vementoft
woEur
opeanpower
s,Ger
manyandBel
gium
i
nthecol
oni
alzat
ionofAf
ri
ca.
A)Ger
manyi
nvol
vedi
ncol
oni
alr
ival
ry,mai
nlyt
oint
ensi
tyt
hecol
oni
alcompet
it
ion
bet
weenFr
anceandBr
it
ain.Thus,Bi
smar
ckhopedt
hatt
her
ival
rybet
weent
het
wo
power
swoul
ddi
ver
ttheFr
enchf
rom awarofr
evengef
ort
hei
rhumi
l
iat
ioni
nthedef
eat
of1870-
71byGer
many
.Butaf
teri
nvol
vementnat
ionali
nter
estandpr
est
igeandhope
ofeconomi
cadv
ant
agef
orcedGer
manyt
ocont
inuewi
thpol
i
cyofcol
oni
alconquest
.
B)Theot
herpoweri
nthecol
oni
al,
riv
alr
ywasKi
ngLeopol
dIIofBel
gium,
independent
ly
oft
heBel
gianGov
ernment
,Ki
ngLeoPol
dIIempl
oyedH.
M.St
anl
ey,
thef
amousexpl
orer
t
oexpl
oret
heCongobasi
nsi
nce1876.
Theappear
anceofGer
manyandKi
ngLeopol
dofBel
gium madeot
herpower
sli
ke
Br
it
ain,
FranceandPor
tugal
-al
readyengagedi
nAf
ri
cancoast
alar
east
omov
equi
ckl
yin
t
othei
nter
iorbef
oret
hewhol
econt
inentwasoccupi
edbyt
henew r
ival
s.Meanwhi
l
e,
t
her
eoccur
redcl
ashofi
nter
est
samongt
hesecol
oni
alpower
sinmanypar
tsofAf
ri
ca
.
Thef
ir
stofsuchconf
li
ctsar
oseov
ert
heCongobasi
n,I
nor
dert
osol
vet
heCongo
i
ssueandot
hercr
isi
sani
nter
nat
ional
conf
erencewashel
datBer
li
nin1884-
85.
Whatwast
hemai
nout
comeoft
heBer
li
nConf
erence?
I
ntheconf
erencehel
datBer
li
nther
epr
esent
ati
vesoff
our
teenEur
opeanpower
saswel
l
ast
heUSAwer
epr
esent
.Thi
sconf
erencer
emai
nedi
nsessi
onf
orsi
xmont
hs.Att
he
end t
he conf
erence t
wo i
mpor
tantr
esol
uti
ons wer
e passed.The f
ir
stand most
i
mpor
tantwast
hepar
tthatdeal
twi
tht
hecol
oni
alconquestofAf
ri
ca.I
twasagr
eedt
hat
al
lpower
shadt
onot
if
yot
her
saboutt
hei
rcl
aim ov
erapor
ti
onoft
err
it
oryandt
o
est
abl
i
sh“
eff
ect
iveoccupat
ion”i
nthesear
eas.Thus,t
heBer
li
nconf
erencepav
edt
he
wayf
orAf
ri
cancol
oni
zat
ionor“
legal
i
zed”t
hepar
ti
ti
onofAf
ri
ca.Thi
sconf
erence
enabl
ed Eur
opeancol
oni
ali
stst
o par
ti
ti
onAf
ri
cawi
thoutgoi
ng t
o anar
med cl
ash
amongsteachot
her
.
Thesecondr
esol
uti
onwasaboutt
her
ightt
otr
adeont
heCongoRi
ver
.Thepar
ti
ti
onof
Af
ri
cahad al
readybeenst
art
ed bef
oret
heBer
li
nConf
erence.Thus,Leopol
dIIof
Bel
gium wasabl
etogeti
nter
nat
ionalr
ecogni
ti
onov
ert
heCongoFr
eeSt
atei
n1884.
TheBel
gianki
ngwonr
ecogni
ti
onbypr
omi
singanunr
est
ri
ctedf
reedom oft
radei
nthe
Congobasi
nforal
l
.
5.
3 Col
oni
alRul
e
I
n1883,Fr
ancehadcont
rol
l
edt
err
it
ori
esi
ntheUpperNi
ger
.Butt
hesamemov
eof
Fr
ancei
nthel
owerNi
gerf
ail
ed.I
nsubsequenty
ear
,Fr
anceandBr
it
ainpar
ti
ti
onedWest
Af
ri
cabet
weent
hemsel
ves.
Bet
ween1883and1885Ger
manyoccupi
edmanyt
err
ier
sinSout
hWestAf
ri
ca,Togo
l
and,t
heCamer
oonandEastAf
ri
ca.Br
it
ainmov
edNor
thwar
dfr
om Sout
hAf
ri
cat
o
cent
raland EastAf
ri
ca.Br
it
ain al
so mov
ed sout
hwar
dfr
om Egy
ptand cont
rol
l
ed
East
ernSudan.Ther
estofAf
ri
cawaspor
ti
onedamongEur
opeansi
nthel
asty
ear
sof
t
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
.By1900,wi
thexcept
ionofEt
hiopi
a,Mor
occo(
unt
il1912)and
Li
ber
ia,
thewhol
econt
inentofAf
ri
cawasv
irt
ual
l
yunderEur
opeancol
oni
alr
ule.
TheBr
it
ishAdmi
nist
rat
ionPol
icy
TheBr
it
ishAdmi
nist
rat
ionpol
i
cycamet
obeknownas“
indi
rectr
ule”
.Thear
chi
tectof
t
hispol
i
cywasLor
dFr
eder
ickLugar
d.Hehadpr
act
icedt
hispol
i
cyonl
argescal
efort
he
f
ir
stt
imei
nNi
ger
iaascol
oni
algov
ernort
her
e.Duet
oshor
tageoft
headmi
nist
rat
ive
st
aff
,heexer
cisedt
hispol
i
cy.Hecont
inuedt
hissy
stem ofi
ndi
rectr
ulewhenev
eri
t
ser
vedt
hecol
oni
ali
nter
esti
ncont
rol
l
ingAf
ri
cans.Thus,
behi
ndt
het
radi
ti
onal
rul
erst
he
Br
it
ishgov
ernor
sdi
rect
edt
hesy
stem ofadmi
nist
rat
ion.TheBr
it
ishal
sopr
act
iceda
di
vi
deandr
ulepol
i
cy,whi
chwasv
eryi
mpor
tantt
oweakenAf
ri
canr
esi
stanceagai
nst
t
heBr
it
ishcol
oni
ali
sm.
TheFr
enchCol
oni
alPol
i
cy
Thesecondf
orm ofcol
oni
aladmi
nist
rat
ionwast
heonef
oll
owedbyFr
ance.TheFr
ench
pol
i
cyofcol
oni
aladmi
nist
rat
ioncamet
obeknownas“
dir
ectr
ule”
.Thi
spol
i
cywas
desi
gnedbyt
heFr
enchcol
oni
alMi
nist
er,Al
ber
tSar
rout
.Accor
dingt
othi
ssy
stem,
Fr
enchof
fi
cial
sfi
l
ledadmi
nist
rat
ivepost
sint
hecol
oni
es.
TheFr
enchal
sobel
i
evedi
nthepol
i
cyofassi
mil
ati
onorassoci
ati
on.Thi
swasdesi
gned
t
o make Af
ri
cans copyFr
ench cul
tur
e and Fr
ench wayofl
i
fe so as getFr
ench
ci
ti
zenshi
p.I
nshor
t,t
hispol
i
cywasdesi
gnedf
ort
heel
i
test
odenouncet
hei
rcul
tur
eand
i
dent
if
ythemsel
veswi
thFr
ance.Ot
herEur
opeancol
oni
alpower
sli
kePor
tugal
,Iat
ly,
Bel
gium andSpai
nfol
l
owedl
argel
ypr
efer
eddi
rectr
ule.

Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswer
sfr
om t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ornoti
nit
iat
edEur
opeansScr
ambl
eofAf
ri
ca?
A.Openi
ngofSuezCanal
B.Di
recti
nvol
vementofGer
menandBel
gium i
ncol
oni
alpr
ocess
C.Thei
nter
estofr
awmat
eri
alf
ort
hei
rindust
ri
esduet
oindust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm
D.Nat
ionali
mmer
genceofFr
anceandAust
ri
achangedbal
anceofpoweri
n
Eur
ope.
2.Bef
ore1500Eur
opeansdi
sregar
dedAf
ri
caas“
Dar
kcont
inent
”ref
err
edduet
o
A.Af
ri
cawashomet
obl
acknat
ionsnotknownf
orEur
opeans
B.shor
esofAf
ri
cawasnotseenwi
thnackedey
es
C.Af
ri
cawasnotexpl
oredandwel
lknown.
D.Af
ri
cawasnotwel
lknownt
ouseel
ect
ri
cci
ty
3.Ear
lyAf
ri
canr
esi
stanceagai
nstcol
oni
alexpansi
onwast
heper
iodof
A.Eur
opeanspowerwer
eabl
etobui
l
dlar
geempi
re
B.Af
ri
can’
ssuccessf
ull
ycr
ushedi
mper
ial
i
stpower
s
C.Af
ri
cansf
ail
edt
ocr
ushEur
opeanscol
oni
zer
s
 D.hadsi
gni
fi
cantsuccessi
nwestAf
ri
ca
4.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sincor
rectaboutTr
ans-
Atl
ant
icSl
aveTr
ade
A.I
tdepopul
atedAf
ri
caandr
easonf
orbackwar
dness
B.Thesecondphasewascal
l
edTr
iangul
arsl
avet
rade
C.I
tmar
kedf
ori
ndust
ri
ali
zat
ionofEur
ope
D.I
thasnotef
fectonsoci
all
i
feofAf
ri
canst
hanEconomi
cimpact
5.Al
loft
hef
oll
owi
ngexceptonei
sfact
orboomedsl
aveandsl
avet
rade
n2ndhal
i fof19thci
nEt
hiopi
a?
A.I
ntr
oduct
ionofmoder
nfi
rear
mies
B.Expansi
onofemper
orMeni
l
ikI
ItoSout
h,Sout
hEastandSout
hWest
C.Wi
derspr
eadofi
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
oni
nthecount
ry
D.Regi
onal
i
sm andf
requentwar
sher
eandt
her
e
6.Thesunnev
erset
sov
erourcol
onywasscr
ambl
i
ngsl
oganof
A.Br
it
ain B.Fr
ance C.I
tal
y D.Ger
man

7.Whatdi
dthet
heor
yofi
ndi
rectr
uler
efert
oincol
oni
alAf
ri
ca?
A.Rul
ethoughpr
opaganda
B.Rul
ethr
ought
radi
ti
onal
rul
ers
C.Rul
ethr
ougheducat
edAf
ri
canbur
eaucr
ats
D.Rul
ethr
oughwhi
teappoi
ntee
8.TheBer
li
nConf
erenceof1884-
1885wasi
mpor
tantbecause
A.I
tfaci
l
itat
edt
heent
ranceofki
ngLeopol
dofBel
gium i
nthescr
ambl
efor
col
oni
es
B.I
tdecl
aredEur
opeanscoul
dacqui
recol
oni
esbyf
orceonl
yaf
terpeacef
ul
meanshasf
ail
ed.
C.I
tledt
othescr
ambl
eforAf
ri
casi
ncei
tshowedt
heeconomi
cimpor
tancef
or
acqui
ri
ngcol
oni
es
D.I
test
abl
i
shed v
ari
ousr
ulesf
ort
he peacef
ulr
esol
uti
on ofconf
li
ctsov
er
col
oni
es.
9.Thef
ashodai
nci
dentr
epr
esent
ed aconf
li
ctofi
nter
estbet
weenBr
it
ainand
 Fr
ancef
orcol
oni
alambi
ti
onat_
_
A.Somal
i
aB.Mor
occoC.SudanD.Sout
hSudan
10.
whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
str
ueaboutEur
opeanscol
oni
aloccupat
ionofAf
ri
ca
A.Eur
opeanswer
esuccessf
uli
ntheconquestofAf
ri
cabecauset
heywer
e
numer
ical
l
ysuper
ior
B.Resi
stancet
ooccupat
ionl
i
mit
edt
oEt
hiopi
a
C.Eur
opeanusedFaket
reat
ies
D.Mi
ssi
onar
iesopposedwher
east
rader
ssuppor
ted
11.
Bef
ore1500Eur
opeansdi
sregar
dedAf
ri
caas“
Dar
kcont
inent
”ref
err
edduet
o
A.Af
ri
cawashomet
obl
acknat
ionsnotknownf
orEur
opeans
B.shor
esofAf
ri
cawasnotseenwi
thnackedey
es
C.Af
ri
cawasnotexpl
oredandwel
lknown.
D.Af
ri
cawasnotwel
lknownt
ouseel
ect
ri
cci
ty
12.
Whatdi
dthet
heor
yofi
ndi
rectr
uler
efert
oincol
oni
alAf
ri
ca?
A.Rul
ethoughpr
opaganda
B.Rul
ethr
ought
radi
ti
onal
rul
ers
C.Rul
ethr
ougheducat
edAf
ri
canbur
eaucr
ats
D.Rul
ethr
oughconst
it
uti
onal
i
sm
13.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
str
ueaboutEur
opeanscol
oni
aloccupat
ionofAf
ri
ca
A. Eur
opeanswer
esuccessf
uli
ntheconquestofAf
ri
cabecauset
heywer
e
numer
ical
l
ysuper
ior
B.Resi
stancet
ooccupat
ionl
i
mit
edt
oEt
hiopi
a
C.Eur
opeanusedFaket
reat
ies
D.Mi
ssi
onar
iesopposedwher
east
rader
ssuppor
ted
14.
TheSudanesemer
chant
swhodomi
nat
edt
heNor
thwest
ernt
radei
nEt
hiopi
ain
t
hel
ate19thCwer
eter
medas_
___
A.Jaber
it B.Af
kal
a C.Jel
eba D.Saf
far
e
15.
Thef
ashodai
nci
dentr
epr
esent
ed aconf
li
ctofi
nter
estbet
weenBr
it
ainand
Fr
ancef
orcol
oni
alambi
ti
onat_
___
_
A.Somal
i
aB.Mor
occoC.SudanD.Sout
hsudan
 16.
Int
hel
astquar
terof19thCMenel
i
kal
l
owedf
orI
tal
i
anGeogr
aphi
calsoci
etya
campi
ngsi
te,
LetMar
efi
ainShoa.AnI
tal
i
ansoci
etywhi
chwasunderl
eader
shi
pof
B.Mar
qoi
sAnt
oner
iB.Ant
onel
l
iC.Bar
ater
iD.Cr
ispi
17.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sincor
rectaboutt
hesecondphaseofAt
lant
icsl
ave
t
rade?
A.Att
hisphase,t
hebusi
nesswasconduct
edbymonopol
i
sti
csl
avet
radi
ng
or
gani
zedcompani
es,
whi
chwer
esuppor
tedbyt
hegov
ernment
s
B.Att
hisst
age,
fir
ear
miesusedt
orai
dsl
aves,
thev
olumei
ncr
easedandsot
oo
pr
ofi
t
C. Thi
sst
age,wasal
soknownast
ri
angul
art
radebecausei
tconnect
edt
hree
cont
inent
snamel
y,Af
ri
ca,
Amer
icaandEur
ope
D.Thi
sphase,beganaf
terr
egul
ati
onofBr
it
aini
nfr
eesl
avet
radeandsl
aves
expor
tedf
rom Amer
icast
oAt
lant
ic
18.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ornoti
nit
iat
edEur
opeansScr
ambl
eofAf
ri
ca?
A.Openi
ngofSuezCanal
B.Di
recti
nvol
vementofGer
menandBel
gium i
ncol
oni
alpr
ocess
C.Thei
nter
estofr
awmat
eri
alf
ort
hei
rindust
ri
esduet
oindust
ri
alcapi
tal
i
sm
D.Nat
ional
immer
genceofFr
anceandAust
ri
achangedbal
anceofpoweri
nEur
ope.

CHAPTERSI
X
6.For
mat
ionoft
hemoder
nst
ateofEt
hiopi
a:1855-1941.
6.
1.At
temptatReuni
fi
cat
ionThr
ought
heUseofFor
ce,
1855-
1868
I
mper
ialpowerhad an ol
d hi
stor
yin Et
hiopi
a,despi
te occasi
ons ofconsi
der
abl
e
r
esi
stanceandchal
l
enget
ocent
ralaut
hor
it
y.Agoodexampl
eist
heper
iodknownas
t
heZamanaMasaf
ent(
1769-
1855)
,whi
chy
ouhav
elear
nedi
nUni
tNi
neoft
heGr
ade11
hi
stor
ytextbook.Dur
ingt
hisper
iodt
heki
ngsoft
heGondar
ineKi
ngdom v
irt
ual
l
ylost
t
hei
rsupr
emepowerandaut
hor
it
y.I
nst
eadt
heyf
ellatt
hemer
cyofpower
fulMasaf
ent
s
(
lor
ds)
.Theywer
eindeedpuppetki
ngswi
thv
eryl
i
ttl
eornopol
i
tical
,economi
cand
mi
l
itar
ypower
.Manyr
egi
onsbecamesemi
-aut
onomouswhi
l
ether
egi
onofShewa
becamecompl
etel
yindependentf
rom t
hecent
ralgov
ernmentatGonder
.A par
all
el
dev
elopmentt
othi
s decl
i
ne ofi
mper
ialpowerwas t
he si
mul
taneous st
rengt
h of
r
egi
onalpower
s.Theshi
fti
nthebal
anceofpoweri
nfav
ourofr
egi
onall
ordscr
eat
eda
f
ert
il
egr
oundf
orpol
i
ticalf
ragment
ati
on,ci
vi
lwar
sandsubsequentsoci
al,economi
c
andpol
i
ticaldi
sor
der
.Thi
sper
iodofnat
ionalcr
isi
scamet
oanendwi
tht
her
iseofKasa
Hay
luwhowascr
ownedTewodr
osI
Iin1855.
The ear
lycar
eerofKasa Hay
lu was f
ullofups and downs,some ofwhi
ch l
eft
r
emar
kabl
einf
luenceonhi
sfut
urei
mper
ialpol
i
ciesandr
efor
ms.Hewasbor
ntoa
f
ami
l
ywi
thnocl
aim atal
lofdescentf
rom t
her
oyalhouse.Asachi
l
dhegr
ewupi
nthe
car
eofhi
shal
f-br
otherDej
azmachKi
nfu.Ear
lyi
nhi
sli
fe,hegotchur
cheducat
ionand
mi
l
itar
ytr
aini
ng.Asay
oungmanhewasdeni
edgov
ernor
shi
pov
erhi
sfami
l
yfi
eft
he
di
str
ictofQuar
a.Fol
l
owi
ngt
hedeat
hofKi
nfu,
Kasabecameabandi
tont
wooccasi
ons
i
nthesamer
egi
onwher
ehel
aterf
oughtagai
nstEgy
pti
ant
roops.I
n1848,att
hebat
tl
e
ofDebar
qi,
KasaHai
l
usuf
fer
edt
heonl
yser
iousdef
eati
nhi
sear
lycar
eer
.Thi
sdef
eati
n
t
hehandsofEgy
pti
ansshapedt
heat
ti
tudeoft
hef
utur
eTewodr
oswi
thr
egar
dto
f
orei
gnpol
i
cy,di
sci
pli
neandmoder
nfi
rear
ms.Hi
sper
sist
entchal
l
engest
other
egi
me
i
nGondarr
esul
tedi
napol
i
ticalmar
ri
agewi
thTewabechAl
i
,daught
eroft
heguar
dian
andt
hel
astoft
heYej
uOr
omoRas-
Bit
wodeds.Hewasal
sogi
vent
hegov
ernor
shi
pof
Quar
aint
endedt
oappeasehi
m.
Thesenseofmi
ssi
onKasaHai
l
ulat
erf
eltabouthi
msel
fasamanbor
nandel
evat
edf
or
t
her
evi
valofast
rongEt
hiopi
ami
ghthav
est
art
edf
rom t
hesesuccessi
vemi
l
itar
y
v
ict
ori
es.Pr
obabl
y,he t
ook t
he t
hrone name Tewodr
os consi
der
ing a pr
ophecy
cont
ainedi
nthemedi
evalbookFekar
eIy
asus.I
nthi
sbook,i
twaspr
ophesi
sedt
hata
ki
ngbyt
henameTewodr
oswoul
dcomet
orul
eandbr
ingpeacet
othepeopl
eaf
tera
per
iodoft
roubl
es.Whenhewascr
ownedki
ngofki
ngsofEt
hiopi
ainFebr
uar
y1855,
Kasausedt
het
hronenameTewodr
ost
otel
lthemessaget
hathewast
heexpect
ed
ki
ngwhowoul
drel
i
evet
hepeopl
efr
om t
hepr
obl
emsoft
heZamanaMasaf
ent
.
Bui
l
dingpol
i
ticalr
euni
fi
cat
ionont
her
emai
nsoft
heZamanaMasaf
entwashowev
er,a
v
erydi
ff
icul
tpr
ojectf
orTewodr
os.Thatwasespeci
all
ytr
uewhenTewodr
oswhor
ushed
i
ntoi
tsr
eal
i
zat
ionwi
thar
igi
dappr
oach-t
heuseoff
orcet
obr
ingt
her
egi
onall
ords
undercont
rol
.Thef
ir
stmi
l
itar
yexpedi
ti
onf
orpol
i
tical
reuni
fi
cat
ionwasdi
rect
edagai
nst
t
her
egi
onofWol
l
o.But
,Wol
l
odi
dnoteasi
l
ysubmi
ttot
hei
mper
ialar
my.Thef
ir
st
campai
gni
nWol
l
o,whi
chwasf
oughtev
endur
ingf
ast
ingandr
ainyseasons,l
ast
edf
or
si
xmont
hs.Ev
ent
hent
hiscampai
gnf
ail
edt
obr
ingaboutt
hesubmi
ssi
onofWol
l
o.The
cont
inued l
ocal r
esi
stance dr
ove t
he emper
or t
o l
aunch f
urt
her expedi
ti
ons
accompani
edbyv
eryhar
sht
reat
mentofcapt
ivest
hroughouthi
srei
gn.
Thecampai
gni
nWol
l
owasf
oll
owedbyanot
herser
iouswarwi
tht
heaut
onomous
Ki
ngdom ofShoa,
whi
chl
ast
edf
orf
ivemont
hs.Her
etoo,
ther
ewasabl
oodyencount
er
wi
tht
hei
mper
ialar
myofTewodr
os.Shoat
oo,exper
iencedhar
sht
reat
menti
nthe
handsofTewodr
os.I
nNov
ember1855,Tewodr
osr
etur
nedt
oMaqdal
awi
tht
hebel
i
ef
t
hathehadset
tl
edmat
ter
sinShoa.Howev
er,
local
riv
alsr
ebel
l
edagai
nstahand-
picked
appoi
nteeofTewodr
os,Mer
idaz
machHai
l
eMi
chael
,andf
rom 1865onwar
dsShoa
r
egai
nedi
tsi
ndependencewi
thKi
ngMenel
i
k,whohadescapedf
rom Maqdel
aint
hat
y
ear
.
Theemper
orwentonsubdui
ngoner
egi
onaf
teranot
hert
hroughpr
otr
act
edandpuni
ti
ve
mi
l
itar
yexpedi
ti
ons.I
nal
lcases,hesecur
edmi
l
itar
yvi
ctor
ies.Forsomer
egi
onshe
r
ecogni
zedl
oyalmember
sofr
egi
onaldy
nast
iest
oadmi
nist
ert
hei
rrespect
iver
egi
ons.
I
not
herr
egi
ons,
suchasGoj
j
am,
heappoi
ntedhi
sownmenf
rom hi
gh-
ranki
ngci
vi
land
mi
l
itar
yof
fi
cial
s.Nev
ert
hel
ess,r
ecogni
ti
onofl
ocaldy
nast
iesdoesnotmeancont
inui
ty
wi
tht
heol
dpr
act
icesi
ntheol
dway
.Unl
i
ket
hepr
act
icedur
ingt
heZamanaMasaf
ent
(
1769-
1855)
,localher
edi
tar
ychi
efsdur
ingt
het
imeofTewodr
oswer
eonl
ythosewho
obt
ainedhi
sappr
ovalandt
hust
heywer
esubor
dinat
est
o hi
m.Thei
nit
ialmi
l
itar
y
v
ict
ori
esofTewodr
osdi
dnotr
esul
tinpol
i
ticalst
abi
l
ityandef
fect
ive,cent
ralcont
rol
.
The l
egaci
es oft
he Zemene Mesaf
intdi
d notdi
e outsoon and t
he at
temptat
cent
ral
i
zat
ionpr
ovedt
obeadi
ff
icul
ttaskt
oachi
eve.Localdy
nast
iesdi
dnotwantt
o
l
oset
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onaleconomi
c,mi
l
itar
yandpol
i
ticalaut
onomy
.Nordi
dthehand-
picked
r
oyalappoi
nteesofTewodr
ost
oler
atet
oomuchi
mper
ialcont
rolov
ert
hem.Asar
esul
t,
t
heemper
or’
spol
i
cyofr
euni
fi
cat
ionmetst
if
fresi
stancet
hroughouthi
sempi
re.Ev
en
hi
sfor
meral
l
iest
urnedt
hei
rbacksagai
nsthi
m andr
ebel
l
edoneaf
tert
heot
her
.Thi
s
madet
heemper
orandhi
sar
myext
remel
ybusyt
rav
eli
ngf
rom onet
roubl
espott
othe
ot
her
.Het
reat
edr
ebel
l
iousr
egi
onsv
eryhar
shl
y,puni
shi
ngmostcommonl
ywi
tht
he
cut
ti
ngof
fcapt
ives’l
i
mbs,bur
ninghousesandhar
vest
stoashesandl
oot
ingt
hel
ocal
peopl
e.Themor
ehar
shTewodr
osbecame,
themor
emul
ti
pli
edwer
ether
ebel
l
ionsand
hi
sunpopul
ari
ty.Thi
sint
urnpr
ovokedmor
ety
ranni
calmeasur
esbyt
heemper
or.Thus,
av
ici
ousci
rcl
ewascr
eat
ed,t
hecumul
ati
veef
fectofwhi
chwasacompl
etef
ail
ureof
hi
spol
i
cyofuni
fi
cat
ion.
Theant
i-Tewodr
ospr
opagandaoft
hecl
ergy
,fol
l
owi
ngt
hei
rconf
li
ctov
ersomei
ssues,
har
medt
heemper
orconsi
der
abl
y.Emper
orTewodr
osact
ual
l
ybr
oket
het
radi
ti
onof
exempt
ionofchur
chl
andf
rom t
ax.Hesaw t
hathi
spr
ogr
amsofmoder
nizat
ionand
r
efor
ms such as est
abl
i
shi
ng a nat
ionaland sal
ari
ed ar
my,ar
ms manuf
act
uri
ng,
def
ence oft
he count
ryagai
nstEgy
pti
an aggr
essi
on,et
c. coul
d onl
ybe metby
i
ncr
easi
ngt
her
evenueoft
hest
ate.Tot
hisendher
educedt
henumberofpr
iest
sand
deaconsi
neachchur
cht
oamaxi
mum oft
woandt
hree,r
espect
ivel
y.Heal
sor
educed
t
hesi
zeofchur
chl
andt
hatusedt
obeexempt
edf
rom t
axbyt
aki
ngawaychur
chl
and
t
hathebel
i
evedwasi
nexcessandgi
vi
ngi
ttot
ri
but
epay
ingpeasant
s.Hi
spol
i
cyon
chur
chl
andbr
oughtt
heemper
ori
ntodi
rectconf
li
ctwi
thoneoft
hepot
ent
ialal
l
iesof
t
hest
atei
nthewor
kofempi
rebui
l
dingandpol
i
ticaluni
fi
cat
ion.Chur
ch-
Stat
econf
li
ct
r
eachedi
tspeaki
n1864.I
nthaty
eart
heemper
ori
mpr
isonedt
hebi
shopAbunaSal
ama
whodi
edi
npr
isont
hreey
ear
slat
er.
6.
2.Moder
nizat
ion
Tewodr
oswasv
eryeagert
obui
l
dast
rongmoder
nnat
ionalar
my.Abov
eal
l
,hewant
ed
t
oimpor
tthet
echni
calknow-
howf
ormanuf
act
uri
ngf
ir
ear
msl
ocal
l
y.Whenhi
sti
rel
ess
st
ruggl
etogetski
l
ledper
sonnelf
rom Eur
opet
urnedf
rui
tl
ess,hegat
her
edEur
opean
mi
ssi
onar
iesl
i
vingi
nhi
scount
ryandper
suadedt
hem t
omanuf
act
uref
ir
ear
msathi
s
gunf
oundr
yofGaf
at,nearDebr
eTabor
.Obey
ingt
heki
ng'
sor
der
sthemi
ssi
onar
ies
r
epai
red br
oken f
ir
ear
msand manuf
act
ured sev
eralcannons,i
ncl
udi
ng t
hemor
tar
namedSebast
opol
.Thecapt
ivi
tyofEur
opeanshowev
erpr
ovokedanxi
ety
,inEur
ope,
mai
nlyi
nBr
it
ainandFr
ance.Tewodr
oswasadv
isedt
orel
easet
heEur
opeancapt
ives
andwas“
promi
sed”t
ogett
heski
l
ledper
sonnel
askedf
or.Howev
er,
her
efusedt
odoas
asked.TheBr
it
ishsentt
hei
rmi
l
itar
yexpedi
ti
onl
edbySi
rRober
tNapi
ert
oMaqdal
ain
t
hef
all
of1867.
Thef
ir
standl
astmaj
orencount
erbet
weent
het
wof
orcest
ookpl
aceont
hepl
ainsof
Er
ogei
nApr
il1868.Thebat
tl
eofEr
ogeewasf
oughtbet
weenunequal
s.About2000
wel
l
-ar
medBr
it
isht
roopsandbet
ween4000-
7000i
l
l-ar
medEt
hiopi
ans-
endedi
nthe
shat
ter
ingdef
eatofEt
hiopi
ans.Theev
enthast
enedt
hedownf
allofTewodr
oswhi
ch
hadal
readybeenweakenedbyi
nter
nalf
act
ors,mai
nlyt
heopposi
ti
onoft
her
egi
onal
l
ordsandt
hecl
ergy
.Ref
usi
ngt
oacceptaBr
it
ishdemandf
oruncondi
ti
onalsur
render
,
Tewodr
oscommi
tt
edsui
cideon13Apr
il1868.TheBr
it
ishwer
esat
isf
iedwi
tht
he
successoft
hei
rmi
ssi
on,wi
thal
lEur
opeancapt
ivesofTewodr
osr
eleased,begant
o
wi
thdr
awt
hecount
rywi
thoutdel
ay.
Farwor
set
hant
hedest
ruct
ionandt
hebl
oodshed,t
heBr
it
ishexpedi
ti
oncausedwas
t
heor
gani
zedl
oot
ingoft
heMaqdal
atr
easur
ythatf
orcedt
hecount
ryt
olosequant
it
ies
ofhi
stor
icalr
eli
csi
ncl
udi
ng t
heemper
or'
scr
own.Bef
orel
eav
ing Et
hiopi
a Gener
al
Rober
tNapi
er,t
hecommanderoft
heBr
it
ishexpendi
ti
on,handedov
eral
argequant
it
y
off
ir
ear
mst
oKasaMer
cha(
lat
erYohannesI
V).Hedi
dthatbecauseKasaMer
chahad
notopposedNapi
er’
smar
chagai
nstTewodr
os.Mor
eov
er,Kasagav
egui
danceand
mat
eri
alsuppor
ttot
heBr
it
isht
roops.Thi
sacqui
sti
onoff
ir
ear
mswasamaj
orf
act
ori
n
KasaMer
cha’
slat
erv
ict
oryov
erEmper
orTakl
a-Gi
yogi
satt
hebat
tl
eofAssam i
n1871.
Tewodr
osat
tempt
edl
otsofr
efor
ms,
manyofwhi
chdi
dnotl
astl
onger
.Het
ri
edt
ost
op
di
vi
sionswi
thi
ntheChur
ch,t
hesl
avet
rade,bandi
tr
yandl
oot
ingofpeasant
sbyt
roops.
Heal
sot
ri
edt
ost
oppol
ygamyandot
hersoci
alev
il
s.Hewant
edt
oseehi
scount
rymen
l
ear
nfr
om t
het
echni
caladv
ancemadebywestEur
opean count
ri
es,ascoul
d be
ev
idencedbyhi
ssmal
lwor
kshopatGaf
at.Abov
eal
l
,hewor
kedhar
dtobui
l
dauni
ted
andv
erywel
ladmi
nist
erednat
ioncapabl
eofr
esi
sti
ngf
orei
gn,
aggr
essi
on.
Tewodr
osenei
therusedf
lexi
blemet
hodnorhet
ri
edal
ter
nat
ivemeans.Hi
spr
omi
set
o
t
hepeasant
stoputanendt
othei
rsuf
fer
ingsnev
err
eal
i
zedasnotonl
yther
ebl
esbut
al
soTewdr
ose'
str
oopscont
inuedl
oot
ingt
hem.Ast
her
esul
t,peopl
egav
eupt
hei
r
suppor
ttohi
m.Ev
ent
heal
readycont
rol
l
edr
egi
onscameoutofhi
shandoneaf
tert
he
ot
her
.Fi
nal
l
y,Tewdr
osel
eftEt
hiopi
aasdi
vi
dedashegoti
t.Howev
er,t
hei
deaof
uni
fi
cat
ionsur
viv
edhi
m.
Despi
tet
hei
nst
abi
l
ityandst
ruggl
eforpowert
hatf
oll
owedhi
sdeat
h,t
her
ewasno
r
etur
ntot
heZamanaMasaf
ent
.Thewarwasabov
eal
lfoughtf
oremper
orshi
p.Thr
ee
cont
ender
sfort
het
hrone,Wagshum GobazeofLast
a,RasMekowanentKasaMer
cha
ofTi
grayandNegusMenel
i
kofShoa,al
laspi
redt
obecomeemper
oraf
terTewodr
os.
Theyr
eignedi
nthator
derwi
tht
het
hronenamesTakl
a-Gi
orgi
s(1868-
71)YohannesI
V
(
1872-
89)andMenel
i
kII(
1889-
1913)
.Thel
egacyofTewodr
ost
husl
i
esi
ntheur
gent
dr
iveofhi
ssuccessor
sfori
mper
ial
leader
shi
pov
erauni
tedEt
hiopi
a.
NewAppr
oacht
oBui
ldi
ngI
mper
ialPower
,1872-
1889
Thef
ir
stt
hreey
ear
sthatf
oll
owedt
hedeat
hofTewodr
oswer
enotev
ent
ful
.Emper
or
Takl
a-Gi
orgi
s(1868-
71)hadcont
roloft
hecent
ralAmhar
aregi
ons,buthedi
dnot
exer
cisepowerov
ert
her
ivalr
egi
onsofTi
grayandShoa.Hi
sat
temptt
oext
endhi
s
cont
rolov
erTi
grayendedi
nhi
sowndef
eatatt
hebat
tl
eofAssam i
nJul
y1871.Hewas
def
eat
edandcapt
uredbyKasaMer
cha.I
nconsequence,t
hel
att
eral
sot
ookov
ert
he
t
hronewi
thal
lthechal
l
engesofr
egi
onalf
orcesandt
het
hreatf
rom out
side.Li
ke
Tewodr
os,Yohannes I
V began t
he pr
ocess ofr
euni
fi
cat
ion by di
rect
ing mi
l
itar
y
expedi
ti
onsagai
nstt
her
egi
onsofGondar
,Goj
j
am,
Yej
u,andHamasensoast
ogett
hei
r
submi
ssi
on.Howev
er,t
hesubmi
ssi
onofsomer
egi
onswasonl
ytempor
ary
,andt
hey
r
ebel
l
edagai
nstt
heemper
or.I
nGoj
j
am,f
ori
nst
ance,t
hel
ocalpowercont
ender
,Adal
Tasamma,assumedpowerbyki
l
li
nghi
sri
valDast
aTadl
awhohadal
readyobt
ained
r
oyalr
ecogni
ti
on.Unl
i
keTewodr
os,howev
er,Yohanneswasf
lexi
bleanddi
dnotof
ten
f
ightr
epeat
edwar
swi
tht
hesamer
egi
ons.Fori
nst
ance,hemadepeacewi
thAdaland
r
ecogni
zedhi
saut
hor
it
yov
erGoj
j
am.Bysodoi
ng,t
heemper
ort
urnedanenemyi
ntoa
f
ri
end.Adalwasr
ewar
dedbybei
ngcr
ownedasKi
ngofGoj
j
am andKef
a,wi
tht
hename
Takl
aHay
manoti
nJanuar
y1881.
WhatYohannesdi
dinGoj
j
am wasexempl
aryofhi
stol
erancef
orr
egi
onaldy
nast
ies,
so
l
ongasheensur
edt
hei
rtr
ibut
aryst
atus.Hewasr
eadyt
oshar
epowerwi
thr
egi
onal
l
ords,i
nasf
arast
heyr
ecogni
zedhi
sov
erl
ordshi
p.Thi
swast
hesameev
eni
nhi
s
r
elat
ionswi
tht
hest
rongestr
egi
onalpower
,Menel
i
kofShoa.Fr
om t
het
imeYohannes
wascr
owned,Menel
i
kwascal
l
ing hi
msel
fki
ng ofki
ngs,expandi
ng hi
ster
ri
tor
ies
t
owar
dsWol
l
oandcont
act
ingf
orei
gncount
ri
esi
ndependent
ly.Heal
sodi
dnotpay
t
ri
but
etot
heemper
or.Yohanneswaspr
eoccupi
ed wi
tht
het
hreatf
rom Egy
pti
an
aggr
essor
swhi
chf
orcedhi
mtopost
poneashowdownwi
thMenel
i
k.Howev
er,t
he
di
ff
erencebet
weenYohannesandMenel
i
kwasr
esol
vedbyt
heLecheAgr
eementof20
Mar
ch1878.Thepeacei
nit
iat
ivecamef
rom Menel
i
kbecauseoft
hepr
obabl
emi
l
itar
y
super
ior
it
yofYohannes.Theemper
or,t
oo,di
dnotwantt
oseebl
oodshedf
rom an
i
nter
nalchal
l
engeatat
ime,
asweshal
lseebel
ow,
whenhi
scount
rywasi
nvadedbyan
Egy
pti
anar
my.
Accor
dingt
otheLecheAgr
eement
,Menel
i
kagr
eedt
opayt
ri
but
etoYohannes,
dropt
he
t
it
leki
ngofki
ngsandt
ouseonl
ythet
it
leki
ngofShoa,andt
ost
ophi
sindependent
deal
i
ngswi
thf
orei
gner
s.Asar
ewar
d,hegotr
ecogni
ti
onf
orhi
saut
hor
it
yov
erWol
l
oand
her
edi
tar
yki
ngshi
pov
erShoa.I
naddi
ti
on,bot
hYohannesandMenel
i
kagr
eedt
ohel
p
eachot
heragai
nstcommonenemi
es.Byt
hispeacef
ular
rangement
,Yohannesended
t
hei
ndependenceoft
heKi
ngdom ofShoawhi
chhadl
ast
edf
ormanydecadesi
nthe
past
.
Howev
er,
Yohanneswasnotabl
etowi
ntheabsol
utel
oyal
tyofMenel
i
k.Asl
aterev
ent
s
wer
etoShoa,Menel
i
kcont
inuedt
opr
epar
ehi
msel
ftot
aket
hei
mper
ialt
hronef
or
hi
msel
f.Ev
enTakl
a-Hay
manotdi
dnotr
emai
nloy
alt
oYohannest
hroughouthi
srei
gn.
Fori
nst
ance,
in1888t
her
ewasawi
de-
spr
eadr
umouraboutapl
otagai
nstt
heemper
or
whi
chi
nvol
vedMenel
i
kandTakl
a-Hay
manot
.Thatwasatat
imewhent
heemper
orwas
t
roubl
edbyt
hedoubl
ethr
eatofI
tal
i
anaggr
essi
onandMahdi
sthost
il
it
yint
henor
thand
nor
th westr
espect
ivel
y.Compar
ed t
o Tewodr
oswho had had est
abl
i
shed onl
ya
t
empor
arycont
rolov
erShoai
nthesout
h,Yohannesgotper
manentcont
rolov
erShoa
t
hroughhi
spr
oxy
,Meni
l
ik.Hewasabl
etogetcont
rol
,oft
err
it
ori
esasf
arast
he
sout
hwest
ernpr
ovi
ncesofpr
esent
-dayEt
hiopi
a,i
naddi
ti
ont
otheol
dcent
raland
nor
ther
npr
ovi
ncesYohannesnev
erappl
i
edt
hef
lexi
bil
i
tyandl
i
ber
ali
sm heshowedi
n
t
hef
iel
dofpol
i
ticsov
err
eli
giousi
ssues.I
nrel
i
gionhesoughtcompl
eteuni
tyast
he
gui
dingpr
inci
ple.Het
husendedt
hecent
ury
-ol
drel
i
giousdi
vi
sionswi
thi
ntheOr
thodox
Chur
chatt
heCounci
lofBor
umedai
nMay1878.Yohannesgav
est
atesuppor
ttot
he
uphol
der
soft
heKar
rraHay
manot(
TwoBi
rt
hs)camp.Whi
l
etheuni
tyofChur
chwas
mai
ntai
nedt
hrough“
opendi
scussi
on”
,theEmper
orwasv
eryhar
sht
owar
dsI
slam.
Fol
l
owi
ngt
heBor
umedaCounci
l
,al
lMusl
i
mswer
eor
der
edt
oembr
aceChr
ist
iani
ty
undert
het
hreatofper
secut
ionandconf
iscat
ionofpr
oper
ty.TheMusl
i
msofWol
l
o
wer
ethemai
nvi
cti
msofcompul
sor
yconv
ersi
on.Thi
ssev
eri
tyt
owar
dsEt
hiopi
an
Musl
i
msi
nWol
l
owor
kedagai
nstt
heemper
or’
spol
i
cyofpol
i
tical
andnat
ional
uni
ty.
Moder
nizat
ionat
temptf
rom t
hePost
-AdwaPer
iod,
upt
o1935
Theper
iodt
hatf
oll
owedt
hev
ict
oryofAdwat
otheFasi
cistI
tal
i
ani
nvasi
oni
n1935
wi
tnessed sev
erali
mpor
tantdev
elopment
sin Et
hiopi
a.Al
though peasantsoci
o-
economi
ccondi
ti
onsshowedpr
act
ical
l
ynoi
mpr
ovementf
rom t
hepast
,moder
ntr
ends
st
art
edt
obei
ntr
oducedgr
adual
l
yincer
tai
nsoci
o-economi
csect
ors.I
ndeed,
element
s
ofmoder
niz
ati
onwer
eint
roducedi
ntr
anspor
t,t
rade,educat
ionandur
bani
zat
ion.Thi
s
i
snott
oment
iont
hest
il
linsi
gni
fi
cantadv
ancemadei
nsuchnon-
soci
o-economi
c
sect
orsl
i
kegov
ernmentandt
hear
my.
Soci
o-Economi
cCondi
ti
ons
Thef
ir
stt
hreedecadesoft
het
went
iet
hcent
urysaw r
elat
ivel
ybet
tersoci
o-economi
c
dev
elopment
s.Thosewer
einonewayoranot
herr
elat
edt
othel
egacyoft
hemaj
or
ev
ent
soft
he19t
hcent
uryEmpi
ref
ormat
ionandst
ruggl
eagai
nstf
orei
gnaggr
essi
on.I
n
t
hissect
ion,abr
iefdi
scussi
onoft
hesedev
elopment
swi
l
lbegi
venwi
thpar
ti
cul
ar
emphasi
sonsoci
o-economi
caspect
s,whi
chhadunder
gonesomechanges.Thef
ir
sti
s
t
hegebbarsy
stem whi
chwast
hebasi
cmeansofsur
plusappr
opr
iat
ionoft
hef
eudal
cl
ass.I
nit
spr
e-t
went
iet
hcent
uryusage,agebbarwasal
andhol
dingpeasantwhohad
t
opaygi
birort
ri
but
etot
hest
ate.Thet
ypeoft
ri
but
evar
iedf
rom oner
egi
ont
oanot
her
.
But
,inmostcases,i
twaspai
dinki
ndandi
nthef
orm ofunpai
dlabourser
vice.Tr
ibut
e
i
nki
ndhaddi
ff
erentt
it
lesbasedont
hepur
posef
orwhi
chi
twaspai
d:l
i
kef
orl
anduse,
f
ort
hechur
ch,pay
ment
stot
her
eci
pient
ssuchaswhent
heyr
ecei
vedpr
omot
ions,t
o
congr
atul
atel
ocalchi
efsoni
mpor
tantoccasi
ons,i
nthef
ast
ingseasonsandatot
her
t
imes.Fr
eel
abourser
vicewasgi
venbyt
hepeasantandhi
sfami
l
yint
imesofgr
ain
pr
oduct
ion,const
ruct
ion,t
ranspor
tat
ion,guar
dingpr
isoner
sanddomest
icser
vicesl
i
ke
gr
indi
nggr
ainandf
etchi
ngwat
erandf
ir
ewoodf
orl
ocalchi
efs.Al
lthesewer
eex
act
ed
wi
thl
i
ttl
efai
rnessandsenseofhumani
ty.
Tomakemat
ter
swor
se,t
hef
ormat
ionoft
heempi
rest
ateandt
headmi
nist
rat
ive
sy
stem est
abl
i
shedi
nthenewl
yincor
por
atedr
egi
onsmadet
hel
i
feofpeasant
sver
y
mi
ser
abl
e.I
nthesout
her
nregi
ons-
peasant
swer
egr
adual
l
yal
i
enat
edf
rom t
hei
rland.
Thi
sbeganwi
tht
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofl
andmeasur
ementknownasqal
ad.Thatact
ion
r
esul
tednotonl
yint
heappr
opr
iat
ionofmuchl
andbyt
hest
ate,butal
sof
aci
l
itat
ed
pr
ivat
izat
ionofl
and.I
tal
soi
ncr
easedst
ater
evenue,si
ncei
tcl
assi
fi
edl
andt
axbased
onf
ert
il
it
yrat
es.Buti
tpushedpoorpeasant
sdownt
othest
atusofi
nsecur
etenant
s.
Poorpeasant
swhocoul
dnotaf
for
dtobuyl
andort
hosedr
ivenawayf
rom t
hei
rland
wer
efor
cedt
obecomel
andl
essormi
grat
etoci
ti
est
obecomebeggar
s.Howev
er,i
t
does notmean t
he peasant
sremai
ned passi
ve.I
n some cases t
her
e wer
e open
r
ebel
l
ions.I
not
her
s,t
her
ewer
epr
otest
stot
hel
ocalof
fi
cial
sort
otheEmper
ori
nthe
capi
talt
hought
heygotnof
airj
ust
ice.Thecumul
ati
veef
fectoft
heexpl
oit
ati
venat
ure
oft
hemodesofsur
plusappr
opr
iat
ionwasnegat
iveont
heeconomi
cdev
elopmentof
t
hecount
ry.I
t,ser
iousl
yaf
fect
edagr
icul
tur
alpr
oduct
ivi
ty.
Ev
enwor
set
hant
hegebbarsy
stem,
fort
hepeopl
esofEt
hiopi
a,wast
hecont
inuat
ionof
t
hesl
avet
radeandsl
aver
y.Ther
ehadbeenacent
uri
es-
oldhi
stor
yofsl
aver
yandt
he
sl
avet
radei
nEt
hiopi
a.Besi
dest
heeconomi
crewar
dsoft
hesl
avet
radet
obot
hthe
mer
chant
sandr
uler
s,sl
aver
yhadal
soasoci
alaspect
.Thepossessi
onofmanysl
aves
si
gni
fi
edt
hehi
ghst
atusoft
heowner
s.Sl
aveswer
eal
sousedf
ordi
ff
erentki
ndsof
domest
icser
vices.Al
thought
hepr
act
icewasol
d,i
twast
hef
requentwar
sofconquest
i
nthepr
ocessofempi
ref
ormat
iont
hatgav
eaddi
ti
onalencour
agementt
othepr
act
ice
oft
hesl
avet
radeandsl
aver
y.Thus,i
nthef
ir
stt he20th cent
wodecadesoft ury
,
member
soft
her
oyalf
ami
l
yandt
henobi
l
itywer
erepor
tedt
ohav
ehad“
thousands”of
sl
avesatt
hei
rdi
sposal
,though,
thi
smayseem al
i
ttl
eexagger
ated.
Theov
eral
lef
fectoft
hesl
avet
radehadbeendi
sast
rous.Tost
artwi
th,i
tdepopul
ated
t
hemostpr
oduct
iveel
ement
soft
hedef
eat
ed,asi
twast
hey
out
hwhower
esought
mor
ethant
heol
dones.I
tal
soki
l
ledt
hemor
alef
orpr
oduct
ionast
her
ewasnosecur
it
y
ofl
i
feandpr
oper
tyi
nther
egi
ons,
whi
chwer
etar
get
sofsl
avehunt
ingexpedi
ti
ons.The
pr
eval
enceoft
hesl
avet
radeal
sobr
oughtf
orei
gni
nter
fer
enceov
ert
hecount
ry.The
Eur
opeancol
oni
alpower
s,whi
chhadcol
oni
esadj
acentt
oEt
hiopi
a,i
mposedanar
ms
embar
go,accusi
ngEt
hiopi
aofusi
ngmoder
nfi
rear
msf
orsl
avehunt
ingexpedi
ti
ons.Of
cour
se,t
hei
rmaj
orconcer
n wast
hatsl
aver
ywasan obst
acl
efort
hei
rcapi
tal
i
st
i
nvest
ment
sandt
hemar
ket
stheyf
oresawi
nEt
hiopi
a.Thati
swhyt
heyt
ri
edt
hei
rbest
t
omaket
heabol
i
tionofsl
aver
yapr
econdi
ti
onf
orEt
hiopi
a’
sadmi
ssi
oni
ntot
heLeague
ofNat
ions.
Aswi
thsl
aver
y,t
hegebbarsy
stem metbot
hint
ernalandext
ernalopposi
ti
on.I
nter
nal
l
y,
i
twascr
it
ici
zedbyt
heear
lyEt
hiopi
aneducat
edel
i
teasoneoft
hemaj
orf
act
ors
r
esponsi
blef
orEt
hiopi
a’
sbackwar
dness.Thus,acombi
nat
ionofi
nter
nalandex
ter
nal
chal
l
engesbr
oughtsomechangest
othet
wo i
nst
it
uti
ons(
slav
eryand t
hegebbar
sy
stem)
.Ay
earaf
terEt
hiopi
a'
sadmi
ssi
oni
ntot
heLeagueofNat
ions,on31Mar
ch
1924adecr
eewhi
chf
reedsl
avesandpr
ohi
bit
edt
hepur
chaseandsal
eofsl
aveswas
enact
ed.For
cedl
abourser
vicewasabol
i
shedi
n1935.Thesamei
str
ueoft
hepay
ment
ofhoneyast
ri
but
e.Mor
eov
erpay
mentoft
ri
but
eincashwasi
ntr
oducedatt
her
ateof
30bi
rrpergasha.
Theconsequencesofsl
aver
yandt
hegebbarsy
stem ont
henet
wor
koft
radewas,
howev
er,r
elat
ivel
ylessnegat
ivet
hant
hei
rdi
rectef
fectonpr
oduct
ivi
tyandsoci
al
secur
it
y.I
ndeed,f
rom t
het
urnoft
het
went
iet
hcent
ury
,av
ari
etyoff
act
orsseemst
o
hav
econt
ri
but
edt
other
evi
valofi
nter
nalandext
ernalt
rade.Tr
ader
evi
vedmai
nly
becauseoft
hegener
alpeaceandpol
i
ticalst
abi
l
ityt
hatf
oll
owedt
hecompl
eti
onoft
he
pr
ocessofempi
ref
ormat
ionandt
heAdwav
ict
ory
.Mor
eov
er,t
hecol
oni
alpower
s
sur
roundi
ngEt
hiopi
a,al
soencour
agedext
ernalt
radeaspar
toft
hei
rcapi
tal
i
sti
nter
est
i
nther
egi
on.Theext
ensi
vedi
plomat
icr
elat
ionsest
abl
i
shedbet
weenEt
hiopi
aand
di
ff
erentcount
ri
esal
socr
eat
edf
ert
il
egr
oundf
ormor
etr
adel
i
nkst
hanbef
oret
heAdwa
v
ict
ory
.
I
nfact
,thedi
rect
ionoft
radechangedgr
adual
l
ytot
heeastandwest
,owi
ngf
ir
stt
o
cont
empor
arymi
l
itar
yandpol
i
tical
fact
ors.TheShoanv
ict
oryatt
hebat
tl
eofEmbaboi
n
1882wasf
oll
owedbyt
hepol
i
ticalcent
ral
i
tyofShoadur
ingt
her
eignofMenel
i
k.Asa
r
esul
t,t
henor
ther
ntr
adewaspul
l
edt
othesout
h,sot
hatt
hemai
ntr
ader
out
est
ended
t
opasst
hrought
heShoanr
egi
on.Fur
ther
mor
e,t
heMahdi
sti
nvasi
ons,f
orat
ime
di
scour
agedt
het
radet
hrought
heol
dnor
ther
nout
let
s.Al
lthesef
act
orscombi
nedwi
th
t
heopeni
ngoft
heDj
i
bout
i-
Addi
sAbabaRai
l
way
,madet
hepor
tofDj
i
bout
ithemaj
or
out
letf
orEt
hiopi
a'
sext
ernalt
radet
hroughoutt
hef
ir
sthal
foft
he20t
hcent
ury
.Besi
des
Dj
i
bout
i,t
her
ewer
eot
herout
let
sthr
ought
heBr
it
ishcol
oni
esofSudan,Keny
aand
Somal
i
a.TheBr
it
isht
radi
ngst
ati
on,
est
abl
i
shedatGambel
l
ain1902,
wasamaj
orout
let
ofEt
hiopi
a’
sext
ernalt
radeonl
ynextt
oDj
i
bout
i.Ar
ound1920,t
heGambel
l
atr
ade
const
it
utedal
argepar
tofEt
hiopi
a’
sext
ernalt
rade,duemai
nlyt
otheexpor
tofcof
fee,
pr
oducedi
nwest
ernEt
hiopi
a.Unl
i
ket
hepor
tofDj
i
bout
i,t
hemaj
orent
ryf
ori
mpor
ted
goods,Gambel
l
awasmai
nlyanexpor
tout
let
.Thei
temsoft
radeal
sosaw some
changes.Theol
dmaj
orexpor
tsl
i
kei
vor
yandci
vetbegant
obedomi
nat
edbycof
fee,
whi
l
eont
hei
mpor
tsi
det
ext
il
esandbev
eragesbegant
odomi
nat
e.
Themer
chant
sthathaddomi
nat
edt
hei
mpor
t-
expor
ttr
adewer
emai
nlyf
orei
gner
sfr
om
di
ff
erentcount
ri
es,whof
lockedi
ntoEt
hiopi
aaf
tert
heAdwav
ict
ory
.Theyconsi
stedof
Fr
ench,I
ndi
ans,Gr
eeks,Amer
icansandJews.Ont
heEt
hiopi
ansi
del
ocalt
rader
swer
e
mai
nlyengagedi
ndomest
ict
rade.Al
thought
heyr
epr
esent
edonl
yani
nsi
gni
fi
cant
number
,somemember
soft
her
uli
ngcl
asseswer
eat
tr
act
edt
obusi
ness,mai
nlyi
nthe
f
ir
stquar
teroft
he20t
hcent
ury
.Menel
i
kandTay
tuar
eknownt
ohav
ebeenmoney
-
l
ender
s.TheEmpr
essal
soopenedt
hef
ir
sthot
eli
nAddi
sAbaba,whi
chbor
eherown
name(
It
egeHot
el)i
n1907.Mor
eov
er,Tay
tui
sknownt
ohav
eest
abl
i
shedal
ocalbank
f
ort
hedev
elopmentoft
radeandagr
icul
tur
eincooper
ati
onwi
tht
hebi
ggernobi
l
ity
.The
gov
ernorofGoj
j
am,RasHai
l
u,i
sknownf
orbegi
nni
ngaci
nemaandat
axibusi
nessi
n
t
hecapi
tal
.Theson-
in-
lawofEmper
orHai
l
eSel
asi
eRasDest
aDamt
ew,
wasi
nvol
vedi
n
sel
l
ingwat
er.RasTef
erihi
msel
fissai
dtohav
ebeenbusi
ness-
minded,andwasa
shar
ehol
deri
nsomecompani
es.
Asasi
mul
taneouspr
ocesst
other
evi
valoft
radeandempi
ref
ormat
ion,ur
bani
zat
ion
al
sosaw ar
elat
ivel
yfastdev
elopment
.Somegar
ri
soncent
ers,est
abl
i
sheddur
ingt
he
expansi
onofMenel
i
k,gr
ew t
o becomei
mpor
tantt
ownssuchasGor
eand Goba.
Mor
eov
er,t
heconst
ruct
ionoft
heDj
i
bout
i-
Addi
sAbabar
ail
way
,whi
chr
eachedAddi
s
Ababai
n1917,al
sor
esul
tedi
ntheemer
genceofr
ail
wayt
ownssuchasDi
reDawa,
Nazr
eth and Modj
o.Ofcour
se,t
he r
ail
way di
d mor
ethan encour
age t
rade and
ur
bani
zat
ion.I
tbecameameansofmoder
ntr
anspor
tat
ionf
orpeopl
eandachannelf
or
t
hei
mpor
tofmoder
nideas,
luxur
ygoodsandf
ashi
ons.
Ont
hewhol
ethef
ir
stt
hreedecadesoft
het
went
iet
hcent
uryar
eknownt
ohav
ebeen
y
ear
sdur
ingwhi
cht
hef
oundat
ionf
ormoder
nEt
hiopi
awasl
aid.Moder
nnov
elt
ies
i
ntr
oducedi
ntheear
ly20t
hcent
uryi
ncl
udedt
hemot
orcar(
1904)
,pr
int
ingmachi
ner
y
(
1912)andt
heaer
opl
ane(
1929)
.Tel
egr
aphandpost
alser
viceswer
eint
roducedbef
ore
t
hecl
oseoft
he19t
hcent
uray
.Ahospi
talwasf
oundedi
n1910.Besi
dest
heabov
e,
somef
act
ori
esl
i
ket
hosef
ort
imber
,ammuni
ti
on,andf
oodpr
ocessi
ngwer
eopened
dur
ingt
hesamedecades.
Onemeansofcombat
ingbackwar
dtr
adi
ti
onalout
looksandt
ospr
eadmoder
nizat
ioni
s
t
hei
ntr
oduct
ionofmoder
neducat
ion.I
twasdur
ingt
hepost
-Adwaper
iodt
hatmoder
n
educat
ionwasi
ntr
oduced,andgr
oupsofmoder
nint
ell
ect
ual
sst
art
edt
oappeari
n
Et
hiopi
a.Atf
ir
st,moder
nschool
swer
eest
abl
i
shedbyEur
opeanmi
ssi
onar
iesi
nthe
count
ry,
att
heendoft
he19t
hcent
ury
.Andt
hef
oundat
ionofsuchschool
scont
inuedi
n
t
heper
iodaf
ter
.Eur
opeanmi
ssi
onar
iesi
nEt
hiopi
asentt
oEur
opesomeEt
hiopi
an
st
udent
sforf
urt
hereducat
ion.
TheEt
hiopi
anst
ate,t
oo,wasi
nter
est
edi
nest
abl
i
shi
ngmoder
nschool
sint
hecount
ry.
Thatwasbecauset
heexpandi
ngbur
eaucr
acyneedednotonl
yeducat
edof
fi
cial
sfor
ser
vice i
nthe di
plomat
icf
iel
d butal
so v
ari
oust
ypesofcl
erks,account
ant
s,et
c.
Ther
efor
e,school
swer
eest
abl
i
shedbyt
hest
ate,whi
chwer
etoser
veasmeanst
o
pr
oduceeducat
edci
vi
lser
vant
s.
I
n1908,t
hef
ir
stmoder
nschool
,Menel
i
kIISchool
,wasopenedi
nAddi
sAbaba.I
twas
st
aff
edbyEgy
pti
anCopt
icOr
thodoxChr
ist
iant
eacher
s.I
nDi
reDawaandAddi
sAbaba
t
heAl
l
ianceFr
ancai
sschool
swer
eest
abl
i
shedi
n1912.I
n1925,t
heTaf
ariMekonun
schoolwasf
oundedbyRasTaf
ariMekonnen(
lat
erEmper
orHai
l
eSel
assi
eI)
.The
schoolhadFr
enchdi
rect
ors.I
nthecur
ri
cul
um oft
het
ime,t
her
ewasgr
eat
eremphasi
s
i
nlanguagest
hani
not
hersubj
ect
s.Unl
i
ket
heper
iodaf
ter1941,dur
ingt
hepr
e-1935
per
iod,Fr
enchwast
hemedi
um ofi
nst
ruct
ioni
ntheschool
s.By1930,aMi
nist
ryof
Educat
ionhadbeencr
eat
ed.Andi
nthe1930’
s,i
topenedanumberofschool
s,bot
hin
Addi
sAbabaandt
hepr
ovi
nces.I
tmustal
sober
emember
edt
hataf
ew Et
hiopi
an
st
udent
swer
esentabr
oadf
oreducat
ion,
andabout200st
udent
sfi
nishedt
hei
rst
udi
es
i
nEur
ope,
bet
ween1920and1935.
Dur
ingt
heper
iod,t
hespr
eadofmoder
neducat
ion,howev
ermodest
,tr
ainedsome
ski
l
ledmanpowerf
ort
hest
atebur
eaucr
acy
.Ital
socont
ri
but
edt
othespr
eadofmoder
n
i
deasi
nthecount
ry.Theear
lymoder
n educat
ed i
ntel
l
ect
ual
scal
l
ed f
orchanges.
Amongt
hem wer
eHaki
m Wor
kineh(
Dr.Char
lesMar
ti
n),Pr
ofessorTamr
atAmanuel
,
Af
ewor
kGebr
eIy
esus(
theaut
horoft
hef
ir
stAmhar
icnov
el,Tobi
a),Takal
a-Hawar
yat
Tekl
eMar
yam (
themanwhodr
aft
edt
he1931Const
it
uti
onoft
heI
mper
ialEt
hiopi
an
Gov
ernment
),Her
uyWol
deSel
assi
e,Der
essaAmant
e,andGabr
eHi
ywotBay
kedagn
(
theaut
horoft
het
woAmhar
icbooksAt
seMenel
i
kenaEt
hiopi
aandMengi
stenaYe-
hi
zbAst
edader
,wr
it
teni
n1912and1919,r
espect
ivel
y).Theyaskedf
orchangesand
moder
nizat
ioni
nthesoci
o-economi
cor
der
.Theycal
l
edf
ori
mpr
ovementi
npeasant
condi
ti
ons,
usi
ngt
heBer
hanenaSel
am newspaper(
foundedi
n1925)andot
hermeans.
Pol
it
icalCondi
ti
ons
Bet
weent
hey
ear
s1896and1953,maj
orpol
i
ticaldev
elopment
stookpl
acei
nthe
Et
hiopi
anEmpi
re.I
nit
ial
l
y,bet
ween1896and1930,consol
i
dat
ionofpowerbyt
hest
ate
andt
her
uli
ngcl
asswer
ethemaj
orpol
i
ticalpr
e-occupat
ions.Wi
tht
hatset
tl
ed,
bet
ween
1930and1935,
theaut
ocr
acyofEmper
orHai
l
eSel
assi
eIwasi
nful
lfor
cel
eadi
ngt
othe
emer
genceofaabsol
uti
stst
atei
nEt
hiopi
a.Anot
heraspectofpol
i
ticaldev
elopment
s
concer
ningEt
hiopi
awast
her
evi
valofI
tal
i
ancol
oni
aldesi
gnst
hatl
edt
otheFasci
st
I
tal
i
anaggr
essi
onof1935.Youwi
l
lexami
neal
loft
hosedev
elopment
sont
hepages
bel
ow.
Consol
idat
ionofPol
it
ical
Power
Dur
ingt
hei
mmedi
atepost
-Adway
ear
s,bet
ween1896and1909,t
her
uli
ngcl
assof
I
mper
ialEt
hiopi
a,headedbyMenel
i
kII
,enj
oyedt
het
ri
umphantmoodt
heAdwav
ict
ory
cr
eat
ed.I
twassecur
eini
tsposi
ti
on.Thesov
erei
gni
ndependenceoft
hecount
rywas
r
ecogni
zedbyst
atesnearandaf
ar,
incl
udi
ngI
tal
y.Fol
l
owi
ngt
heAdwav
ict
ory
,Eur
opean
nat
ionsopenedl
egat
ionsi
nAddi
sAbabaandwer
eint
erest
ed,abov
eal
l
,inpeacef
ul
t
rade.TheUni
tedSt
atesandGer
manysentdi
plomat
icmi
ssi
ons,i
nthef
ir
stdecadeof
he20th cent
t ury
.
Dur
ing t
his same decade,Et
hiopi
a’
s boundar
ies wi
th nei
ghbour
ly count
ri
es wer
e
del
i
mit
edbyboundar
yagr
eement
swi
tht
heEur
opeancol
oni
alpower
sthatwer
ein
cont
roloft
hosecol
oni
es.Theboundar
ywi
tht
heI
tal
i
ancol
onyofEr
it
reawasdel
i
mit
ed
byaser
iesofagr
eement
sconcl
udedwi
thI
tal
yin1900,
1902and1908.Si
mil
arl
y,byt
he
agr
eementwi
thFr
ancei
nMar
ch1907t
heboundar
ywi
thFr
enchSomal
i
land(
Dji
bout
i)
wasdel
i
mit
ed.The boundar
ieswi
th Angl
o-Egy
pti
an Sudan and Br
it
ish EastAf
ri
ca
(
Keny
a)wer
edel
i
mit
edbyaser
iesofagr
eement
swi
thBr
it
aini
n1902and1907,
r
espect
ivel
y.I
n 1908 t
he boundar
y wi
thI
tal
i
an Somal
i
land was del
i
mit
ed by an
agr
eementwi
thI
tal
y.Ther
efor
e,Et
hiopi
a had secur
ed herbor
der
s and gai
ned
i
nter
nat
ional
recogni
ti
onf
ort
hem.
Ther
uli
ngcl
asscent
eredi
tsel
fatAddi
sAbaba.I
tcol
l
ect
edt
ri
but
esi
nvar
iousf
orms
f
rom t
henewl
yincor
por
atedar
easoft
hesout
h,sout
h-eastandsout
h-west
.Pr
omi
nent
member
soft
her
uli
ngcl
ass,
resi
dedi
nAddi
sAbabaandbegant
oenj
oyt
hecomf
ort
sof
ur
banl
i
fe.
Addi
sAbaba,whi
chhadbeenf
oundedascapi
tali
n1886,asi
ndi
cat
edabov
e,got
per
manenceduet
othef
oll
owi
ngf
act
ors:
*I
ssueofl
andchar
ter
s,t
olandowner
sinAddi
sAbababyt
hest
atest
art
ingf
rom 1970
guar
ant
eedsecur
it
yoft
enur
e.Andt
hatl
edowner
sofl
andi
ntheci
tyt
oinv
esti
nthe
const
ruct
ionofbui
l
dingsaswel
lasot
herdesi
rabl
es.
*Thei
ntr
oduct
ionoft
heeucal
ypt
usf
reef
rom Aust
ral
i
ahel
pedt
osol
vet
hepr
obl
em of
t
heshor
tageoff
ir
ewoodi
nAddi
sAbaba.Hadt
hatnothappened,i
twoul
dhav
ebeen
di
ff
icul
tforAddi
sAbabat
oremai
nascapi
talci
tyf
orl
ong.*Ther
ail
wayconnect
ion
bet
ween Addi
sAbabaand t
heout
sidewor
ld si
nce1917 gav
eAddi
sAbabagr
eat
i
mpor
tanceasacent
reofcommer
ce,
newi
deas,
etc.
*Ther
esi
denceoff
orei
gnmer
chant
sinAddi
sAbabaal
sohel
pedi
nthei
ncr
eased
i
mpor
tanceoft
heci
ty.
*Theopeni
ngoff
orei
gnl
egat
ionsi
nAddi
sAbabai
ncr
easedAddi
sAbaba’
simpor
tance
asadi
plomat
iccent
ref
ort
hecount
ry.
I
ncept
ionofPol
it
icalRi
val
ryandFor
eignThr
eat
By1906,
thought
hemonar
chywasst
rongapowerst
ruggl
eamongt
hemember
soft
he
r
uli
ngcl
ass,wasst
art
edbegi
nni
ngf
rom 1906.Onemaj
orf
act
ort
hatl
edt
oapower
st
ruggl
eint
hepal
acewast
hei
ssueofsuccessi
on.Thepr
obl
em ofsuccessi
onbegan
t
odi
stur
bthepol
i
ticalst
abi
l
ityofEt
hiopi
afol
l
owi
ngt
hei
l
lnessofMenel
i
kin1906.Fr
om
t
henon,Menel
i
knol
ongerexer
cisedhi
susualpol
i
ticalaut
hor
it
yunt
ilhi
sfi
naldeat
hin
1913.Ev
enwor
se,
theex
pect
edhei
rofMenel
i
k,RasMekonnen,
diedi
n1906.Thi
scr
isi
s
ofl
eader
shi
ppav
edt
hewayf
oraser
iouspowerst
ruggl
e.Equal
l
ywor
ri
edaboutt
he
pr
obl
em ofsuccessi
onwer
etheEur
opeanpower
shav
ingcol
oni
esadj
acentt
oEt
hiopi
a:
Br
it
ain,Fr
anceandI
tal
y.Ger
manyt
hei
rst
rongr
ivalofBr
it
ainandFr
ancei
nEur
opehad
comet
oEt
hiopi
aandopenedherl
egat
ioni
n1905.Thi
shadal
readyupsett
hispower
s.
Theywer
econcer
nedwi
tht
hesmoot
hrunni
ngoft
hei
reconomi
cint
erest
sinEt
hiopi
a.
Theydi
dnotl
i
ket
hechal
l
engeGer
manymi
ghtposeandant
ici
pat
edapol
i
ticalcr
isi
s
upont
hedeat
hofMenel
i
k.
Asar
esul
t,t
heTr
ipar
ti
teTr
eat
ywassi
gnedbyBr
it
ain,Fr
anceandI
tal
yinDecember
1906.Themai
nobj
ect
iveoft
hist
reat
ywast
oav
oidpossi
bleconf
li
ctofi
nter
estamong
t
hesi
gnat
orypower
sincaseacr
isi
ssi
tuat
ionseti
n,andshutof
fot
herr
ival
ssuchas
Ger
manyf
rom economi
cact
ivi
ti
esi
nEt
hiopi
a.But
,forEt
hiopi
aitwast
hef
ir
stser
ious
chal
l
enget
oheri
ndependentst
atusaf
tert
hev
ict
oryofAdwa.Thet
reat
ycont
ained
mut
ualr
ecogni
ti
onoft
hesi
gnat
orypower
sforeachot
her
’szoneofeconomi
cinf
luence
i
nEt
hiopi
a.Thear
eat
hroughwhi
cht
her
ail
wayl
i
nepasseswasgi
venf
orFr
ance.The
Ni
l
ebasi
nandi
tssour
cecameundert
hei
nfl
uenceofBr
it
ain.I
tal
ywasal
l
owedt
o
const
ructar
ail
wayconnect
inghert
wocol
oni
es-Er
it
reaandI
tal
i
anSomal
i
land.
Though si
ck,Emper
orMenel
i
kwasnotpassi
vewhen conf
ront
ed byt
hreat
s,bot
h
i
nter
nalandext
ernal
,tohi
sempi
re.Hedi
dtwot
hings,i
nor
dert
oensur
etheef
fi
cient
r
unni
ngofgov
ernmentandt
hepol
i
ticalst
abi
l
ityofhi
sst
atei
ntheev
entofhi
sdeat
h.
Fi
rst
ly,i
nOct
ober1907,heest
abl
i
shedt
hef
ir
stCounci
lofMi
nist
ersconsi
sti
ngofni
ne
mi
nist
ri
esf
orWar
,Commer
ceandFor
eignAf
fai
rs,Publ
i
cWor
ks,Agr
icul
tur
e,Fi
nance,
Just
ice,
thePen,
thePal
ace,
andt
heI
nter
ior
.Mi
nist
erswer
erecr
uit
edf
rom hi
gh-
ranki
ng
ci
vi
landmi
l
itar
yof
fi
cial
s.Ther
ewasnonew gr
oupofeducat
edper
sonnelf
ort
his
moder
nbur
eaucr
ati
car
rangement
.Thenewl
yappoi
ntedmi
nist
erswer
elar
gel
ythe
sameol
dpal
aceof
fi
ci
alsassumi
ngEur
opeanst
ylet
it
les.Thus,t
her
ewer
econf
usi
ons
ofdut
iesandr
esponsi
bil
i
tiesamongt
hedi
ff
erentmi
nist
ri
es.Yet
,theest
abl
i
shmentof
t
hecabi
netnotonl
yensur
edcont
inui
tyofgov
ernmentbutal
sol
aidt
hegr
oundf
ort
he
bi
rt
hofmoder
nbur
eaucr
acyi
nEt
hiopi
a.
Secondl
y,i
nMay1909Menel
i
kdesi
gnat
edhei
rtohi
sthr
oneandar
egentai
mingata
smoot
hpowert
ransi
ti
onuponhi
sdeat
h.Howev
er,hedi
dnotf
indi
teasyt
omakehi
s
deci
si
onpubl
i
cduet
othecl
ashofi
nter
est
sbet
weenhi
swi
fe,Empr
essTay
tu,andt
he
Shoannobi
l
ity
.
TheChal
lengeofTay
tu
Empr
essTay
tuhadnoof
fspr
ingandt
hussawf
utur
epol
i
ticalpowerf
orher
sel
fandher
r
elat
ivesi
nthecandi
dat
efort
het
hrone.Thatwaswhyshehadal
readymar
ri
edher
ni
ece,
Ment
wabWol
l
e,t
oRasMekonnen.ButMekonen’
sdeat
hupsetherl
ongt
erm pl
an.
Si
mil
arl
y,shemar
ri
edhernephew,GugsaWol
l
e,t
othedaught
erofMenel
i
k,Zewdi
tu,
consi
der
inghercandi
dat
uref
ort
het
hronei
ntheev
entofMenel
i
k’sdeat
h.Shehopedt
o
secur
epol
i
ticalpowerf
orherf
ami
l
ythr
ought
hismar
ri
aget
ie.Menel
i
kseemst
ohav
e
under
stoodt
hatt
hepol
i
ticalambi
ti
onsofEmpr
essTay
tuwoul
dbr
ingachal
l
enget
othe
pol
i
ticalsupr
emacyoft
heShoandy
nast
y.Ther
efor
e,i
n1909Menel
i
kdesi
gnat
edhi
s
gr
andson,Li
jIy
asuMi
chael
,ashei
r.I
yasuwast
hesonofShewar
eged,(
Meni
l
ik'
s
daught
er)byherhusbandRasMi
chael
,theex-Musl
i
m chi
efofWol
l
o.AsI
yasuwasonl
y
12-y
ear
sol
d,Menel
i
kal
soappoi
ntedRasBi
twadedTessemaNadew asr
egent
.The
di
ff
erentl
egat
ionsi
nAddi
sAbabawer
efor
mal
l
ytol
dtoacknowl
edgeMenel
i
k’schosen
hei
randt
her
egent
.Thedecr
eewasannouncedi
n1909,y
ear
sbef
oret
hedeat
hof
Menel
i
kin1913.
Bot
hchoi
cesofMenel
i
kwer
ebasedonhi
sgenui
neat
temptatsat
isf
yingdi
ff
erent
i
nter
estgr
oupsi
ngener
al,andTay
tuandt
heShoannobi
l
ityi
npar
ti
cul
ar.TheShoan
nobi
l
itywer
enothappywi
thI
yasu,ashewast
hesonoft
hest
rongr
egi
onall
ordof
Wol
l
o.Theyf
ear
edt
hatRasMi
chaelmi
ghtuset
heposi
ti
onofhi
sson,whowasst
il
la
mi
nor
,forhi
sownpol
i
ticalascendancy
.Yet
,thef
actt
hati
twast
heor
derofMenel
i
k,
andt
hechoi
ceofaShoannobl
easr
egentmi
nimi
zedt
hei
rfear
.ForTay
tu,
howev
er,
the
choi
ceofI
yasuwasasour
ceofgr
eatanxi
ety
.Hi
sfat
herRasMi
chaelhadhost
il
e
r
elat
ionswi
thherbr
otherandr
ulerofYej
u,RasWol
l
e.Menel
i
ktr
iedt
oappease t
he
empr
ess by a mar
ri
age ar
rangementofhergr
and ni
ece,Romanwor
q Mengesha
Yohannes,wi
thLi
jIy
asu.Howev
er,t
hisef
for
tbor
enof
rui
t.Tay
tuwor
kedhar
dtobui
l
d
up a powerbl
oc cent
red ar
ound herf
ami
l
ythr
ough ar
rangi
ng webs ofpol
i
tical
mar
ri
ages,andaf
ter1909t
hroughmaki
ngshum shi
rs(
promot
ionsanddemot
ions)
.
I
ndeed,
agai
nstt
hei
nter
estoft
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers,
Tay
tubehav
edasanact
ual
head
ofst
atemaki
ngdeci
si
onsonbehal
fofhersi
ckhusband.Hershum-
shi
rsi
ncl
udedt
he
ol
dnobi
l
ityl
i
keFi
tawr
ariHabt
eGi
orgi
sandNegadr
asHai
l
eGi
orgi
s,Mi
nist
ersofWar
andCommer
cer
espect
ivel
y.Ont
heot
herhand,
herr
elat
ivesandt
hoser
elat
edt
oherby
mar
it
alt
ieswer
epr
omot
edt
okeyposi
ti
ons.
TheShoannobi
l
ity
,ther
efor
e,sawTay
tuasat
hreatt
othei
rpol
i
ticalpoweri
nthecent
ral
gov
ernment
.RasMi
chaelofWol
l
owasal
sowor
ri
edaboutt
hef
utur
eofhi
ssonand
t
husj
oinedt
heShoannobi
l
ity
,inasecr
etpl
ant
oremov
etheEmpr
essf
rom power
.The
nobi
l
itydi
sappoi
nted byTay
tu’
s shum-
shi
rfor
med t
he nucl
eus and st
ood att
he
f
oref
ronti
ntheopposi
ti
onagai
nstTay
tu.Mor
eov
er,
inanat
temptt
ogi
vet
heopposi
ti
on
t
he char
act
erofa publ
i
c mov
ement
,the MehalSef
ariwer
e agi
tat
ed t
olead a
demonst
rat
ion.Thel
att
erconsi
stedofdi
ff
erentmi
l
itar
yuni
tsat
tachedt
othepal
ace.
Theopponent
sofTay
tuobt
ainedt
hebl
essi
ngoft
het
henbi
shop,AbunaMat
hewos,t
o
r
emov
eTay
tu.I
nMar
ch1910Empr
essTay
tuwasr
emov
edf
rom gov
ernmentaf
fai
rs,
shewasr
est
ri
ctedt
otaki
ngcar
eofherdy
inghusband.
Thef
ir
str
esponseofTay
tuwasbi
tt
er.Sheexpr
essedherr
esent
mentt
othebi
shop,
the
r
egentandsomeoft
hespokesmenoft
hemasspr
otest
.Then,sher
equest
edt
he
per
missi
onofheropponent
stor
eti
rebackt
ohernor
ther
nki
nsmen.TheShoannobi
l
ity
r
efusedt
oal
l
ow hert
ogot
othenor
th.TheEmpr
esst
henappeal
edt
othemaj
or
chur
chesofAddi
sAbabaandt
hedi
ff
erentl
egat
ionst
ohel
pherconv
inceheropponent
s.
Bot
hrespondedt
oTay
tut
hatt
heyhadnoi
ntent
iont
oint
erv
enei
ngov
ernmentaf
fai
rs.
Thusdi
sgr
acef
ull
yremov
edf
rom pol
i
tics,Tay
tust
ayedi
nthepal
acewi
thhersi
ck
husband,f
orsomet
ime.Andsi
nce1910shewasexi
l
edt
otheChur
chofSt
.Mar
yat
Ent
oto,
wher
eshest
ayedunt
ilherdeat
hin1918.
Thecoupagai
nstTay
tuwasf
oll
owedbyr
eshuf
fl
ingofpol
i
ticalpoweronbehal
foft
he
Shoannobi
l
ity
.Thepower
soft
her
egencyandt
hecabi
netwer
erei
nst
ated.Howev
er,
t
her
egent
,RasTesemaNadew di
edi
nApr
il1911.Unexpect
edl
yLi
jIy
asur
efusedt
o
acceptanot
herr
egent
.Thi
ssi
tuat
ionmar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngofasecondphaseofpower
st
ruggl
eandpol
i
tical
inst
abi
l
ityi
nthel
eader
shi
p.
Li
jIy
asu1913-
1916:Ref
ormsandt
heCoupD’
Etatagai
nstHi
m
Thedeat
hofRasTessemagav
eIy
asut
heoppor
tuni
tyt
oexer
cisepol
i
ticalaut
hor
it
yon
hi
sown.But
,hewasnotcr
ownedev
enaf
tert
hedeat
hofMenel
i
k.Despi
tet
his,
howev
er,
heexer
cisedf
ullpol
i
ticalpowerf
rom 1911t
o1916.Theonl
yser
iouschal
l
enget
ohi
s
powercamef
rom RasAbat
eBuay
alew,
aShoanobl
eman.
Abat
eat
tempt
edt
obr
eaki
ntot
hepal
acef
orcef
ull
y,butf
ail
edbecauseoft
hest
rong
def
ence putby t
he i
mper
ialguar
d.A possi
ble bl
oodshed was av
oided by t
he
i
nter
vent
ionoft
hebi
shop.Abat
ewasi
mpr
isonedatMekdal
a,wher
ehest
ayedunt
ilt
he
f
allofMi
chael(
1916)
,whof
rom t
hedesi
ret
osuppor
thi
sson,st
rongl
yst
oodagai
nst
Abat
e.
Ther
eignofLi
jIy
asul
acksf
airandobj
ect
ivedocument
ati
oni
ntheexi
sti
ngl
i
ter
atur
e,
wr
it
tenmai
nlydur
ingt
her
eignofhi
ssuccessorEmper
orHai
l
eSel
l
assi
e.I
ndeed,t
her
e
wasemphasi
sonhi
sweaknesses,
suchasl
ackofr
esponsi
bil
i
ty,
play
-boychar
act
erand
pol
ygamousmar
ri
ages.I
nreal
i
ty,howev
er,t
hought
ooy
oungt
orul
eanempi
re,I
yasu
i
ntr
oducedsi
gni
fi
cantsoci
alandeconomi
cref
orms.Tohi
scr
edi
t,Li
jIy
asu,
tri
edt
ogi
ve
Et
hiopi
an Musl
i
ms equalst
atus t
hrough i
ntegr
ati
ng t
hem i
nto hi
s admi
nist
rat
ive
hi
erar
chy
.Hegav
efi
nanci
alsuppor
tforest
abl
i
shi
ngmosques,
andl
ateron,
est
abl
i
shed
mar
ri
ageal
l
ianceswi
thl
ocalMusl
i
m dy
nast
ies.Thesepol
ygamousmar
ri
agesofI
yasu,
howev
erseem t
ohav
ehadsomeel
ement
sofpol
i
tical
mot
ive.
Mor
eov
er,
LijI
yasuest
abl
i
shedasy
stem ofaudi
ti
nggov
ernmentpr
oper
ty,
andf
ormeda
muni
cipalpol
i
ce ni
cknamed Ter
unbul
e.He est
abl
i
shed a separ
ate Depar
tmentof
Educat
ion.Bef
oret
hatar
rangementhadbeenmadebyMenel
i
kinwhi
cht
heaf
fai
rsof
educat
ionwer
epl
acedundert
hecont
roloft
hear
chbi
shop.I
yasu’
smeasur
ewast
he
f
ir
stat
temptatt
hesecul
ari
zat
ionofmoder
neducat
ioni
nEt
hiopi
a.
Ot
herr
efor
msofLi
jIy
asui
ncl
udedt
hoser
elat
edt
othei
mpr
ovementoft
radi
ti
onal
pr
act
icesofLebaShay(
met
hodoft
hiefdet
ect
ion)i
nwhi
chay
oungboyt
ookadr
ugand
wasl
etl
oosei
nthenei
ghbor
hoodoft
hehousef
rom wher
ethi
ngshadbeenst
olen.The
owneroft
hehousebef
orewhi
cht
hedr
ug-
int
oxi
cat
edboymi
ghtf
allwast
henaccused
oft
het
hef
t.Thi
sunr
eli
abl
emet
hodwassl
i
ght
lyi
mpr
ovedbysear
chi
ngf
orr
eli
abl
e
ev
idencei
nthehousei
ndi
cat
edbyt
heboyI
yasual
soendedt
hepr
act
iceofQur
agnai
n
whi
ch bot
htheaccuserand t
heaccused wer
echai
ned t
oget
herunt
ilj
ust
icewas
del
i
ver
ed.Ther
uleral
sost
oppedt
heabusesofAsr
atSaf
ari
,bywhi
chgov
ernmentt
ax
knownasAsr
at(
ti
the)wascol
l
ect
edbasedont
heest
imat
ionofagov
ernmentof
fi
cial
whousedt
odoi
tbef
orehar
vest
.Obv
iousl
y,t
hepr
act
iceai
medatcont
rol
l
ingpossi
ble
cheat
ingbysomet
axpay
ers,whousedt
orepor
tay
iel
dreduci
ngt
het
otalamountof
t
hei
rhar
vest
.UnderI
yasu,howev
er,t
hepeasant
swer
eal
l
owedt
ohar
vestbef
oret
hei
r
f
iel
dswer
evi
si
tedbygov
ernmentof
fi
cial
s.Unl
i
kebef
ore,t
het
axwoul
dbecol
l
ect
ed
basedonl
yont
heamountr
epor
tedbyt
het
axpay
erswho,ofcour
se,swor
etot
he
r
eli
abi
l
ityoft
hei
rrepor
t.
Theabov
epr
ogr
essi
vemeasur
esofLi
jIy
asuwer
e,howev
er,ov
ershadowed,par
tl
yby
someofhi
sweaknessesandpar
tl
ybyt
heopposi
ti
oncomi
ngf
rom v
ict
imsofhi
s
r
efor
ms.Fori
nst
ance,hi
sfr
iendl
ygest
uret
owar
dsEt
hiopi
anMusl
i
mswasar
adi
cal
depar
tur
efr
om t
hepastt
radi
ti
onofv
erycl
osechur
ch-st
ater
elat
ions.I
twasl
ater
i
nter
pret
edasachal
l
enget
othepr
edomi
nantposi
ti
ont
heOr
thodoxChur
chenj
oyed.
Theaudi
ti
ngofgov
ernmentpr
oper
tyexposedt
heembezzl
ementcar
ri
edonbyol
d
of
fi
cial
s,whobecameenemi
esofI
yasuwhent
heywer
eor
der
edt
opaybackwhatt
hey
hadmi
sappr
opr
iat
ed.I
yasu'
schoi
ceoft
hecompanyofy
oungerof
fi
cial
sinhi
sfr
equent
t
our
sofpr
ovi
nces,i
npl
aceofmember
soft
heol
dnobi
l
ity
,cr
eat
edamongt
hel
att
era
f
eel
i
ngbei
ngunwant
edwhoset
otalel
i
minat
ionwasf
astappr
oachi
ng.Thesev
ict
imsof
I
yasut
huswor
kedhar
dtoaccusehi
m,usi
nghi
sweakpoi
nts.Tot
headv
ant
ageofhi
s
opponent
s,I
yasudi
dnotbot
heratal
ltoi
mpr
ovehi
sweaknesses.Nordi
dheappease
hi
spot
ent
ial
riv
alst
hroughsomer
econci
l
iat
ions.
I
ndeed,Li
jIy
asucont
inuedt
obui
l
dapol
ygamousf
ami
l
y,cont
inuedhi
sadul
ter
y,and
showeddi
srespectandcont
emptf
ort
heol
dnobi
l
ity
.Hewasabsentf
rom t
hecapi
talso
of
tenowi
ngt
ohi
sfr
equentwander
ingi
nthepr
ovi
nces.Al
lthesewer
eissuest
akenup
byhi
senemi
est
ochar
gehi
m wi
thi
mmor
ali
tyandi
rr
esponsi
blel
eader
shi
p.Howev
er,
hi
sper
sonalweaknesseswer
enott
her
ealcausesf
orhi
sconf
li
ctwi
tht
heShoan
nobi
l
ity
.Rat
her
,thel
att
ersawI
yasuasaser
iouschal
l
enget
othei
rpol
i
ticalpower
.Thi
s
chal
l
engeseemedmor
ethr
eat
eni
ng,
whenhegav
ehi
ghposi
ti
ont
ohi
sfat
herMi
kael
.In
1914Li
jIy
asucr
ownedhi
sfat
herasNegusov
ert
henor
ther
npr
ovi
ncesofTi
gray
,and
Wol
l
o.I
n1915Goj
j
am andBegemdi
rwer
eaddedt
othem.
Li
jIy
asudi
dmor
ethant
hist
othr
eat
ent
hepol
i
ticalf
utur
eoft
heShoanMekwani
nts
(
nobi
l
ity
).Hi
srel
ati
ves,
fri
endsandt
hosewi
thwhom hehadmar
it
alt
ieswer
epr
omot
ed
att
heexpenseoft
heol
dnobi
l
ity
.Het
ookSi
damof
rom Dej
achBal
chaSaf
o,andgav
eit
t
oanewal
l
yandbr
other
-i
n-l
aw,Negadr
asHai
l
eGi
orgi
s.Thel
att
erwasal
sogi
vent
he
t
opr
ankofChai
rmanoft
heCounci
lofMi
nist
erswhi
chhadbeenhel
dbyFi
tawr
ari
Habt
e
Gi
orgi
sDi
nagde.ThesonofRasMekonnen,
Dej
achTef
eri
,wasr
emov
edf
rom hi
sfami
l
y
f
ief
,Har
ar,andt
ransf
err
edt
oKaf
fa.Thecombi
nat
ionoft
heseact
ionsdi
ssat
isf
iedt
he
nobi
l
ityi
ngener
al,andt
heShoansi
npar
ti
cul
art
ouni
tei
nthecommoncauseof
r
emov
ingLi
jIy
asu.Thepl
ott
hatul
ti
mat
elyr
emov
edI
yassuwasnott
hewor
kofl
ocal
opponent
soft
hey
oungr
uleral
one.I
tal
socamef
rom t
heTr
ipar
ti
tepower
swhor
all
i
ed
behi
ndt
heShoannobi
l
ityi
nthest
ruggl
eagai
nstI
yasu.Thesecol
oni
alpower
shadgood
r
easont
oseekt
her
emov
alofI
yasuf
rom power
.Fi
rst
ly,I
yasuappear
edt
obecomea
cl
osef
ri
endofOt
tomanTur
keyandGer
many
,whower
emor
tal
enemi
esoft
heTr
ipar
ti
te
power
sint
heFi
rstWor
ldWar(
1914-
18)
.
I
yasu’
sfr
iendshi
ptot
heCent
ral
Power
smi
ghtseem i
nsi
gni
fi
cant
,buti
twasconsi
der
ed
byt
heTr
ipar
ti
tePower
sasadanger
ousmov
eint
her
egi
onwher
etheyhadcol
oni
es.
Ev
enmor
eof
fensi
vet
otheAl
l
iedpower
swasLi
jIy
asu’
smor
alandmat
eri
alsuppor
tto
t
hel
eaderofaSomal
inat
ional
i
stmov
ement
,Say
yidMohammedAbdul
l
ahHassan.As
t
heSomal
ileaderwasoper
ati
ngi
nthecol
oni
alpossessi
onsofBr
it
ain,Fr
anceandI
tal
y
i
ntheHor
nofAf
ri
ca,t
het
hreepower
sal
l
iedwi
thEt
hiopi
ani
nter
nalf
orcesagai
nstLi
j
I
yasu.Thei
rhel
prangedf
rom f
orgi
ngpi
ctur
esasev
idenceagai
nstI
yasut
ogi
vi
ngsome
muni
ti
onst
ohi
sopponent
sinsuppor
toft
hecoupd’
etatagai
nsthi
m.Asi
ntheant
i-
Tay
tumov
e,t
heMahalSef
ariact
edagai
nstI
yasu,andt
heAbunandt
heEchege,t
oo,
bl
essedt
hecoup.Wi
thal
lthesesuppor
t,I
yasuwasdeposedon27Sept
ember1916.
Li
jIy
asuwasnotr
eadyt
odef
endhi
spower
.Hewasi
nJi
j
iga,
whent
hecoupwasbei
ng
car
ri
edouti
nthecapi
tal
.Hemadeanat
temptt
orev
erset
hecoupbuthewasdef
eat
ed
att
hebat
tl
eofMi
eso,
locat
edont
hewayt
oHar
ar.TheShoanar
mydef
eat
edhi
str
oops
headi
ngt
othecapi
tal
.Hi
sfat
her
,NegusMi
chael
,al
somadeamor
edet
ermi
nedat
tempt
t
orei
nst
atehi
ssont
opower
.Incommandofabout80,
000t
roopsf
rom Nor
ther
n
Et
hiopi
a,Mi
chaelscor
edami
norv
ict
oryi
nthei
nit
ialencount
eratt
hebat
tl
eofTor
a
Meskon17Oct
ober1916.Buthewascompl
etel
ydef
eat
edandmadecapt
iveatt
he
deci
si
veandbl
oodybat
tl
eofSegel
enearSheno,t
ownon27Oct
ober1916.Negus
Mi
chaeldi
edaf
tert
woy
ear
sofcapt
ivi
tyandi
mpr
isonment
.Iy
asur
emai
nedaf
ugi
ti
ve,
unt
ilhewasf
inal
l
ycapt
uredi
nTi
grayi
n1921andi
mpr
isonedf
ir
statFi
tche.I
n1932he
at
tempt
edatescapebutf
ail
ed.Ther
efor
e,hewast
ransf
err
edt
oGar
amul
ata,i
nthe
pr
ovi
nceofHar
arge,
wher
ehedi
edi
npr
isoni
n1936.
TheDi
archy1917–30
Thebat
tl
eofSegel
e,whi
chcl
aimedt
hel
i
feofmor
ethan12,
000t
roopsf
rom bot
hsi
des
mar
kedt
hebl
oodycompl
eti
onoft
hest
ruggl
eagai
nstt
hechal
l
engeofLi
jIy
asu.Thef
all
ofNegusMi
chaelbr
oughtanendt
otheadmi
nist
rat
iveaut
onomyoft
hepr
ovi
nceof
Wol
l
o.Thef
allofI
yasual
somar
kedt
her
est
orat
ionofShewanpol
i
ticalsupr
emacy
.The
coupmaker
scr
ownedt
hedaught
erofMenel
i
k,Zewdi
tu,asEmpr
esson1Febr
uar
y
1917.RasTef
eri
Mekonnenwasmadehei
rtot
het
hrone.
Fort
heShoannobi
l
ityZewdi
tuwasani
dealchoi
ce,becauseshewast
hedaught
erof
Menel
i
kandwaspol
i
tical
l
yconser
vat
ive.Shehadnoson,andt
oav
oidsuccessi
on
di
sput
es,anhei
rwaschosen.Tef
eriwast
hebestchoi
ceashei
r.Hewashi
msel
fa
memberoft
hegr
eatShoannobi
l
ityandoft
heShoanr
oyal
fami
l
y.Hehadadmi
nist
rat
ive
abi
l
ity
,shownpar
ti
cul
arl
yinhi
sgov
ernor
shi
pofHar
ar.Hewasy
oungandact
ive.Hi
s
moder
neducat
ionandi
nter
esti
nmoder
nizat
ionwer
eregar
dedasv
aluabl
easset
sin
deal
i
ngwi
thf
orei
gner
sandt
hei
rlegat
ions.
Forsomey
ear
s,Zewdi
tuandTef
eriwor
kedwel
ltoget
her
.Zewdi
tupr
esi
dedov
eral
l
del
i
ber
ati
onsi
nwhi
chi
mpor
tantdeci
sionswer
etaken.AndTef
erir
efer
redal
lmaj
or
i
ssuest
oherf
ordeci
si
on.Ther
efor
e,atf
ir
statl
east
,thedi
archyordualr
ulemar
kedt
he
uni
ty ofShoan f
orces i
nthe cent
ralgov
ernment
.The Counci
lofMi
nst
ers was
r
eor
gani
zedundert
hechai
rmanshi
poft
heMi
nist
erofWar
,Fi
tawr
ari
Habt
eGi
orgi
s.
Howev
er,
probl
emscameast
hepowerofRasTef
erist
art
edt
ogr
owuppr
ogr
essi
vel
yat
t
heexpenseoft
heEmpr
essandt
heCounci
lofMi
nist
ers.Thoughonl
yanhei
r,Ras
Tef
eribegant
oexer
ciset
her
oleofa‘
regent
’.Hi
sinf
luencei
nadmi
nist
rat
ionand
mi
l
itar
yaf
fai
rsandext
ernalr
elat
ionsexceededt
hatoft
heEmpr
ess.I
ndeed,mor
eand
mor
epowerbegant
oconcent
rat
eint
hehandsofRasTef
eri
.Int
hel
ongr
un,t
he
pol
i
ticalascendancyofRasTef
erinotonl
ywor
ri
edt
heEmpr
ess,butal
sowasat
hreat
t
otheol
dnobi
l
ityi
ngener
alandmember
soft
heCounci
li
npar
ti
cul
ar.
Thet
radi
ti
onal
i
stsnobi
l
ityr
epr
esent
edbyt
heEmper
esst
urnedt
obeconser
vat
ive.The
di
sli
ked Tef
eri
'
s moder
nizi
ng act
ivi
ti
es. Tef
err
irepr
esent
ed t
he i
nter
est
s of a
pr
ogr
essi
ve gr
oup oft
he y
oung educat
ed Et
hiopi
ans and t
he mor
e''
enl
i
ght
ened'
'
f
eudal
i
sts.
Whi
l
ethe t
radi
ti
onal
i
sts had t
he spi
ri
tualsuppor
toft
he bi
shop,Tef
eriand hi
s
suppor
ter
shadt
heappr
eci
ati
onandsuppor
t,oft
heEur
opeanl
egat
ions.Thel
att
ersaw
i
nther
iseofTef
eriabr
ightpr
ospectf
orcapi
tal
i
sti
nvest
menti
nEt
hiopi
a.Thus,t
he
st
ruggl
ebet
weent
heconser
vat
iveandt
hepr
ogr
essi
vegr
oupscamet
obeadomi
nat
e
f
eat
ureoft
hedi
archyf
orsev
eraly
ear
s,unt
ilt
hebal
anceofpowergr
adual
l
yshi
ft
edi
n
f
avourofTef
eri
ast
imewenton.
Ras Tef
eri
’
s nat
uralgi
ft
s ofpat
ience,capaci
tyt
o hi
de hi
s mot
ives and pl
ans,
det
ermi
nat
ionandcunni
ng,addedt
ohi
sri
chpol
i
ticalexper
ience,madesi
gni
fi
cant
cont
ri
but
ionst
ohi
sri
set
opower
.Hi
ssuccessf
uluseofdi
plomacyandt
hegr
oupoft
he
y
oungeducat
edel
i
tear
oundhi
msel
fexpl
ainhi
sconst
antsuccessesagai
nstpeopl
e
whost
oodi
nhi
sway
.Thechi
efev
ent
sinhi
sri
set
opowerwer
ethef
oll
owi
ng,i
n
chr
onol
ogi
cal
order
.
*I
n 1918,t
hough t
her
oleTef
eripl
ayed behi
nd t
hescenei
snotcl
ear
,themost
f
ormi
dabl
eopponent
sofhi
sgr
owi
ngpower
,consi
sti
ngoft
wel
vemember
soft
he
Counci
lofMi
nist
ers,
wer
eremov
edf
rom powerbyor
deroft
heEmpr
essi
nresponset
o
apubl
i
cdemonst
rat
ionr
epr
esent
edbyt
heMehalSef
ari
.Themi
nist
erswer
eaccusedof
cor
rupt
ion and embezzl
ement
.Onl
ythe Mi
nst
erofWar
,Fi
tawr
ariHabt
e Gi
orgi
s,
r
emai
nedi
npower
.
*Thecapt
ureofLi
jI
yasui
n1921el
i
minat
edoner
ival
fort
het
hrone.
*I
n1923Et
hiopi
abecameamemberoft
heLeagueofNat
ionsundert
hepr
econdi
ti
on
ofabol
i
tionoft
hesl
avet
radeandsl
aver
y.Tot
hisend,
twodecr
eeswer
eissuedi
n1923
and 1924,r
espect
ivel
y.Ot
hert
han t
he adv
ant
age ofcol
l
ect
ive secur
it
y,Et
hiopi
a'
s
admi
ssi
on i
ntot
he League was a st
ep f
orwar
dinf
aci
l
itat
ing Tef
eri
'
s ext
ensi
ve
di
plomat
icr
elat
ions.I
n1924RasTef
eriandsomeofhi
snobi
l
itymadeagr
andt
ourt
o
Eur
ope,seeki
ngf
ir
sthandexposur
etowest
ernci
vi
li
zat
ionaswel
last
ryi
ngt
oget
accesst
otheseaf
orEt
hiopi
a.Thel
att
erobj
ect
ivedi
dnotmat
eri
ali
ze.Butt
hev
isi
ts
madet
oBr
it
ain,Gr
eece,Jer
usal
em,Fr
ance,I
tal
y,Bel
gium,Luxembur
g,Swi
tzer
land,
SwedenandEgy
pt,mai
nlyf
ocusedonschool
s,f
act
ori
es,hospi
tal
sandchur
ches,and
wer
esour
cesofgr
eati
nspi
rat
iont
otheEt
hiopi
anv
isi
tor
s.RasTef
eri
’
sint
eresti
n
moder
ntechnol
ogy
,admi
nist
rat
ion,mi
l
itar
ytr
aini
ng and ot
heri
nst
it
uti
ons,t
hough
st
rongbef
orehi
sov
erseasv
isi
ts,
becameev
enst
rongeraf
tert
het
ourofEur
ope.
*Thenat
uraldeat
hsofFi
tawr
ariHabt
eGi
orgi
sandAbuneMet
ewosi
n1926wer
eal
soa
gol
den oppor
tuni
tyf
orRas Tef
eri
,as t
he t
wo v
ery st
rong mi
l
itar
y and r
eli
gious
chal
l
enger
stohi
spol
i
ticalambi
ti
onswer
eremov
edi
nsuccessi
on.Het
ookov
ert
he
ar
myofFi
tawr
ari
Habt
eGi
orgi
sanddi
str
ibut
edhi
slar
get
ractofl
andt
oal
l
ies.
*I
n1927RasTef
erisucceededi
nget
ti
ngt
heuncondi
ti
onalsur
renderofanot
herst
rong
opponentt
ohi
sgr
owi
ngpower
,Dej
achBal
chaSaf
o,t
hegov
ernorofSi
damo.That
pr
osper
ouspr
ovi
ncewasgi
venf
ir
stt
oanal
l
yandt
hent
otheson-
in-
lawofRasTef
eri
,
RasDest
aDamt
ew.
*I
n1928Dej
achAbaWuqaw,commanderoft
heI
mper
ialBody
guar
d,r
evol
tedagai
nst
RasTef
erii
ndef
enceoft
hedecr
easi
ngpowerofEmpr
essZewdi
tu.But
,hewassoon
f
orcedt
osur
renderandhewasatf
ir
stsent
encedt
odeat
h,t
houghl
atert
hiswas
changedt
oli
fei
mpr
isonment
.Thi
swasski
l
lful
l
ydonebyTef
eri
,whoper
suadedt
he
Empr
esst
oint
erv
ene,accusi
ngAbaWuqaw ofdi
stur
bingt
hepal
aceandpr
ovoki
ng
bl
oodshedwhi
l
eencampedatt
hemausol
eum ofMenel
i
k.
Meanwhi
l
e,t
heMahalSef
aripr
essedZewdi
tut
ocr
ownTef
eriasNegus.I
nOct
ober
1928Zewdi
tuf
ormal
l
ycr
ownedTef
erNegus.Hewasmade“
kingofEt
hiopi
a,Hei
rtot
he
Thr
one”Thel
astser
iousopponentt
oRasTef
erif
rom t
het
radi
ti
onalgr
oupwast
heex-
husbandofEmpr
essZewdi
tu,RasGugsaWol
l
e.Thedi
vor
ceofZewdi
tuandGugsai
n
1917i
ssai
dto hav
ebeenef
fect
edbyt
heShoanMekwani
ntsatt
het
imeofher
cor
onat
ion.Though Zewdi
tu made Gugsa t
he gov
ernorofBegemdi
r,i
n 1918,he
r
emai
nedhost
il
etoTef
eriwhom hesuspect
edofhav
ingbeenr
esponsi
blef
ort
he
di
vor
ce.Ther
ewasal
soaconf
li
ctov
ert
het
axf
rom Met
emmat
hatwasundert
he
j
uri
sdi
cti
onofGugsa,whi
chTef
eriwant
edt
ocent
ral
i
ze.Ther
iseofTef
erit
othet
opof
t
hepol
i
ticalhi
erar
chywast
husat
hreatt
oGugsa.Onhi
spar
t,Tef
eriwaswai
ti
ngf
ora
pr
etextt
oel
i
minat
eGugsa,
andt
hiscamewhenGugsar
efusedt
ocar
ryoutt
heor
derof
RasTef
eri
toassi
stt
hesuppr
essi
onoft
he1929r
ebel
l
ionoft
heRay
aandAzeboOr
omo.
TheRay
aandAzebo i
nsout
her
nTi
grayandnor
ther
nWol
l
o wer
eusedt
o hav
ea
measur
eofl
ocalaut
onomyi
nadmi
nist
rat
ion.Whenev
er,t
heyf
eltt
hatwast
hreat
ened,
t
heyof
tenbecamer
ebel
l
ions.The1929r
ebel
l
ionwasonesuchoccassi
on.Zewdi
tu
i
nter
venedt
otr
ytoav
oidbl
oodshedbet
weenTef
eriandGugsabutshef
ail
ed,
asGugsa
r
efusedt
osur
render
.On31Mar
ch1930t
hei
mper
ialar
myundert
hecommandoft
he
new Mi
nist
erofWar
,RasMul
uget
aYi
gezu,f
oughtt
hear
myofGugsaatt
hebat
tl
eof
Anchem,neart
heLast
a-Begemdi
rbor
der
.Thef
ir
stt
woai
rcr
aft
sofEt
hiopi
awer
e
engagedi
ndr
oppi
ngbombsandl
eaf
let
s.Gugsadi
edi
nact
ion.Twoday
slat
erZewdi
tu
di
ed,
repor
tedl
yofdi
abet
es.Tef
eri
wascr
ownedEmper
orHai
l
eSel
l
assi
eIofEt
hiopi
aon
2Nov
ember
,1930byani
mpr
essi
vecor
onat
ioncer
emony
.3.
4.3.TheEmer
genceoft
he
Absol
uti
stSt
ate,
1930-
35
Ri
ghtaf
terhi
scor
onat
ion,Hai
l
eSel
l
assi
eembar
keduponl
ayi
ngt
hegr
oundf
oran
absol
uti
stst
atei
nEt
hiopi
a.Theessenceofhi
sabsol
uti
sm wast
hef
ormat
ionofa
hi
ghl
ycent
ral
i
zeduni
tar
yst
ate.I
nthi
sst
ate,t
her
egi
onaldy
nast
ies(
Mesaf
int
s)hadt
o
submi
ttot
hesupr
emeaut
hor
it
yoft
heEmper
ori
nexchangef
orr
oyalr
ecogni
ti
onof
t
hei
reconomi
cpr
ivi
l
eges,
i.
e,her
edi
tar
yri
ghtov
ert
ri
but
aryl
andsknownasr
ist
egul
t.By
sodoi
ng,
Hai
l
eSel
l
assi
ewast
ryi
ngt
odoawaywi
tht
hef
orcesofr
egi
onal
i
sm andbui
l
d
hi
sownaut
ocr
ati
cpoweronaf
ir
m economi
cbasi
s.
Tot
hisend,t
heEmper
ort
ookv
erysi
gni
fi
cantmeasur
es.Fi
rst
,in1931hel
aidal
egal
basi
sfort
heabsol
uti
stst
atebyi
ssui
ngt
hef
ir
stwr
it
tenConst
it
uti
onf
orEt
hiopi
a.The
Const
it
uti
onwascl
aimedt
ohav
etheobj
ect
iveofbr
ingi
ngpol
i
ticalmoder
nit
y,st
oppi
ng
t
het
radi
ti
onalpr
obl
em ofsuccessi
onandbui
l
dingnat
ionali
ntegr
ati
on.I
twasal
so
cl
aimedt
ohav
eai
medatpr
ovi
ding“
fai
rjust
ice”f
ort
heEt
hiopi
anpeopl
es.Thecont
ent
oft
heConst
it
uti
on,howev
er,showsmaj
oremphasi
sonbui
l
dingt
heabsol
utepowerof
t
he Emper
orand guar
ant
eei
ng t
he r
ightt
o successi
on t
o hi
sdescendant
s.Ot
her
pr
ovi
si
onsi
ncl
uded,suchasapar
li
ament
arysy
stem andci
vi
lri
ght
s,wer
enotputi
nto
pr
act
iceandwer
eincl
udedi
nthedocumentonl
ytoi
mpr
essEur
opeansbyshowi
ng
si
gnsofmoder
npol
i
tical
transf
ormat
ion.
Ther
efor
e,t
heConst
it
uti
onconf
ir
medt
heEmper
or’
sdi
vi
ner
ightt
orul
easwel
last
he
r
ightt
oissuel
awsf
orhi
speopl
ebyhi
sownwi
l
l.I
test
abl
i
shedabi
camer
alPar
li
ament
hav
ingaSenat
e,whi
chwasanupperchamberofnobl
es,
appoi
ntedbyt
heEmper
or,
and
t
heChamberofDeput
iesel
ect
edbyl
ocalnot
abl
esf
rom amongt
hel
ocalf
eudall
ords.
TheEmper
or’
sabsol
utepoweral
soi
ncl
udedt
her
ightt
oappoi
ntanddi
smi
ssmember
s
ofPar
li
amentandot
herci
vi
landmi
l
itar
yof
fi
cial
s,t
odecl
areorendwar
s,andt
ogr
ant
l
andandhonour
s.
Secondl
y,basedonhi
sabsol
uteconst
it
uti
onalr
ight
,Hai
l
eSel
l
assi
ecompl
etedt
he
pr
ocessofbui
l
dingcent
ral
i
zedadmi
nist
rat
ion.Mostoft
hesout
her
nregi
ons,i
tist
obe
r
ecal
l
ed,hadal
readyf
all
eni
ntot
hehandsofr
oyalappoi
nteesdur
ingt
her
egi
onof
Menel
i
k.Asi
mil
arpr
ocessofcent
ral
i
zat
ionwasal
sopur
suedbyHai
l
eSel
l
assi
e.Asa
r
esul
t,t
heaut
onomouspr
ovi
nceofWol
l
owasgi
vent
ohi
sel
destson,Asf
aWossen,
af
tert
hebat
tl
eofSegel
e.Fol
l
owi
ngt
hebat
tl
eofAnchem,Begemdi
rcameundert
he
appoi
nteeofHai
l
eSel
l
assi
e,RasKasa.Si
mil
arl
y,t
hel
ocalaut
onomyofGoj
j
am and
Ji
mmacamet
oanendi
n1932and1933r
espect
ivel
y.Theher
edi
tar
yrul
ersoft
hese
r
egi
ons,RasHai
l
uTekl
eHay
manotofGoj
j
am andAbbaJobi
rAbbaJi
ff
arofJi
mma
wer
eremov
edandt
her
egi
onscameunderdi
rectcont
roloft
hecent
ral
.Ther
egi
on
whoseaut
onomyr
emai
nedi
ntactwasTi
gray
,whi
chcont
inuedt
ober
uledbyt
wo
gr
andsonsofEmper
orYohannesI
V:RasSey
oum MengeshaandRasGugsaAr
aya.
Thoughhedi
dnotsucceedi
nwi
nni
ngt
hei
rabsol
utel
oyal
ty,Hai
l
eSel
l
assi
etr
iedt
oti
e
t
heTi
greanpr
inceswi
tht
heShoandy
nast
y,t
hroughar
rangi
ngpol
i
ticalmar
ri
ageswi
th
t
heShoanr
oyalf
ami
l
y.Thi
rdl
y,t
heabsol
uti
stst
atewor
kedhar
datf
iscalcent
ral
i
zat
ion,
mai
nlyi
ncust
omsadmi
nist
rat
ion.Thegov
ernmentt
husel
i
minat
edt
heol
dpr
ovi
nci
al
kel
l
as(
cust
omspost
s),
andr
epl
acedt
hem byaf
ewr
ecogni
zedandcent
ral
l
ycont
rol
l
ed
cust
omspost
s.Thegov
ernmental
socont
rol
l
edt
hecust
omsf
rom ext
ernal
trade.
Fi
nal
l
y,t
heemer
gingabsol
uti
stst
ategav
edueat
tent
iont
othemoder
nizat
ionofi
ts
ar
my.Thepr
ocessofadmi
nist
rat
iveand pol
i
ticalcent
ral
i
zat
ion l
aidt
hebasi
sfor
est
abl
i
shmentofamoder
nnat
ionalar
my.Buti
tsef
fect
ivet
ransf
ormat
ioncal
l
edf
or
moder
ntr
aini
ng.Thepr
ocessofmoder
nmi
l
itar
ytr
aini
nghadal
readybeguni
n1920,
by
sendi
ngy
oungeducat
edEt
hiopi
ansabr
oad.I
n1930
Bel
gianof
fi
cer
swer
eputi
nchar
geoft
rai
ningt
heI
mper
ialBody
guar
dconsi
sti
ngof
t
hreebat
tal
i
onsofi
nfant
ry.Mor
eov
er,i
n1934t
heEt
hiopi
angov
ernmentopenedt
he
f
ir
stof
fi
cert
rai
ning schoolatHol
etaGannatbyr
ecr
uit
ing i
tst
eachi
ng st
afff
rom
Swedi
shof
fi
cer
s.Thi
scadetschool
hadapr
ogr
ammeoft
hreey
ear
str
aini
ngwhi
chwas,
howev
er,
int
err
upt
edbyt
heI
tal
i
ani
nvasi
onofEt
hiopi
ain1935.

6.
3.Def
endi
ngsov
erei
gnt
yandt
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
y
Resi
stancet
oEgy
pti
anandMahdi
stAggr
essi
ons
For
eignt
hreatagai
nstEt
hiopi
ani
ndependence,
thoughmani
fest
edev
enear
li
er,
reached
apeaki
nthesecondhal
foft
heni
net
eent
hcent
ury
.Itcamef
rom sev
eraldi
rect
ions;
Egy
pt,Mahdi
stSudanandI
tal
y.Thecauses,cour
seandconsequencesoft
hef
ir
stt
wo
aggr
essi
onswi
l
lbedi
scussedher
eint
hissect
ion,andt
hel
att
eri
nanot
hersect
ion,
f
art
herbel
ow.
Et
hiopi
a and Egy
pthad a l
ong hi
stor
y ofr
elat
ionshi
ps whi
ch i
nvol
ved cul
tur
al,
commer
cialandr
eli
gion.Thi
srel
ati
onshi
pwasaf
fect
edsi
ncet
het
urnoft
he19t
h
cent
uryasEgy
ptembar
kedonav
igor
ousexpansi
oni
ntot
heHor
nofAf
ri
ca,whi
ch
i
ncl
udedEt
hiopi
aast
hesour
ceoft
heBl
ueNi
l
e.
Theage-
oldambi
ti
ont
ocont
rolt
heNi
l
edr
ainagesy
stem wast
hemai
nint
erestof
Egy
pti
anr
uler
s.Thusi
n1821Egy
ptoccupi
edSudan.Despi
tef
ier
cer
esi
stance,t
he
mi
l
itar
ysuper
ior
it
yoft
heEgy
pti
anar
myandi
nter
nalconf
li
ctsamongl
ocalpeopl
elef
t
Sudananeasypr
eyt
otheEgy
pti
anconquer
ors.Ast
hesour
ceoft
heBl
ueNi
l
e,Et
hiopi
a
wasal
sov
ict
im ofEgy
pti
anexpansi
on.I
ndeed,Sudanser
vedasabasef
orEgy
pti
an
encr
oachmenti
ntot
henor
th-
west
ernEt
hiopi
anr
egi
onsl
i
keSemen,Damby
a,andt
he
Shei
kdomsofAssosaandBeni–Shangul
.Ear
lyEgy
pti
ant
hreat
scoi
nci
dedwi
tht
he
per
iod oft
he Zamana Masaf
ent
.The i
nter
nalcr
isi
s oft
he per
iod pr
ovi
ded an
oppor
tuni
tyf
orEgy
pti
anper
iodi
cat
tacksandpenet
rat
ionsi
ntot
heEt
hiopi
anbor
der
r
egi
ons.I
ntheabsenceofawel
lor
gani
zednat
ionaldef
ence,t
hei
ndi
vi
dualat
temptof
l
ocalchi
efst
ocheckt
headv
anceofEgy
pti
ant
roopsi
nthei
rrespect
iver
egi
onscoul
d
notbr
ingal
ast
ingsol
uti
on.Consequent
ly,
forov
erhal
facent
uryEgy
ptposedaser
ious
pr
obl
em ont
hesoci
al,economi
candr
eli
giousl
i
feoft
hepeopl
esal
ongt
heEt
hio-
Sudanesebor
der
.Egy
pti
ansi
mposed heav
ytaxeson r
egi
onst
heyoccupi
ed.They
l
oot
edandensl
avedt
hel
ocalpeopl
e,andbur
ntf
iel
dsandhomest
oashes,whent
hey
f
acedr
esi
stancet
othei
rexpansi
on.
Et
hio-
Egy
pti
anconf
li
ctswer
eint
ensi
fi
eddur
ingt
her
eignofEmper
orTewodr
os.I
n1865
t
heEgy
pti
anst
ookov
ert
hepossessi
onoft
hepor
tofMassawaf
rom t
heOt
tomanTur
ks
ont
hebasi
sofal
easecont
ract
.TheEgy
pti
anst
henbegant
ocol
l
ectheav
ytaxesf
rom
Et
hiopi
an mer
chant
sand bl
ocked t
he i
mpor
toff
ir
ear
ms.Ev
en wor
se,f
rom 1872
onwar
dsEgy
pti
ant
roopsbegant
oadv
ancei
ntoandcont
rolot
herRedSeapor
tsand
coast
alr
egi
ons,
aswel
last
hebor
derpr
ovi
ncesofMat
ammaandBogos.
Thet
henr
ulerofEgy
pt,Khedi
veI
smai
l(1863-
79)
,int
ensi
fi
edt
het
radi
ti
onalEgy
pti
an
expansi
ont
o amor
eaggr
essi
veat
temptatoccupat
ionofal
lEt
hiopi
a.Thegr
and
ambi
ti
onofEgy
pti
anr
uler
swast
obui
l
daGr
eat
erEgy
pti
nNor
th-
EastAf
ri
ca.They
ai
medatbecomi
ngmast
ersoft
heNi
l
ebasi
nandt
heNi
l
esour
ces.Thepr
etextof
er
adi
cat
ionoft
hesl
avet
radeand“
ext
ensi
onofwest
ernci
vi
li
zat
ion”i
ntoAf
ri
cawer
e
usedbyt
her
uler
sofEgy
ptt
ojust
if
yexpansi
oni
stambi
ti
ons.Khedi
veI
smai
lwasabl
eto
getsuppor
tfr
om Eur
opean power
s usi
ng t
hese ar
gument
s.I
ndeed,t
he st
rat
egi
c
si
gni
fi
canceofEgy
pt,
duet
othenewl
yopenedSuezCanali
n1869,
wasmor
eat
tr
act
ive
t
oEur
opeanst
hanChr
ist
ianEt
hiopi
a.
Howev
er,
Egy
pti
anr
uler
sseem t
ohav
eunder
est
imat
edt
hemi
l
itar
yst
rengt
hofEt
hiopi
a.
Egy
pti
answer
emi
sl
edi
ntobel
i
evi
ngt
hatEt
hiopi
awasweak.Thei
rcal
cul
ati
onswer
e
basedont
heobser
vat
ionoft
heeasewi
thwhi
cht
he1868Br
it
ishmi
l
itar
yexpedi
ti
ont
o
Maqdal
ahadbeencompl
etedandt
hesubsequenti
nter
nalpol
i
ticalconf
li
cts,f
oll
owi
ng
t
hedeat
hofTewodr
os.Butbyt
hemi
ddl
eoft
he1870s,Et
hiopi
awasnotany
mor
e
pol
i
tical
l
ydi
vi
dedandweakasbef
ore.TheEgy
pti
ani
mageofaweakanddi
suni
ted
Et
hiopi
a,andt
heabsenceofEur
opeanopposi
ti
ont
owar
dsEgy
pti
anexpansi
oni
nthe
Hor
nofAf
ri
caencour
agedal
argescal
einv
asi
onofEt
hiopi
ain1875.Thepor
tsoft
he
Gul
fofAdenandMassawaser
vedasl
aunchi
ngpadsf
ort
het
hree-
fr
onti
nvasi
onof
Et
hiopi
abyEgy
pti
ant
roopsi
n1875.AnEgy
pti
anar
mycommandedbyMohammedRauf
Pashaoccupi
edt
heMusl
i
m Ci
tySt
ateofHar
ari
nOct
ober1875wi
thv
eryl
i
ttl
edi
ff
icul
ty.
A Swi
ss-Ger
man named Wer
nerMunzi
nger
,of
ten r
efer
red t
o ast
hear
chi
tectof
Egy
pti
anaggr
essi
oni
nEt
hiopi
a,adv
ancedt
othecent
erf
rom t
hedi
rect
ionofTdj
ura.
Howev
er,
Munzi
ngerandhi
sar
myofabout500men,
wer
eambushedanddest
roy
edby
t
heAf
arpeopl
eont
hei
rwayt
oShoa.Anot
herv
erywel
lar
medEgy
pti
ancont
ingentl
ed
byaDani
shcol
onel
,Ar
endr
up,mov
edi
ntot
hei
nter
iorMer
ebMel
ashr
egi
onf
rom t
he
por
tofMassawa.Byl
ateOct
ober1875hi
sar
myhadr
eachedt
hebanksofr
iverMer
eb.

I
nJul
y1872,Yohanneshadwr
it
tent
oKhedi
veI
smai
lal
ett
eri
nwhi
chhedef
inedhi
s
boundar
iesi
nthenor
thandcoast
alr
egi
ons.Heal
sodemandedt
hewi
thdr
awaloft
he
Egy
pti
ant
roopsf
rom hi
scount
ry.I
ntheabsenceofaposi
ti
ver
esponse,ont
hepar
tof
Egy
pt,Yohannest
urnedt
oseeki
ngEur
opeandi
plomat
ici
nter
vent
ion.Hesentl
ett
erst
o
t
her
uler
sofFr
ance,Ger
many
,Russi
a,Aust
ri
aand Br
it
ain.Hel
ett
hem know t
he
unl
awf
uli
nvasi
onofhi
scount
rybyEgy
ptandt
hei
ntent
ionoft
heEgy
pti
anr
uler
,ashe
cl
aimed,
toI
slami
zeandensl
avehi
speopl
e.Wi
thf
ull
conf
idence,
heexpr
essedhi
shope
t
hatChr
ist
ianEur
opeannat
ionswoul
dnott
oler
atet
he‘
Musl
i
m unj
ustat
tack’ona
Chr
ist
iannat
ionandr
equest
edf
airj
ust
icef
orhi
speopl
e.
Nonet
hel
ess,
theemper
or’
sexpect
ati
onofChr
ist
iansol
i
dar
it
ywasnomor
ethanwi
shf
ul
t
hinki
ng.Eur
opeansgav
edeafeart
ohi
spr
otest
.Consequent
ly,
Yohannesr
esor
tedt
oa
def
ensi
vewaragai
nstEgy
pt.On23Oct
ober1875,hei
ssuedamobi
l
izat
ionor
der
.In
command of20,
000 t
roops,Emper
orYohannes cr
ossed t
he Ri
verMer
eb.On 16
Nov
emberhef
oughtwi
tht
heEgy
pti
anar
myatt
hebat
tl
eofGundet
.Aboutt
wohour
sof
ef
fect
iveat
tackont
heenci
rcl
edEgy
pti
ant
roopsr
esul
tedi
nani
nst
antv
ict
oryf
or
Et
hiopi
ans.Col
onelAr
endr
upandabout1320Egy
pti
ant
roopswer
eki
l
ledi
nthebat
tl
e.A
l
argenumberofEgy
pti
ant
roopsandf
ir
ear
msf
ell
int
othehandsofEt
hiopi
ans.Al
though
Egy
pti
anssuf
fer
edahumi
l
iat
ingdef
eat
,Et
hiopi
anv
ict
oryatGundetdi
dnotr
esul
tint
he
r
est
orat
ionoft
heEt
hiopi
anr
egi
onsoccupi
edbyEgy
pti
anf
orces.I
nst
ead,Khedi
ve
I
smai
lbeganpr
epar
ati
onsf
oranot
herat
tackonEt
hiopi
atoav
engehi
sear
li
erset
back.
Thef
oll
owi
ngy
ear
,about15,
000wel
l
-ar
medEgy
pti
ant
roopsundert
hecommandof
MohammedRat
ibandt
heAmer
icanGener
alLor
ingi
nvadedEt
hiopi
ant
err
it
ori
esi
nthe
nor
th.Thust
hesecondEt
hio-
Egy
pti
anbat
tl
ewasf
oughton7-
9Mar
ch1876atapl
ace
knownasGur
a,notf
arf
rom Gundet
.

Thebat
tl
eofGur
aresul
tedi
nheav
ylossesonbot
hsi
des,
butonceagai
nvi
ctor
ywentt
o
Et
hiopi
ans.Wi
tht
hel
ossofabout3500deadand2500t
akenaspr
isoner
s,t
hesur
viv
ing
Egy
pti
ant
roopsr
etr
eat
ed.Et
hiopi
ans,
too,
lostabout4000deadbutwi
thnopr
isoner
sof
warl
ostt
otheenemy
.Et
hiopi
anscol
l
ect
edasi
gni
fi
cantboot
yofar
ms.Egy
pt'
smi
l
itar
y
def
eati
nEt
hiopi
ahadr
esul
tedi
nagr
avepol
i
ticalconsequencef
ort
hecount
ry.Thef
all
ofKhedi
veI
smai
lin1879andt
heBr
it
ishoccupat
ionEgy
pti
n1882wer
epar
tl
ythe
r
esul
tsoft
heEt
hio-
Egy
pti
anwar
.
Themi
l
itar
yvi
ctor
iesofGundetandGur
a,howev
er,f
ail
edt
obr
ingaboutsi
gni
fi
cant
gai
nst
oEt
hiopi
aconsi
der
ingt
her
easonsf
orwhi
cht
heywer
efought
.TheEgy
pti
ans
r
emai
nedi
ncont
rolofoccupi
edr
egi
onsandpor
ts.Yohannesdi
dnotwantt
ori
skhi
s
v
ict
orybycont
inui
nghi
sat
tackonEgy
pti
ant
roopswi
thanexhaust
edar
my.Heal
so
want
edt
oknow t
her
eact
ionoft
heEur
opeanpower
stot
hecr
isi
s.Thus,hepr
efer
red
post
poni
ngf
urt
herwarandpushi
nghi
svi
ctor
ytoi
tsl
ogi
calconcl
usi
on.I
nst
ead,he
onceagai
nchoset
otr
yapeacef
ulsol
uti
on.
Thest
ranget
hing,
int
hei
mmedi
atepost
-wary
ear
,wast
hatEgy
ptbehav
edl
i
keav
ict
or.
Al
though Et
hiopi
a showed an unr
eser
ved i
nter
estf
ora peacef
ulsol
uti
on,Egy
pt
pr
oposedt
ermsunaccept
abl
eforasov
erei
gncount
ryl
i
keEt
hiopi
a.Egy
ptdemanded
r
epar
ati
onpay
ment
,rel
easeofpr
isoner
sofwarandcessi
onofoccupi
edEt
hiopi
an
r
egi
ons.Theset
ermsmadet
heconcl
usi
onoft
heconf
li
ctbyaf
ormalpeacet
reat
yfar
f
rom bei
ngachi
evabl
e.Ev
ent
ual
l
y,aper
iodofnopeaceandnowarcont
inuedf
ort
he
nextei
ghty
ear
s.
Fr
om t
heear
ly1880s,howev
er,Egy
ptsoughtadi
plomat
ical
l
iancewi
thEt
hiopi
a.Two
ev
ent
saccount
edf
ort
hischangeofst
and.Fi
rst
ly,Egy
ptf
ellt
oBr
it
ishoccupat
ioni
n
1882.Secondl
y,t
her
iseofar
eli
giousr
evi
val
i
standnat
ional
i
stmov
ementi
ntheSudan
byt
he,Mahadi
sts,begant
odi
smant
leEgy
pti
ancont
roloft
hatcount
ry.St
art
ingf
rom
t
hewest
ernSudan,t
heMahdi
stat
tackdef
eat
edEgy
pti
ant
roopsi
ntheSudan.I
nthe
pr
ocess,someoft
heEgy
pti
anscoul
dnotmakei
toutoft
heSudan,r
athert
heywer
e
enci
rcl
edal
ongt
heEt
hio-
Sudanesebor
der
.Bot
hEgy
ptandi
tspr
otect
or,Br
it
ain,wer
e
notabl
etost
opt
heener
get
icMahdi
stat
tack.I
nst
eadt
heysoughtanot
hermeanst
o
r
eli
evet
het
rappedEgy
pti
ant
roops.Hence,t
heywant
edt
osi
gnapeacet
reat
ythat
woul
dendt
heEt
hio-Egy
pti
anconf
li
ct,andmakeuseofEt
hiopi
anassi
stancei
nthi
s
endeav
or.Tot
hisendaBr
it
ishenv
oy.Rear–Admi
ralSi
rWi
l
li
am Hewet
tsi
gnedat
reat
y,
l
atercal
l
edt
heHewet
tTr
eat
y,wi
thYohanneson3June1884.TheHewet
tTr
eat
yisal
so
known,f
rom t
henameoft
hepl
acewher
eitwassi
gned,ast
heAdwaTr
eat
y.I
tended
t
heEt
hio-
Egy
pti
anconf
li
ctt
hroughBr
it
ishdi
plomat
ici
nter
vent
ion.Thef
ir
stt
womaj
or
ar
ti
clesoft
hist
reat
ypr
omi
sedt
oEt
hiopi
afr
ee-
tr
ansi
tvi
athepor
tofMassawaand
r
est
orat
ionofoccupi
edr
egi
onst
oEt
hiopi
afol
l
owi
ngt
hewi
thdr
awalofEgy
pti
ant
roops.
Byt
het
hir
dar
ti
cle,
Ethi
opi
apr
omi
sedt
ofaci
l
itat
etheev
acuat
ionoft
heEgy
pti
ant
roops
f
rom t
hei
renci
rcl
edposi
ti
oni
neast
ernSudan,t
hroughEt
hiopi
ant
err
it
oryt
oMassawa,
andt
hent
oEgy
pt.

Ont
hesur
face,t
heHewet
tTr
eat
yseemedt
obemor
erewar
dingf
orEt
hiopi
athant
he
mi
l
itar
yvi
ctor
iesofGundetandGur
a.I
tpr
omi
sedr
est
orat
ionofoccupi
edr
egi
onsand
openi
ngaseaout
let
.Yohannest
huschoset
obecomeanal
l
yofEgy
pt.Butt
hisear
ned
Et
hiopi
aaser
iousenemy
,Mahdi
stsoft
heSudan.ForYohannes,
whatheneededf
urt
her
wasBr
it
ishdi
plomat
icsuppor
ttor
est
oret
hepor
tofMassawat
oEt
hiopi
a.Yohannes
wr
otet
oQueenVi
ctor
iaofEngl
andt
ohel
phi
m getbackMassawa.
Onhi
spar
t,i
nful
fi
ll
mentoft
het
ermsoft
heHewet
tTr
eat
y,Yohannesor
der
edRasAl
ula
t
orescuet
heEgy
pti
anar
myt
rappedi
ntheSudan.RasAl
ulaaccompl
i
shedhi
smi
ssi
on
f
ight
ingwi
thMahdi
stt
roopsatt
hebat
tl
eofKuf
iti
nJanuar
y1885.Howev
er,t
hisEt
hio-
Egy
pti
anal
l
iancepr
ovokedanumberofMahdi
stat
tacksonnor
th-
west
ernEt
hiopi
an
t
err
it
ori
es.TheMahdi
stsl
aunchedaser
iesofat
tackschar
act
eri
zedbyl
oot
ing,
mat
eri
al
dest
ruct
ionandensl
avementofpeopl
e.Egy
ptonl
ypar
tl
yful
fi
ll
edherpr
omi
se.Bogos
wasr
etur
nedt
oEt
hiopi
a,butMassawawashandedt
oIt
aly
.Egy
pti
ant
roopsal
so
wi
thdr
ew f
rom Taj
ura,Zei
l
a and Ber
ber
a.But
,shor
tl
yaf
tert
he wi
thdr
awaloft
he
Egy
pti
anst
hesecoast
alr
egi
onsf
alleasypr
eyt
ocol
oni
alEur
opeanpower
scompet
ing
i
nther
egi
on.TheBr
it
ish,
whohadal
readybeeni
ncont
rolofAdensi
nce1839,
occupi
ed
t
hepor
tsofZei
l
aandBer
ber
a.Theyexpandedi
ntot
hei
nter
iorandcr
eat
edt
hei
rcol
ony
ofBr
it
ishSomal
i
land.TheFr
enchdi
dthesameandf
ormedt
hei
rcol
onyofFr
ench
Somal
i
landbyexpandi
ngf
rom t
hei
r1862possessi
onofObock.Thepor
tofAssab
whi
chwaspur
chasedbyapr
ivat
eIt
ali
anShi
ppi
ngCompany(
theRubbat
inoCompany
)
i
n1869hadal
readybeent
akenbyt
hegov
ernmentofI
tal
yin1882.Agai
nstt
hecl
aim of
Yohannesandi
nvi
olat
ionoft
heHewet
tTr
eat
y,t
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmentsecr
etl
yinv
ited
I
tal
ytooccupyMassawa.I
tal
ytookcont
rolofMassawawhent
heEgy
pti
ansl
efti
ton5
Febr
uar
y1885.Ev
enwor
se,i
tbl
ockedi
mpor
tofar
mst
oEt
hiopi
a,col
l
ect
edheav
y
cust
omsdut
iesandbegant
oexpandi
ntot
hehi
ghl
andr
egi
onofMar
eb,Mel
ashof
pr
esentdayEr
it
rea.TheBr
it
ishwhowant
edt
ocheckt
heFr
enchexpansi
oni
ntheRed
Sear
egi
onwant
edt
ost
rengt
henI
tal
yandf
avour
edherexpansi
oni
nther
egi
on,whi
ch
wascont
rar
ytot
het
ermsoft
heHewotTr
eat
y.Howev
erYohannesdi
dnotgi
veuphope
ofadi
plomat
icsol
uti
on.Heonceagai
nwr
otet
oQueenVi
ctor
iapr
otest
ingt
hev
iol
ati
on
oft
het
reat
yandt
heunl
awf
ulI
tal
i
anadv
ancei
ntohi
ster
ri
tor
y.Hesoughtexpl
anat
ionon
whet
herornott
heBr
it
ishwer
ebacki
ngt
hisI
tal
i
anadv
ent
ure.Ther
esponseofBr
it
ain
wasnegat
ive.Yohanneswasadv
isedt
oli
vei
nlov
eandpeacewi
tht
hepower
ful
Ital
i
ans.

But
,in1888t
heMahdi
sts,agai
n,st
art
edat
tackst
hrought
hewest
ernbor
der
s.The
dangeri
ntensi
fi
ed i
n 1889.And Yohannest
urned t
owar
dst
heMahdi
stt
hreatand
mar
chedt
oMat
amma.Onhi
sway
,het
ri
edapeacei
nit
iat
ivebutt
her
ewasnoposi
ti
ve
r
esponseont
hepar
toft
heMahdi
sts.Warbecamei
nev
itabl
e,andon9Mar
ch1889t
he
Et
hiopi
anar
myandt
heMahdi
stt
roopsorAnsar
sfoughtatt
hebat
tl
eofMat
amma.
Despi
tei
nit
ialsuccesst
heEt
hiopi
ansl
ostt
hebat
tl
e,becauseYohanneswasf
atal
l
y
woundedandhi
sar
myr
etr
eat
ed.Yohannesdi
edt
henextday
.Hi
scor
psewasbeheaded
byt
heAnsar
sasasi
gnofMahdi
str
evengeandt
heyseemedt
obecont
ent
.Inanycase,
t
hey
,too,
hadsuf
fer
edheav
yloses.
I
mper
ialExpansi
ont
otheSout
h,Sout
h-WestandSout
h-East
Asy
ouhav
est
udi
edi
nyourpr
evi
ousl
essons,t
hepr
ocessofempi
rebui
l
dingwasan
agenda ofpr
ior
it
yforbot
h Tewodr
os I
Iand Yohannes I
V.Bot
h used di
ff
erent
appr
oachest
oachi
evet
hei
rgoal
sofnat
ionalr
euni
fi
cat
ion.Whi
l
eTewodr
osf
ail
ed,
Yohannes was r
elat
ivel
ysuccessf
uli
n bui
l
ding an empi
re wi
thr
egi
onaldy
nast
ies
enj
oyi
ngi
nter
nal
aut
onomy
.
Thepr
ocessofEt
hiopi
anempi
ref
ormat
ionwashowev
er,compl
etedunderEmper
or
Menel
i
kII
.Menel
i
khadl
ear
nedal
otf
rom t
heexper
iencesofhi
spr
edecessor
s.Att
he
r
ootofhi
sexpansi
onl
ayt
het
radi
ti
onali
nter
esti
nland,t
ri
but
eandcont
roloft
rade
r
out
es.

Menel
i
k’sexpansi
onwasdi
rect
edagai
nsti
ndependentpeopl
esandst
atesi
nthear
eaof
pr
esentsout
hwest
ern,
sout
her
nandsout
heast
ernEt
hiopi
a.Hi
sexpansi
onwasdi
ff
erent
f
rom t
hatofhi
spr
edecessor
sini
tsi
ntensi
tyandunpr
ecedent
eddegr
eeofsuccess.
Mor
eov
er,hi
ster
ri
tor
ialexpansi
oncoi
nci
dedwi
tht
hecol
oni
alexpansi
onofEur
opean
power
sint
heHor
nofAf
ri
ca.Hi
sconquest
sofbor
derr
egi
onsofpr
esent
-dayEt
hiopi
a
wer
e mar
ked byf
ier
ce compet
it
ion wi
th Eur
opean col
oni
alpower
s.Fi
nal
l
y,as a
cont
enderf
ort
het
hronef
ort
wodecades,Menel
i
kneededt
obui
l
duphi
smi
l
itar
y
muscl
ethr
ough conquestoft
he pr
osper
ous r
egi
ons ofsout
her
n Et
hiopi
a,whi
ch
possessedv
aluabl
eit
emsoft
rade.
Thepr
ocessofMenel
i
k'sexpansi
onbeganwhenhe
wasKi
ngofShoa.Fi
rst
,hesubduedt
heOr
omoofShoai
ntheear
ly1870s.Then,hi
s
ar
mygott
hepeacef
ulsubmi
ssi
onoft
henor
ther
nGur
agepeopl
eknownast
heKi
stane.
Thi
speacef
ulsubmi
sionwasar
esul
tnotonl
ytot
hei
rbei
ngco-
rel
i
gioni
sts(
Chr
ist
ians)
andt
hei
rgeogr
aphi
calpr
oxi
mit
yNor
ther
nShoa,butal
soowi
ngt
othei
rtr
adi
ti
onal
pr
otr
act
edwar
swi
tht
henei
ghbor
ingOr
omos.Thesi
tuat
ioni
nsout
her
nGur
age,mor
e
pr
oper
lyt
heSi
l
ti,was,howev
er,di
ff
erentf
rom t
hatoft
henor
th.Her
e,Menel
i
k’sar
my
f
acedf
ier
cer
esi
stancef
rom t
heMusl
i
m Gur
ageor
gani
zedunderal
ocall
eaderknown
asHassanEnj
amo.Ar
eli
giousr
evi
val
i
stmov
ementi
nfl
uencedbyt
heMahdi
stsandby
t
heMusl
i
m exi
l
esofWol
l
o,whohadf
acedt
hef
orcedconv
ersi
onedi
ctof1878by
Emper
orYohannesI
V,st
rengt
henedl
ocalr
esi
stanceamongt
heMusl
i
m Gur
age.Thus,
t
hisr
egi
onwassubduedbyt
hear
myofRasGobenaonl
yin1888af
tery
ear
sof
unsuccessf
ulr
esi
stance.
Ther
egi
onsbey
ondt
heGi
bebasi
nwer
eaboneofcont
ent
ionbet
weent
her
ivalt
roops
oft
het
woki
ngs,Menel
i
kofShoaandTakl
a-Hay
manotofGoj
j
am.Act
ual
l
y,t
hel
att
er
wasaut
hor
izedbyYohannesI
Vtoconquert
her
egi
onwi
tht
hei
ntent
ionofst
oppi
ngt
he
expansi
onofMenel
i
ktot
her
egi
on.Asar
esul
tthesout
hwest
ernr
egi
onsbecamea
bat
tl
egr
oundf
ort
het
wor
ivalki
ngs.Af
terami
norcl
ashbet
weent
hei
rtr
oopsi
nLi
mu,
a
deci
si
vebat
tl
ewasf
oughtatEmbabo(
inWal
l
aga)on6June1882i
nthepr
esenceof
t
het
woki
ngs.Thebl
oodybat
tl
ewasconcl
udedbyt
hev
ict
oryofMenel
i
kandt
he
capt
ivi
tyofTakl
a-Hay
manot
.Thus,
thebat
tl
eofEmbaboal
l
owedMenei
l
ikt
oest
abl
i
sha
f
ir
m cont
rolov
ert
hesout
hwest
ernr
egi
onwhi
chsubsequent
lywasgi
venr
ecogni
ti
onby
Emper
orYohannes.Menel
i
kfacednost
rongl
ocalr
esi
stanceher
e.Localr
uler
swer
e
per
suaded t
o accept peacef
ul i
ncor
por
ati
on and wer
e r
ewar
ded by i
nter
nal
admi
nist
rat
iveaut
onomy
.AbaJi
ff
arI
IofJi
mma,Jot
eTul
uofLeqaQel
l
am andKumsa
Mor
odaofLeqaNaqamt
ebel
ongt
othel
i
stofl
ocalr
uler
swhosubmi
tt
edpeacef
ull
y
wi
tht
hei
rlocal
aut
onomyr
espect
ed,
int
hey
ear
s1882-
84.

Ont
hecont
rar
y,t
hecampai
gnsofMenel
i
k’sar
myi
nthesout
handsout
heast
ernr
egi
ons
wer
ever
ycost
lyandbl
oody
.Ther
egi
onofAr
siwassubduedi
n1886af
terf
oury
ear
sof
st
ruggl
e,dur
ingwhi
chsi
xunsuccessf
ulmi
l
itar
yexpedi
ti
onswer
esentagai
nstt
hat
r
egi
on.Thef
inalbat
tl
eofAzul
ewaswonbyt
hear
myofRasDar
ge,t
hecousi
nof
Menel
i
k,duemai
nlyt
oit
ssuper
ior
it
yint
hepossessi
onofmoder
nfi
rear
ms.Thef
ateof
t
heEmi
rat
eofHar
arwasnoexcept
ion.I
twassubduedaf
tert
hebl
oodybat
tl
efought
bet
ween t
he ar
my ofMenel
i
k and Emi
rAbdul
l
ahiatChal
anqo,ear
lyi
n Januar
y
1887.
Aft
erHar
ar,t
heconquestofnew r
egi
onswast
empor
ari
l
yhal
ted unt
il1894.
Menel
i
kgav
epr
ior
it
yfi
rstt
ohi
sambi
ti
onf
ort
het
hrone,andaf
terhi
scor
onat
ion,t
odo
somet
hingaboutI
tal
i
ancol
oni
alexpansi
oni
nnor
ther
nEt
hiopi
a.Thus,hi
sconquest
s
af
terhebecameemper
orwer
emot
ivat
edbyt
heur
gentneedf
orpr
epar
ati
onagai
nst
I
tal
i
ancol
oni
ali
sm.Mor
eov
er,expansi
ont
othesout
hwasal
sosoughtasasol
uti
ont
o
t
hedev
ast
ati
ngGr
eatFami
ne(
1889-
92)al
soknownbyt
henameKef
uQan,whi
chhad
ser
iousl
yaf
fl
ict
edt
henor
ther
nandcent
ral
regi
onsofEt
hiopi
a.
Thei
mmedi
atecauseoft
hef
ami
nei
sat
tri
but
edt
oacat
tl
edi
sease,cal
l
edr
inder
pest
,
i
mpor
tedwi
thi
nfect
edcat
tl
efr
om I
ndi
a.Thecat
tl
eepi
demi
cspr
eadf
rom nor
tht
osout
h
andki
l
ledhundr
edsoft
housandsofcat
tl
eandmadef
armi
ngv
erydi
ff
icul
t.Thi
scaused
f
ami
net
hati
ntur
nledt
oepi
demi
cdi
seasecl
aimi
ngt
hel
i
feofl
argenumber
sof
Et
hiopi
ans.Thef
ami
necausedagr
eatdamagedi
srupt
ingpr
oduct
ionandt
rade.I
tal
so
causedagr
eatpopul
ati
onmov
ementf
rom nor
tht
osout
h.Menel
i
knotonl
yrecr
uit
ed
sol
dier
sfr
om sur
viv
orsoft
hef
ami
ne-
hitnor
ther
nregi
on,
butal
soset
tl
ednor
ther
ner
sin
t
her
elat
ivel
yli
tt
leaf
fect
edr
egi
onofsout
her
nEt
hiopi
a.
Oneoft
hear
easi
nthesout
h,whoser
ichr
esour
cesat
tr
act
edt
hear
myofMenel
i
k,was
Wol
ayt
a.TheconquestofWol
ayt
ain1894wasoneoft
hebl
oodi
estoft
hecampai
gns
ofMenel
i
k.Localpeopl
eundert
hei
rki
ngKawoTona,def
endedWol
ayt
afr
om t
he
combi
nedar
myofnot
abl
ewarl
eader
sofMenel
i
ksuchasRasMi
chael
,Fi
tawr
ari
Gebay
ehu,Li
qaMakwasAbat
e,Dej
achBal
cha,RasWol
da-Gi
orgi
sandAbaJi
farI
I.I
t
was,
ther
efor
e,abat
tl
ebet
weenunequal
s,whi
chr
esul
tedi
nimmensel
ossi
nhumanl
i
fe
andmat
eri
alweal
th,andt
hel
oot
ingoft
ensoft
housandsofheadsofcat
tl
ebyt
he
i
nvader
s.KawoTonawaswoundedandcapt
uredt
obecomeapr
isonerf
ort
her
estof
hi
sli
fe.Si
mil
arl
y,i
n1897 t
heol
d Ki
ngdom ofKaf
fawasi
ncor
por
ated af
tergr
eat
bl
oodshedi
nthewarbet
weent
hel
ocalpeopl
e,undert
hei
rrul
erTat
oGekiSer
echo,
and
t
hear
myofMenel
i
kunderRasWol
deGi
orgi
s.Fort
hecampai
gn,Wol
deGi
orgi
shad
enl
i
stedt
hesuppor
toft
hear
miesofRasDameseofWal
l
aga,
AbaJi
farI
IofJi
mma,
Ras
TasammaofI
ll
ubaborandt
her
uler
sofKul
l
oandKont
a.GekiSer
echowasdef
eat
ed
andcapt
uredaf
terni
nemont
hsoff
ugi
ti
vel
i
feandendedupi
npr
ison.

Thesuppor
tofl
ocalr
uler
sofnewl
yincor
por
atedr
egi
onsi
nthef
oll
owi
ngconquest
sof
Menel
i
kwasal
soev
identi
ntheconquestofAssosa,BeniShangulandKomoshaar
eas
al
ong t
he Et
hio-
Sudanese bor
der
.Her
e,Dej
ach Jot
e ofQel
em and Dej
ach Gebr
e
Egzi
abher(
bapt
ismalnameofKumsa)ofNaqamt
egav
emi
l
itar
ysuppor
ttot
hear
myof
RasMekonnen.Thedef
ect
ionofShei
kAbdur
ahmanHoj
alet
othesi
deofRasMekonen
abor
tedt
heuni
tedr
esi
stanceoft
hel
ocalpeopl
eagai
nstt
hear
myofMenel
i
k.Fol
l
owi
ng
t
heconquest
,Menel
i
krei
nst
atedl
oyalr
uler
stopowerasv
assal
s.Expansi
oni
ntot
he
bor
derr
egi
onsofBor
anaandOgaden,l
i
kewi
seal
ongt
hewest
ernbor
der
s,seemst
o
hav
ebeeni
ncompet
it
ionwi
tht
henei
ghbor
ingcol
oni
alpower
swhi
chhadadj
acent
col
oni
eswi
thEt
hiopi
a.

Menel
i
kwant
edt
ocr
eat
eabuf
ferzonebet
weent
hef
ert
il
eint
eri
orandnei
ghbor
ing
Eur
opeancol
oni
esbyconquer
ingbor
derl
owl
ands.Hi
sfamousmi
l
itar
yvi
ctor
yatt
he
Bat
tl
eofAdwai
ntensi
fi
edhi
scompet
it
ionwi
tht
hecol
oni
alpower
s,andbyt
het
urnof
t
he20t
hcent
uryhehadcompl
etedt
hepr
ocessofempi
ref
ormat
ion.
Thei
ncor
por
ati
on
oft
he sout
her
n,sout
hwest
ern and sout
heast
ernr
egi
ons i
nvol
ved bot
h peacef
ul
submi
ssi
ont
hroughper
suasi
onanddev
ast
ati
ngwar
sofconquest
.Thenat
ureoft
hei
r
admi
nist
rat
ionwasr
elat
edt
othewayt
heywer
eincor
por
ated.Regi
onst
hatr
esi
stedt
he
ar
myofMenel
i
kwer
etr
eat
edhar
shl
y.Localdy
nast
ieswer
eupr
oot
edandr
epl
acedby
appoi
nteesoft
hecent
ralgov
ernment
.Localpeopl
ewer
emost
lyal
i
enat
edf
rom t
hei
r
l
and.Theconquer
edpeopl
ewer
esubj
ect
edt
osev
ereeconomi
cexpl
oit
ati
onandbr
utal
t
reat
mentbyt
heset
tl
ersf
rom t
henor
thpr
otect
edbyanar
medmenknownast
he
Nef
tegnas.Regi
onst
hatof
fer
ednor
esi
stance,howev
er,f
acedl
i
ttl
edi
ff
icul
ty.Her
e,
l
ocalr
uler
sret
ainedt
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onalpowerandcont
inuedasv
assal
soft
heemper
or.
Howev
er,
nat
ional
oppr
essi
onwascommont
oal
lconquer
edpeopl
e.
Thepol
i
ticalst
abi
l
ityt
hatf
oll
owedt
heest
abl
i
shmentofanexpandedempi
ref
aci
l
itat
ed
t
her
evi
valofl
ocalandf
orei
gnt
rade.Addi
sAbabawasf
oundedbyEmpr
essTay
tui
n
Nov
ember1886,and became t
he cent
re ofgov
ernmentand economi
c act
ivi
ti
es.
El
sewher
eint
hesout
h,sout
h-westandsout
h-east
,asi
gni
fi
cantnumberofgar
ri
son
cent
ersoft
heexpandi
ngar
myofMenel
i
kev
olv
edi
ntoadmi
nist
rat
iveandcommer
cial
cent
ers.
6.
3.2I
tal
ianAggr
essi
onagai
nstEt
hiopi
aandt
heBat
tl
eofAdwa
Dur
ingt
hesecond–hal
foft
he19t
hcent
ury
,at
hir
dandmaj
orsour
ceofaggr
essi
on
agai
nstEt
hiopi
awasI
tal
y.I
tal
yhad col
oni
aldesi
gnsov
erEt
hiopi
a.Ther
efor
e,her
col
oni
alambi
ti
onsl
edhert
ooccupyt
err
it
ori
esi
nthenor
th,est
abl
i
sht
hecol
onyof
Er
it
reaandf
ightt
heBat
tl
eofAdwaagai
nstEt
hiopi
ain1896.
Fi
rstSt
ronghol
dsofI
tal
yinEt
hiopi
a
Asi
ndi
cat
edi
npagesabov
e,t
heI
tal
i
anGov
ernmentt
ookcont
rolofAssabf
rom t
he
Rusbat
inoShi
ppi
ngCompanyi
n1882.Then,i
n1885I
tal
yoccupi
edMassawa,and
beganat
tempt
stopenet
rat
eint
othei
nter
iorf
rom t
hecoast
.TheI
tal
i
anat
tempt
sto
encr
oachi
ntot
hehi
ghl
andsoft
heMer
ebMel
l
ash(
Eri
tr
ea)r
egi
onwasunaccept
abl
e
bot
htoEmper
orYohannesI
Vandhi
scommander
,RasAl
ulaEngi
da.Al
ulawasal
so
Gov
ernoroft
hepr
ovi
nceofMer
ebMel
l
ash.Ther
efor
e,t
heI
tal
i
anscamei
ntodi
rect
conf
li
ctwi
thYohannesandAl
ula.On26Januar
y1887Al
ula,atapl
acecal
l
edDogal
i
,
cr
ushedanI
tal
i
ancont
ingentconsi
sti
ngofabout500I
tal
i
ansol
dier
s,whi
chwer
egoi
ng
asr
einf
orcement
stot
heSaat
ifor
tresst
hathehadat
tempt
edt
oat
tack.Thi
swas
act
ual
l
ythef
ir
stser
iousbl
ow t
oIt
ali
ancol
oni
aladv
ancei
nEt
hiopi
a.Thus,i
tcr
eat
ed
gr
eatanxi
etyandpr
ovokedI
tal
i
andesi
ref
orr
evenge.I
tequal
l
yof
fendedt
heBr
it
ish
gov
ernment
.
Howev
er,whi
l
eIt
alywant
edmi
l
itar
yrev
enge,Br
it
aini
nter
venedasapeacebr
oker
,of
cour
se,onbehal
foft
heaggr
essor
.ABr
it
ishenv
oy,Ger
aldPor
tal
,metYohannesi
n
Nov
ember1887andpr
oposedawari
ndemni
tyf
orI
tal
y,of
fi
cialEt
hiopi
anapol
ogyf
or
Al
ula’
sat
tack,andcessi
onofoccupi
edcoast
alr
egi
onst
oIt
aly
.Por
tal
’
smi
ssi
onf
ail
ed.
Yohannesdecl
aredhi
schoi
ceofwarr
athert
hanacceptt
hesepr
oposedt
ermsofpeace.
He al
so wr
otet
o Queen Vi
ctor
ia condemni
ng Br
it
ish di
plomat
ic di
shonest
y and
unf
air
ness.RasAl
ula’
srej
ect
ionofconcedi
ngEt
hiopi
ant
err
it
oryt
oIt
alywasal
sof
ir
m
andmadewari
nev
itabl
e.Shor
tl
yaf
ter
war
dsEmper
orYohannescal
l
edhi
speopl
eto
ar
ms.
Wi
thi
naf
ew weeks,about80,
000menf
oll
owedYohannesonhi
smar
chacr
osst
he
Mer
ebr
ivert
ofi
ghtt
heI
tal
i
ansatt
hei
rfor
tressofSaat
iinMar
ch1888.TheSaat
i
conf
ront
ati
ondi
dnott
urnt
oact
ualf
ight
ing,howev
er,becauset
heI
tal
i
ansr
efusedt
o
comeoutoft
hei
rfor
ti
fi
edposi
ti
onandmeett
heEt
hiopi
anar
myi
ntheopenf
iel
d.A
deadl
ockwascr
eat
edt
hatl
ast
edf
oramont
h.TheEt
hiopi
anar
my,
consi
sti
ngl
argel
yof
peasant
sshor
tofsuppl
i
es,coul
dnotst
ayl
ongatSaat
i.Theyhadt
oret
urnhomet
o
t
hei
rfar
ms.Norwast
hesuppl
yofpr
ovi
sionsenought
okeepupt
heconf
ront
ati
onf
or
l
ong.Yohanneshadt
ochoosebet
weenr
etr
eatorst
ri
keont
heI
tal
i
ansi
nthei
rfor
tress.
Thear
ri
valofnewsf
rom t
heot
herdi
rect
ionr
educedt
heopt
ionst
oone.Yohanneswas
i
nfor
medoft
hedest
ruct
ivei
nvasi
onofMahdi
stt
roopsasf
arasGondar
,aswel
last
he
r
ebel
l
ionofNegusMenel
i
kandNegusTakl
a-Hay
manotagai
nsthi
m.Heal
sohear
d
aboutt
hef
ri
endl
yrel
ati
onsMenel
i
kofShoaandt
heI
tal
i
ans,
whi
chwasest
abl
i
shedon
t
hebasi
soft
heConv
ent
ionofNeut
ral
i
tyt
heysi
gnedi
nOct
ober
1887.Al
ltheset
hings,
combi
nedwi
tht
heun-
wil
l
ingnessofI
tal
i
anst
ocomeoutf
oranopenbat
tl
e,made
Yohannesdeci
det
opost
ponet
hewarwi
thI
tal
y.Hechosef
ir
stt
opuni
sht
hei
nter
nal
pl
ott
ersandt
henf
ightt
heMahdi
sts.
Yohannesat
tackedGoj
j
am f
ir
standaf
terabl
oodydest
ruct
iongott
hesubmi
ssi
onofi
ts
ki
ng.Thepl
ant
ofi
ghtMenel
i
kwasdr
opped,
howev
er.I
nst
ead,
theemper
orandMenel
i
k
madeanagr
eementt
ohel
peachot
heragai
nstt
hei
rcommonenemi
es.Bot
hhadmut
ual
i
nter
esti
npeace,becauseYohannesdi
dnotwantabl
oodyci
vi
lwaratat
imewhenhi
s
count
rywasi
nvadedbyt
wof
orei
gnenemi
es-t
heMahdi
stsandI
tal
y.Menel
i
k,t
oo,
r
eal
i
zedt
hemi
l
itar
ysuper
ior
it
yofYohannes.TheI
tal
i
ans,whoai
medatsubv
ert
ing
Menel
i
kagai
nstYohannes,hadal
readywonhi
sneut
ral
i
tyi
ntheev
entofwarbet
ween
t
hem andt
heemper
or.Thi
swasagr
eedi
ntheConv
ent
ionofNeut
ral
i
tysi
gnedi
n
Oct
ober1887,i
nwhi
cht
heypr
omi
sedt
ogi
veMenel
i
k5000r
if
les.Nev
ert
hel
esst
hese
r
if
leshadnotr
eachedMenel
i
k.Ther
efor
e,Menel
i
khadgoodr
easonnott
ofi
ghtwi
th
Yohannes.
6.
3.2.TheBi
rt
hoft
heI
tal
ianCol
onyofEr
it
rea
I
tisof
tencl
aimedt
hatt
heTr
eat
yofWuchal
e,si
gnedbet
weenEmper
orMenel
i
kandt
he
I
tal
i
anenv
oyCountPi
etr
oAnt
onel
l
ion2May1889,di
rect
lyl
edt
othecr
eat
ionoft
he
I
tal
i
ancol
onyofEr
it
ri
a.Butt
hatwaspr
ecededbyl
ongy
ear
sofI
tal
o-Shoanf
ri
endshi
p.
Theof
fi
cialcont
act
sbet
weenMenel
i
kandt
heI
tal
i
ansgoasf
arbackas1876,wi
tht
he
comi
ngt
oShoaofanI
tal
i
anGeogr
aphi
calSoci
etyl
edbyMar
qui
sO.Ant
inor
i.Ant
inor
i’
s
mi
ssi
onhadt
heobj
ect
iveofi
nvest
igat
ingt
hechancesf
orcol
oni
alexpansi
onundert
he
cov
erofsci
ent
if
icst
udy
.Asar
egi
oncl
oset
otheI
tal
i
anbaseatAssab,andsi
ncet
he
Shoan ki
ng was a r
ivalofEmper
orYohannes,Shoa was consi
der
ed as anot
her
appr
opr
iat
ebaseoral
l
yforI
tal
i
ancol
oni
alambi
ti
ons.Onhi
spar
t,Menel
i
kneededt
he
f
ri
endshi
pofI
tal
yasameansofacqui
sit
ionoff
ir
ear
msf
rom abr
oadwi
thwhi
chhe
coul
dfi
ghthi
swayt
othet
hrone.
Thus,
whi
l
eMenel
i
kgav
ear
est
ingpl
acenearAnkobercal
l
edLetMar
afy
atot
heI
tal
i
ans,
t
hel
att
eragr
eedt
opostanagentatAssabwhowoul
dbuyf
ir
ear
msf
orMenel
i
k.Thi
s
i
nit
ialal
l
iancewasf
urt
hercement
edbyt
heTr
eat
yofCommer
ceandFr
iendshi
p.Thi
s
t
reat
ywassi
gnedbet
weenKi
ngMenel
i
kandAnt
onel
l
iofI
tal
yinOct
ober1883.The
t
reat
yincl
udedpr
ovi
sionsaboutconsul
arexchangeandanagr
eementonf
reet
rade,
f
reemov
ementoft
hei
rnat
ional
sandf
reedom ofr
eli
giouspr
opagat
ion.Thet
hir
dIt
alo-
Shoant
reat
ycamei
n1887,f
oll
owi
ngt
heDogal
iInci
dentwhenI
tal
i
ansneededt
hehel
p
ofMenel
i
kmor
ethanheneededt
hei
rs.I
tappear
sthatt
heI
tal
i
anst
ri
edt
owi
nthe
consentofMenel
i
ktohel
pthem i
nfut
ureunav
oidabl
ewaragai
nstYohannes.Duet
ohi
s
unwi
l
li
ngnesst
ofi
ghtYohannes,
howev
er,
theI
tal
i
ansper
suadedhi
m atl
eastt
oremai
n
neut
ral
,i
ntheev
entofwarbet
weenI
tal
yandYohannes.Asi
ndi
cat
edabov
e,heagr
eed
t
othi
sthr
oughat
reat
ylat
ercal
l
edt
heConv
ent
ionofNeut
ral
i
ty,whi
chwassi
gnedi
n
Oct
obert
haty
ear
,1887.
Theabov
efr
iendl
yrel
ati
onsbet
weenMenel
i
kandt
heI
tal
i
ansseem t
ohav
ebeenbased
ont
hei
rint
eresti
nsecur
ingeachot
her
’ssuppor
tfort
heEt
hiopi
ancr
ownandcol
oni
al
expansi
on,r
espect
ivel
y.ThoughMenel
i
kdi
dnotsuppor
tIt
ali
ancol
oni
alexpansi
oni
n
pr
inci
ple,t
hepr
esenceofYohannesasanobst
acl
eonhi
swayt
othei
mper
ialt
hrone
gav
eMenel
i
kthedr
ivet
oseekt
hef
ri
endshi
pofI
tal
y.TheTr
eat
yofWuchal
e,al
though
si
gnedaf
terMenel
i
kdecl
aredhi
msel
femper
or,wasanext
ensi
onoft
hei
rol
dmut
ual
i
nter
estandf
ri
endshi
p.TheWuchal
eTr
eat
ywasdr
aft
edbyAnt
onel
l
iandsi
gnedby
Menel
i
kandAnt
onel
l
iinMay1889,
inMenel
i
k’scur
rentcamp,
inWol
l
o.
TheTr
eat
yofWuchal
ehadt
went
yar
ti
cles,
butt
het
wov
erysi
gni
fi
cantonesi
nter
msof
t
hei
rcont
ri
but
iont
othesubsequentI
tal
o-Et
hiopi
anconf
li
ctswer
ear
ti
clesI
IIandXVI
I.
Ar
ti
cleI
II
,del
i
mit
edt
heboundar
ybet
weenI
tal
i
an-
occupi
edr
egi
onsofMer
ebMel
ash
andt
her
estofEt
hiopi
a.Thev
il
lagesofAr
afai
l
i,Segenei
ti
,Asmar
a,AdiYohani
s-f
rom
eastt
owest
-ser
vedasaboundar
yli
nef
ort
heI
tal
i
anpossessi
ons.Thus,
theI
tal
i
ansgot
l
egalr
ecogni
ti
onov
ermuchoft
hel
owl
andandsomeoft
hehi
ghl
andr
egi
onsbey
ond
t
her
iverMer
eb.
Thet
err
it
ori
alcessi
onsofMenel
i
ktot
heI
tal
i
answer
efarf
rom sat
isf
act
oryt
otheI
tal
i
an
col
oni
aldr
eam.Theybegan,t
opushbey
ondt
hebor
der
sdef
inedi
nAr
ti
cleI
IIoft
he
Wachal
eTr
eat
y.Ev
enmor
etheycheat
edRasMekonnen,t
hecousi
nofMenel
i
k,who
wentt
oIt
alyt
ogett
her
ati
fi
cat
ionoft
hewhol
etr
eat
y.Theyper
suadedhi
mtosi
gnan
addi
ti
onalConv
ent
ionon1Oct
ober1889.Thi
swasai
medatadv
anci
ngf
urt
hert
owar
ds
t
heRi
verMer
ebundert
hecov
erofdel
i
mit
ingt
heboundar
y,ont
hebasi
sofef
fect
ive
occupat
ion.I
ndeed,agai
nstt
hepr
otestofMenel
i
k,t
heI
tal
i
ansoccupi
edt
hewhol
e
r
egi
onasf
arast
heMer
ebr
iver
,whi
cht
heydecl
aredast
hei
rcol
onyofEr
it
reaon1
Januar
y1890.
I
tal
ianAmbi
ti
onov
ert
heRestofEt
hiopi
a
Tomakemat
ter
sev
enwor
se,t
heI
tal
i
onspur
sued adi
plomat
iccampai
gnt
omaket
he
whol
eofEt
hiopi
athei
rpr
otect
orat
e.Tot
hisend,
theyusedacal
cul
atedcont
radi
cti
oni
n
t
heAmhar
icandI
tal
i
anv
ersi
onofAr
ti
cleXVI
Ioft
heWuchal
eTr
eat
y.TheAmhar
ic
v
ersi
onoft
hisar
ti
cler
eadst
hatEt
hiopi
acanuset
hehel
pofI
tal
yinherdi
plomat
ic
r
elat
ionswi
thot
herEur
opeanpower
s.Howev
er,t
heI
tal
i
ant
extcont
ainedanobl
i
gat
ory
commi
tmentofEt
hiopi
atouset
hegoodof
fi
cesofI
tal
yforherr
elat
ionswi
thEur
ope;
andt
her
ebyi
tdeni
edEt
hiopi
ahersov
erei
gnt
y.Fur
thermor
e,I
tal
ynot
if
iedt
hegr
eat
power
sofEur
opet
hat
,byAr
ti
cleXVI
Ioft
heWuchal
eTr
eat
y,Et
hiopi
ahadbecomean
I
tal
i
npr
otect
orat
e.
Menel
i
klear
nedoft
heI
tal
i
ant
ri
ckswhenr
esponset
ohi
slet
ter
s,wr
it
tendi
rect
lywi
thout
t
heknowl
edgeofI
tal
y,camef
rom Br
it
ainandGer
many
.Int
hesel
ett
ersf
rom Eur
opehe
wasadv
isedt
ocont
actt
hem onl
ythr
oughhi
s“pr
otect
or”
.Thi
sledt
oamaj
orf
ri
cti
on
bet
weenI
tal
yandEt
hiopi
a.Menel
i
kwr
otet
oKi
ngUmber
toofI
tal
ypr
otest
ingagai
nst
t
heI
tal
i
ancl
aim.Heaskedt
heI
tal
i
angov
ernmentt
ocor
rectAr
ti
cleXVI
I.I
tal
ywasnot
wi
l
li
ngt
ocor
recti
t.Menel
i
k,howev
er,t
urnedt
oawi
derdi
plomat
iccampai
gn,andi
n
Apr
il1891hedi
spat
chedaci
rcul
arl
ett
ert
oal
lEur
opeanpower
s.Hei
nfor
medt
hem
aboutI
tal
i
andi
plomat
icdi
shonest
yandt
hathehadnoobl
i
gat
iont
orespectI
tal
i
an
pr
otect
orat
eri
ght
s.ThatwasbecauseEt
hiopi
awasi
ndependentandnotapr
otect
orat
e
ofI
tal
y.Ev
enmor
e,hedef
inedt
heEt
hiopi
anboundar
yasext
endi
ngasf
arast
hesea.
AndMenel
i
krequest
edt
hehel
pofChr
ist
ianpower
stogetatl
eastanout
lett
othesea.
Butt
her
ewasno hel
pfr
om Chr
ist
ian Eur
ope.On i
tspar
t,t
heI
tal
i
an gov
ernment
f
oll
owedt
het
winpol
i
ciesofper
suasi
onandsubv
ersi
oni
nEt
hiopi
a.Thef
ir
str
efer
sto
t
heI
tal
i
anunsuccessf
ulef
for
ttoi
nduceMenel
i
ktoagr
eet
otheI
tal
i
anv
ersi
onofAr
ti
cle
XVI
I.Thi
sef
for
twascompl
etel
yabor
tedwhen,i
nFebr
uar
y1893,Menel
i
kabr
ogat
ed
(
cancel
l
ed)
the Tr
eat
y ofWuchal
e.I
tal
i
an subv
ersi
ve act
ivi
ti
es among di
ssat
isf
ied
nobl
esdi
d,howev
er,hav
eini
ti
alsuccessmai
nlyi
nnor
ther
nEt
hiopi
a.Fori
nst
ance,by
t
heMer
ebConv
ent
ionofDecember1891,
theI
tal
i
ansachi
evedt
het
empor
arydef
ect
ion
oft
heTi
greanchi
efsundert
hel
eader
shi
pofRasMengeshaYohannes,t
heper
son
chosenbyEmper
orYohannesashi
ssuccessor
.

Nonet
hel
ess,t
he subv
ersi
ve act
ivi
ti
es oft
he I
tal
i
ans pr
oved a compl
etef
ail
ure.
Et
hiopi
ancol
l
abor
ator
soft
heI
tal
i
anssoonunder
stoodt
hehi
ddencol
oni
almot
iveof
t
heI
tal
i
ans.Thi
sbecameev
enmor
ecl
ear
,wi
thI
tal
i
anr
aci
stat
ti
tudesi
ntheset
tl
ement
pat
ter
noft
hei
rci
ti
zensi
nEr
it
rea.Thef
ir
stsi
gni
fi
cantbl
ow t
othesubv
ersi
vepl
anof
I
tal
ycamei
nJune1894,whenRasMengeshaandRasAl
ular
enewedt
hei
rloy
alt
yto
Menel
i
k.Ev
enwor
sef
ort
heI
tal
i
ans,i
nDecember1894,Dej
azmachBaht
aHagos,t
hei
r
f
ormercol
l
abor
atorandgov
ernorofAkal
eGuzayi
nEr
it
rea,st
art
edapeasantr
ebel
l
ion
agai
nstt
heI
tal
i
ans.Thi
srebel
l
ionwassuppr
essed,buti
tgav
ethespar
ktoanar
med
r
esi
stance t
hat
fol
l
owed agai
nstI
tal
i
an col
oni
ali
sm.Ras Mengesha and Ras Al
ula
cr
ossedt
her
iverMer
ebandf
oughtt
heI
tal
i
ansatQoat
itandSenaf
eear
lyi
n1895.Asa
r
evenge,t
heI
tal
i
anar
myi
nvadedt
hewhol
eofTi
gray
,inSept
ember1895.I
tal
yopenl
y
begant
ousemi
l
itar
ymeanst
oreal
i
zet
hedr
eam ofbecomi
ngacol
oni
almast
erov
er
Et
hiopi
a.
Ont
heEt
hiopi
ansi
de,t
hei
nev
itabi
l
ityofwarhadal
readybecomeobv
ious.Apar
tfr
om
t
heEmper
or,hi
swi
feEmpr
essTay
tuher
sel
fwasanadv
ocat
eofanar
medsol
uti
ont
o
t
heI
tal
i
andi
plomat
icdi
shonest
y.Thus,
Menel
i
kbeganpr
epar
ingf
ort
hef
inal
showdown
wi
thI
tal
y.I
nter
nal
l
y,hecont
inuedhi
sexpansi
oni
ntot
hepr
osper
ousr
egi
onsofpr
esent
daysout
her
nEt
hiopi
a,mai
nlyt
obui
l
duphi
shumanandmat
eri
alr
esour
ces,
asy
ouhav
e
seeni
nthepr
ecedi
ngpages.I
nter
nat
ional
l
y,Meni
l
ikdi
dhi
sbestt
owi
nal
l
iesmai
nlyf
or
t
hei
mpor
toff
ir
ear
ms,par
ti
cul
arl
yfr
om Fr
anceandRussi
a.On17Sept
ember1895,
Menel
i
kissuedamobi
l
izat
ionor
deri
nwhi
chhest
atedt
heI
tal
i
anunl
awf
uli
nvasi
onof
hi
scount
ry.Hegotaposi
ti
ver
esponsef
rom hi
speopl
ewhi
chenabl
edhi
mtol
eadan
ar
myofabout100,
000r
ecr
uit
edf
rom al
lcl
auses,et
hni
cgr
oupsandr
egi
onsi
ncl
udi
ng
t
henewl
yconquer
edar
easofsout
h,sout
hwestandsout
heast
.
I
ndeed,
Menel
i
kledauni
tedEt
hiopi
aagai
nstI
tal
y.AnI
tal
i
anwr
it
erwhosawt
heposi
ti
ve
r
esponse of sol
dier
s,peasant
s,y
oung and ol
d,men and women,f
or Meni
l
ik'
s
mobi
l
izat
ionor
derwr
ote,
Itl
ooksasi
fthewhol
epopul
ati
on wasmov
ingf
orwar
.The
t
henbi
shop and t
hecl
ergyt
hemsel
vesaccompani
ed t
hear
myt
othebat
tl
efi
eld.
Empr
essTay
tuhadst
art
edpr
epar
ati
onf
orwarsi
ncel
ongago.Shehadgat
her
ed
womeni
nthe pal
acet
opr
epar
efood,dr
ink,ut
ensi
l
s,t
radi
ti
onalmedi
cines,bandages,
et
c.Shehadal
readysentmessages t
oherv
assal
sofnor
ther
nEt
hiopi
atosuppl
y
f
oodt
othear
mywhi
l
epassi
ngt
hrought
hei
rrespect
iver
egi
ons.Sheal
somobi
l
izedan
ar
myof5000t
roopsunderhercommand,andf
oll
owedherhusbandt
othecampai
gn.
Thet
otalnumberofEt
hiopi
anwomenwhowentt
oAdwai
snotexact
lyknown.Butone
Fr
enchwr
it
err
epor
tedt
hatt
her
ewer
eabout1200women.Thesewomennotonl
ygav
e
mor
alsuppor
ttot
he combat
ant
s,butal
so gav
e ser
vice as f
ight
ers,nur
sing t
he
wounded,
suppl
yi
ngf
oodanddr
inkst
ofi
ght
ers,
clear
ingr
oads,
guar
dingcamps,
etc.
TheBat
tl
eofAdwa
Bef
oret
hef
inaldeci
si
veencount
eratAdwa,t
heI
tal
i
anandt
heEt
hiopi
ant
roopsf
ought
att
wopl
aces.Thef
ir
stbat
tl
ewasf
oughton7December1895atAmbaAl
age,i
n
sout
her
nTi
gray
,bet
weenacont
ingentoft
heEt
hiopi
anv
anguar
dfor
cel
edbyFi
tawr
ari
Gebey
ehuandanI
tal
i
anf
orceundert
hecommandofMaj
orTosel
l
i.TheI
tal
i
answer
e
compl
etel
ydef
eat
edandl
ostabout2000t
roops,i
ncl
udi
ngMaj
orTosel
l
ihi
msel
f,f
rom
t
het
otalof2350I
tal
i
anst
roops.Localsour
cessuggest286deadandabout300
woundedont
heEt
hiopi
ansi
de.Thus,t
heI
tal
i
answer
efor
cedt
oret
reatnor
thwar
dst
o
t
hei
rst
rongf
ort
if
icat
ionatMaqal
ewhi
chwasdef
endedby4cannons.
Undert
hecommandofRasMakonnen,t
heEt
hiopi
anar
my,whi
chconsi
stedoft
he
combi
nedt
roopsofdi
ff
erentr
egi
onall
ords,enci
rcl
edt
heI
tal
i
anf
ort
ressofMaqal
e.
At
tacksont
heenemybeganl
aterwhenMenel
i
kreachedt
hef
ort
ress,butt
hisbr
ought
noi
mmedi
atesuccesssi
ncet
heI
tal
i
anshadbui
l
tast
rongf
ort
ressdi
ff
icul
ttobr
eaki
nto.
Meanwhi
l
e,t
heEt
hiopi
anar
mywasadv
isedt
ocont
rolasmal
lst
ream neart
hef
ort
ress,
whi
chwasasour
ceofwat
erf
ort
heI
tal
i
ant
roops.Theaut
horoft
hist
act
ici
ssai
dto
hav
ebeenEmpr
essTay
tu;andi
ndeedt
hest
ream wast
hencont
rol
l
edby900sol
dier
s
f
rom herowncont
ingent
.Bet
ween7-
21Januar
y1896,Maqal
l
ewasundersi
ege.The
I
tal
i
anar
myst
ati
onedt
her
esuf
fer
edagr
eatdealf
rom shor
tageofwat
er.TheI
tal
i
ans
wer
efor
cedt
osur
rendert
hef
ort
ress.Menel
i
kal
l
owedt
heI
tal
i
ansasaf
eev
acuat
ion.
Thatwasdonenotonl
yhopi
ngf
orapeacef
ulsol
uti
onf
ort
heconf
li
ct,
butal
soasapl
an
t
oadv
ancef
urt
herwi
thi
nTi
grayundert
hecov
erofapeacegest
ure,i
fthewarwast
o
cont
inue.
TheI
tal
i
ansdi
dnot
,howev
er,
agr
eet
oanypeace.About20,
000t
roopsf
ormedi
ntof
our
br
igades,undert
hesupr
emecommandofGener
alOr
est
eBar
ati
eri
,wer
ereadyf
orwar
.
Hal
foft
heI
tal
i
ant
roopsconsi
stedofaskar
isf
rom Er
it
rea.Numer
ical
l
y,t
heI
tal
i
anar
my
wasonl
yonef
if
thoft
heEt
hiopi
ans.Butt
heI
tal
i
anshadt
headv
ant
ageofbet
ter
f
ir
ear
mst
hanEt
hiopi
ans.Theyhad al
so moder
ntr
aini
ng and pr
ofessi
onalmi
l
itar
y
l
eader
shi
p.Thr
ee I
tal
i
an br
igades wer
eled by Gener
als Al
ber
tone,Ar
imondiand
Dabor
midar
espect
ivel
y.Gener
alAl
ber
tonewasi
nchar
geoft
her
ear
guar
d.Despi
te
goodpr
epar
ati
ons,howev
er,t
heI
tal
i
anmi
l
itar
yleader
shi
phadnoexactknowl
edge
aboutt
henumberandt
het
act
icsoft
heEt
hiopi
anar
my.Ther
oleoft
hel
ocalpeopl
eas
doubl
eagent
stobot
htheI
tal
i
ansandt
heEt
hiopi
ansi
dewasv
eryhel
pfult
othe
Et
hiopi
anar
my.Theyhel
pedbypr
ovi
dingf
aul
tyi
nfor
mat
iont
otheenemy
.Fori
nst
ance,
SundayMar
ch1,
1896,t
hedayofcommemor
ati
onofSt
.Geor
ge,wassel
ect
edast
he
dat
eoft
hemaj
orbat
tl
e,af
tert
woweeksoft
ensi
onandconf
ront
ati
onbet
weent
he
Et
hiopi
anandt
heI
tal
i
ant
roops.Thi
sdeci
sionwasmadebyGener
alBar
ati
erimi
sledby
awr
ongadv
icebyt
hedoubl
eagent
s.Adel
usi
veadv
icet
hatEt
hiopi
anar
miesnev
erf
ight
onhol
i
day
swasgi
vent
ohi
m byBashaAwal
om,
(adoubl
eagent
).Thegener
alwasal
so
t
oldofi
nter
nal
conf
li
ctsamongt
hegener
alsofMenel
i
kandshor
tageoff
oodamonghi
s
t
roops.
AtAdwa,t
hebat
tl
ebeganatdaybr
eakon1Mar
ch1896wi
tht
heI
tal
i
anst
ri
keont
he
Et
hiopi
an camp.An ext
remenl
ybl
oodybat
tl
ewasf
oughtunt
ilmi
d-af
ter
noon.The
Et
hiopi
anar
myf
oughtbr
avel
yandscor
edasmashi
ngv
ict
ory
.TheI
tal
i
ansl
ostabout
7000oft
hei
rmendead,2500badl
ywoundedand3500madepr
isoner
sofwar
.The
Et
hiopi
anar
myal
sosuf
fer
edheav
ycasual
i
tiesbutwi
thnopr
isoner
sofwar
.Losi
ngt
he
bat
tl
e,Bar
ati
erior
der
edagener
alr
etr
eatandhi
ssur
viv
ingt
roopscl
ear
edoutoft
he
whol
epr
ovi
nceofTi
gray
.TheI
tal
i
andr
eam ofr
educi
ngEt
hiopi
atoacol
onyendedi
n
f
ail
ure.Ther
efor
e,I
tal
ywasl
eftonl
ywi
thhercont
rol
overEr
it
rea.
Fact
orsf
ort
heEt
hiopi
anv
ict
oryatAdwawer
eIt
ali
anf
aul
tyr
eadi
ngofmaps,f
alse
i
nfor
mat
ion f
rom l
ocal“
spi
es”
,under
est
imat
ion ofEt
hiopi
an uni
ty,wr
ong mi
l
itar
y
st
rat
egyandpoorl
eader
shi
p.MuchofMenel
i
k’sar
mywasal
sowel
lequi
ppedwi
thgood
i
mpor
tedf
ir
ear
ms.Ther
ewasser
iousl
ackofcoor
dinat
ionamongt
hedi
ff
erentI
tal
i
an
br
igades.Ont
hecont
rar
y,t
heEt
hiopi
anshadt
headv
ant
ageofst
ronguni
ty,st
rong
mor
aleandcommi
tmentt
othecauseofEt
hiopi
a’
ssov
erei
gnt
y.Ther
ewasef
fi
cientco-
or
dinat
ionamongt
hedi
ff
erentt
roopsofr
egi
onall
ords.Themor
alsuppor
trender
edby
t
hecl
ergy
,women,mi
nst
rel
s(t
radi
ti
onalsi
nger
s),et
c,andt
hepr
operknowl
edgeof
t
opogr
aphyal
socont
ri
but
edagr
eatdeal
tot
hev
ict
oryofEt
hiopi
ant
roops.
TheConsequencesandHi
stor
ical
Signi
fi
canceoft
heAdwaVi
ctor
y
-Expl
aint
henat
ional
signi
fi
canceoft
heAdwav
ict
ory
.
Et
hiopi
aent
eredt
het
went
iet
hcent
uryasoneoft
hev
eryf
ew i
ndependentnat
ionsi
n
Af
ri
ca.Li
ber
ia,andunt
il1911-
12Mor
occo,wer
etheot
heri
ndependentst
ates;t
hough
Li
ber
iadi
dnotf
ightanywarofi
ndependenceasEt
hiopi
adi
d.Howev
er,i
tmustbe
r
emember
ed,t
hatapar
tofEt
hiopi
ant
err
it
ory(
Mer
ebMel
l
ashEr
it
rea)r
emai
nedi
n
I
tal
i
anhands,whenEt
hiopi
aent
eredt
het
went
iet
hcent
ury
.Thesov
erei
gnst
atusof
Et
hiopi
agoti
nter
nat
ionalr
ecogni
ti
on.Thi
srecogni
ti
onwasexpr
essedi
ntwoway
s.
Fi
rst
ly,di
ff
erentpower
sopenedt
hei
rlegat
ionsi
nAddi
sAbaba:I
tal
y(1896)
,Br
it
ainand
Fr
ance (
1897)
,the USA (
1903)
,Ger
many(
1905)
,et
c.Secondl
y,Eur
opean power
s
possessi
ngcol
oni
esadj
acentt
oEt
hiopi
adel
i
mit
edt
hei
rrespect
ivecommonboundar
ies
bet
weenEt
hiopi
aandt
hei
rcol
oni
es,
int
hey
ear
sbet
ween1897-
1908.Thi
sgav
ebi
rt
hto
t
hepr
esentshapeofEt
hiopi
a.
Adwaseemst
ohav
edr
awnt
heat
tent
ionoft
hei
nter
nat
ionalcommuni
tyt
oEt
hiopi
a,t
he
count
ryt
hathadscor
edt
hef
ir
stmaj
orbl
ackv
ict
oryov
ert
hewhi
tes.I
tist
ruet
hati
n
sout
her
nAf
ri
cat
heZul
ushadal
soscor
edav
ict
oryi
nabat
tl
eagai
nstwhi
tesi
nthat
cent
ury
.Butal
thought
heZul
ushaddef
eat
edanddest
roy
edaBr
it
ishf
orcei
n1879at
I
sandhl
wana,Br
it
ainsucceededi
nwi
nni
ngt
heov
eral
lZul
uWar
.Ont
heonehand;
j
our
nal
sandnewspaper
spubl
i
shedi
nEur
opef
orsomeweeksaf
terAdwapr
oducedt
he
pi
ctur
esofMenel
i
kandTay
tuont
hei
rfr
ontpages.Theycr
it
ici
zed,f
rom manyangl
es,
t
he“
tragedy
”(f
orI
tal
y)oft
hel
ossoft
hecol
oni
albat
tl
e.Ont
heot
herhand,af
terAdwa,
f
orei
gn t
rav
eler
s,mer
chant
sand ot
herEur
opeansf
rom di
ff
erentnat
ionscame t
o
Et
hiopi
a.Ther
efor
e,t
heAdwav
ict
oryhasbeenasy
mbolofnat
ionalpr
ide.I
ndeed,
ithas
made succeedi
ng gener
ati
ons of Et
hiopi
ans mor
e det
ermi
ned t
o guar
d t
he
i
ndependenceoft
hecount
ryatal
lcost
s.Theef
fectofmi
l
itar
ydef
eatf
orI
tal
yont
he
ot
herhand,wasdi
sast
rous.I
tcr
eat
edapr
ofoundshock,andanxi
etyi
nIt
alyandt
her
e
wer
ewi
despr
eaddi
stur
bances.I
nmaj
orci
ti
esofI
tal
y,t
her
ewer
edemonst
rat
ions,
some
oft
hem bear
ingsl
ogansl
i
ke,Vi
vaMenel
i
k!Vi
vaTay
tu!
.Thedemonst
rat
orsdemanded
t
hecour
t-
mar
ti
alofGener
alBar
ati
eri
,ther
eleaseofI
tal
i
anpr
isoner
sofwarandt
he
wi
thdr
awalofI
tal
yfr
om Af
ri
ca.Thegov
ernmentofCr
ispi
,theI
tal
i
anPr
emi
er,f
ellami
d
abuseandser
iouscr
it
ici
sm.I
nconsequence,
Cri
spir
esi
gnedi
mmedi
atel
y.Bar
ati
erihad
t
oleav
ethear
myandendedupi
npr
ison.
AnI
tal
i
andi
plomat
icmi
ssi
oncamet
oEt
hiopi
aandsi
gnedt
heTr
eat
yofAddi
sAbaba
wi
thEmper
orMenel
i
kon26Oct
ober1896.Thet
reat
yconcl
udedt
heI
tal
i
o-Et
hiopi
an
di
sput
e.I
tal
yagr
eedt
othecancel
l
ati
onoft
heWuchal
eTr
eat
yandr
ecogni
zedt
he
compl
etei
ndependenceofEt
hiopi
a.Et
hiopi
a,t
oo,agr
eedt
othecont
inuat
ionofI
tal
i
an
col
oni
alcont
rolov
erEr
it
reaandt
her
eleaseofI
tal
i
anpr
isoner
sofwar
.Ofcour
se,t
he
gov
ernmentofI
tal
ydi
dnotwi
thdr
awf
rom Af
ri
ca,despi
tet
heant
i-
col
oni
ali
stpr
otestat
home.Buti
twasf
orcedt
oreducet
hecol
oni
albudgetf
orsomey
ear
sandpost
ponedi
ts
col
oni
alambi
ti
onsi
nEt
hiopi
a.

TheechoofAdwawasv
erywel
lhear
dinBr
it
ainaswel
l
.Theconcer
nBr
it
ainshowedt
o
t
hisbl
ackv
ict
oryagai
nstawhi
tecol
oni
alpowerwasunder
standabl
e.Br
it
ainhadmany
col
oni
esi
nAf
ri
cai
ngener
al,andwasacol
oni
alnei
ghborofEt
hiopi
a,i
npar
ti
cul
ar.
Mor
eov
er,t
hesuccessoft
heBr
it
ishpl
anofbl
ocki
ngpossi
bleexpansi
onofFr
ance
t
owar
dst
heWhi
teNi
l
ebecamequest
ionabl
ewi
tht
hedef
eatI
tal
ysuf
fer
ed.Ther
efor
e,
Br
it
ainwasf
orcedt
orev
iseherf
ormerpol
i
cyofwai
tandseewi
thr
egar
dtoMahdi
st
Sudan(
1885-
96)
.Asar
esul
ttheBr
it
ishgov
ernmenthast
enedt
oconquerSudani
nthe
nameofEgy
pt,andaj
ointar
myofBr
it
ainandEgy
pti
nvadedt
heSudani
n1896.The
Bat
tl
eofOmdur
man(
1898)mar
kedt
hef
alloft
heMahdi
stst
ateandt
heest
abl
i
shment
oft
heso-
cal
l
edAngl
o-Egy
pti
anCondomi
nium r
uleov
ert
heSudan.
Nonet
hel
ess,
thi
sBr
it
ishsuccessdi
dnotst
opt
heFr
enchf
rom mov
ingt
otheWhi
teNi
l
e,
si
mul
taneousl
yfr
om westandeastAf
ri
ca.Menel
i
kwant
edt
oexpl
oitt
heAngl
o-Fr
ench
r
ival
ryov
ert
heWhi
teNi
l
eforhi
sownpl
anofexpandi
nghi
sempi
re.Fr
om westAf
ri
ca,
a
Fr
enchCapi
tai
nnamedMar
chandl
edanexpedi
ti
ont
otheupperNi
l
e.Asmal
lFr
ench
f
orceunderMar
chandandal
argeBr
it
ishf
orcef
acedeachot
heratapl
acecal
l
ed
Fashodai
ntheSudani
n1898.Bl
oodshedatFashodaandwarbet
weenBr
it
ainand
Fr
ancewer
eav
oidedbyt
hewi
thdr
awal
oft
heFr
ench.Thi
slef
tSudant
othecol
oni
alr
ule
ofBr
it
ain,t
houghi
twascal
l
edAngl
o-Egy
pti
anSudan.Thus,i
tcoul
dsaf
elybesai
dthat
t
hef
earandanxi
etyt
heAdwav
ict
orycr
eat
edamongEur
opeancol
oni
ali
stspr
eci
pit
ated
t
hecol
oni
zat
ionofSudan,anAf
ri
cannei
ghborofEt
hiopi
a.Anot
herexpr
essi
onoft
he
v
aluegi
vent
oAdwav
ict
oryasat
orch-
bear
erofbl
acknat
ional
i
stst
ruggl
ewast
he
emer
genceofr
eli
gioussepar
ati
stmov
ement
scol
l
ect
ivel
yknownasEt
hiopi
ani
sm.At
f
acev
alue,t
hemov
ementseemedr
eli
gious,usi
ngsuchnamesl
i
keCopt
ic,Aby
ssi
nian
andEt
hiopi
an.Theessenceoft
hemov
ementwas,howev
er,f
ir
mresi
stanceagai
nst
whi
tedomi
nat
ion.
Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswer
sfr
om t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.I
nthest
ruggl
eforpowerbet
weenEmpr
essZewdi
tuandRasTef
ari
,whosuppor
ted
t
heempr
ess?
A.TheShoannobi
l
ity C.They
oung
B.Commer
cial
class D.Peasant
2.Theper
iodbet
ween1916and1930_
___
___
___
___
_.
A.sawt
her
iseofabsol
uti
sm
B.dual
rul
ebet
weenEmpr
essZewdi
tuandRasTef
ari
C.ani
ncr
easi
ngofdecent
ral
i
zat
ion
D.wasmar
kedbycont
inuousci
vi
lwar
s
3.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
egi
onwel
comedMenel
i
kpeacef
ull
y
A.Wol
ait
aandkawoTona C.Har
arandAbdul
hai
B.Kef
faandGaki
Ser
echo D.Ji
mmaandAbbaJi
far
4.Et
hio-
It
ali
anr
elat
ionr
eachedi
tscl
i
maxdur
ing
A.Conv
ent
ionofNeut
ral
i
tyi
n1887
B.Et
hio-
Menel
i
kfr
iendshi
pin1876/
83
C.Wuchal
etr
eat
yof1889
D.Af
terbat
tl
eofAdowaandAddi
sAbabat
reat
y
5._
___
__wasanAmer
icanwargener
alf
oughtagai
nstYohanni
sIvbei
ngst
affof
Egy
pti
anatt
hebat
tl
eofGur
a
A.Gener
alKi
tchener C.Geneal
Kil
ntonAr
rendr
up
B.Genner
alWi
nnerMuzni
ger D.Gener
alLor
ing
6.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngbat
tl
eaf
fect
edt
hef
orei
gnpol
i
cyofTewodr
osI
I?
A.Maqdal
a B.Der
essgeC.Ay
shalD.Debar
qi
7.Themai
nissuedi
scussedi
nthear
ti
cleXVI
IofWuchal
etr
eat
yofMay1889was
A.Ther
ightanddut
iesofI
tal
i
anr
esi
dent
sinEt
hiopi
a
B.Howt
ofaci
l
itat
etr
adebet
weent
het
wocount
ri
es
C.Et
hiopi
a’
srel
ati
onwi
thnei
ghbor
ingcount
ri
es
D.Ther
oleofI
tal
yinEt
hiopi
a’
sfor
eignr
elat
ion
8.Themai
nobj
ect
iveofMenel
i
k’st
err
it
ori
alexpansi
oni
nthepostAdwaper
iod(
1896-
1906)wast
o
A.Cr
eat
ebuf
ferbet
weenEt
hiopi
aandEt
hiopi
an
B.Cont
rol
areast
hatar
eri
chi
nnat
ural
resour
ces.
C.St
rengt
henhi
smi
l
itar
ypoweri
nrel
ati
ont
oEur
opeans
D.Rei
ncor
por
atet
hemedi
eval
Ethi
opi
ant
err
it
ori
es
9.Et
hiopi
aagr
eementofhel
pint
hesaf
eev
acuat
ionoft
rappedEgy
pti
anar
myv
ia
Massawat
oEgy
ptwasst
ipul
atedi
nar
ti
clesof
A. Wuchal
etr
eat
yof1889
B. Bur
umedconf
erenceof1878
C. Addi
sAbabat
reat
yof1896
D. Adwat
reat
yof1884
10.
Whatl
edt
otheov
ert
hrowofI
yasuf
rom hi
spol
i
tical
poweri
n1916?
A.Desi
ret
ounder
minet
heEt
hiopi
aor
thodoxr
eli
gion
B.Conv
ersi
ont
oIsl
am
C.Conf
li
ctwi
tht
heTur
ksandt
heGer
mans
D.Conf
li
ctwi
tht
heShewannobi
l
ity
11.
Theconst
it
uti
onof1931wasdesi
gnedt
o
A.gr
antpol
i
tical
Right
stot
hepeopl
e
B.r
est
ri
ctt
hei
nfl
uenceoft
hechur
ch
C.i
ncr
easedt
hepoweroft
henobi
l
ity
D.gr
antl
egal
groundf
ort
hepowert
othemonar
chy
12.
Whi
chst
atementbestdescr
ibest
hepr
obl
em ofsuccessi
oni
near
ly20t
hecent
ury
Et
hiopi
a?
A.Thecount
rywasdi
stur
bedbyi
nter
nal
powerst
ruggl
e
B.Et
hiopi
ahadpeacef
ulr
elat
ionwi
thf
orei
gnpower
s
C.I
nter
nal
peacehadl
ast
edl
onger
D.Et
hiopi
awaspol
i
tical
l
ydi
sint
egr
ated
13.
Whatwast
her
eact
ionofEmper
orMenel
i
ktopr
obl
emsar
osedur
inghi
sIl
l
ness?
A.Heest
abl
i
shmentofacounci
lofMi
nist
ers
B.Heof
fi
ci
all
yannouncedRasTef
ari
asr
egent
C.Heappoi
ntedHabt
eGi
orgi
sGov
ernorofSi
dama
D.Heopenedembassi
esi
nEur
ope.
14.
Whatwasmai
ncausef
orout
breakofKi
fuQan(
1888-
92)
A.Fami
neB.Dr
oughtC.Cat
tl
eepi
demi
csD.I
tal
i
ansi
nvasi
on
15.
Whydi
dTewodr
osI
Ifai
li
nhi
sreal
i
zat
ionofat
tempt
edr
efor
ms,
Because
A.Ther
efor
mswer
etoor
adi
cal
B.TheEur
opeansdi
dnotsuppor
thi
m
C.Heconsi
der
edt
obeani
l
legi
ti
mat
erul
er
D.Hef
acedst
if
fresi
stancef
rom t
hechur
chandr
egi
onal
lor
ds
16.
Whi
ch oft
he f
oll
owi
ng measur
esofAt
seYohanni
sIV br
oughtt
otalopposi
ti
on
agai
nsthi
m?
A.Admi
nist
rat
ivedecent
ral
i
zat
ionandr
eli
giouscent
ral
i
sm
B.Rel
i
giousdecent
ral
i
zat
ionandpol
i
tical
cent
ral
i
zat
ion
C.Absenceofr
eli
gioust
oler
ati
onandi
nsecul
ari
sm
D.Hi
sfav
orf
orBr
it
ishdi
plomacyandsaf
eev
acuat
ionoft
rappedEgy
pti
ans.
17.
Theenmi
tybet
weent
heMahadi
stsandemper
orYohanni
sIVbeganaf
ter
A.Et
hiopi
atookawayGal
l
abati
ntheSudanf
rom t
hem.
B.Et
hiopi
adef
eat
edt
hei
rinv
adi
ngar
mynearGondar
C.Et
hiopi
aal
l
iedwi
thFr
anceandI
tal
yagai
nstt
hem.
D.Et
hiopi
ahel
pedEgy
pti
anssur
roundedbyt
hem t
oescape
18.
Whydi
dEmper
orYohannesI
Vnott
akeanyact
ionagai
nstt
hechal
l
engeofMenel
i
k
i
mmedi
atel
yaf
terhi
scor
onat
ioni
n1872?
A.Tosol
vehi
sconf
li
ctwi
thMenel
i
kpeacef
ull
y.
B.Tomeetf
ir
stext
ernal
thr
eatf
rom Egy
pt
C.Tost
rengt
henhi
spowerbef
oref
aci
ngMenel
i
k
D.Toi
sol
ateMenel
i
kfr
om hi
snor
ther
nsuppor
ter
s
19.Whatwasnotf
act
orf
ort
hedef
eatofEt
hiopi
ant
roopsbyFasci
stf
orcesi
n1935-
36?
A.I
tal
i
ansai
rsuper
ior
it
yanduseofmust
ardgas(
yipr
ir
ght
)
B.Et
hiopi
anspoormi
l
itar
ylogi
sti
candl
ackofCoor
dinat
ion’
s
C.Compet
it
ionexi
stedamongPat
ri
otsi
nor
dert
ohel
dthr
oneoft
heemper
orwho
exi
l
ed
D.
Lackofenoughgeogr
aphi
cal
knowl
edgeandupdat
edi
nfor
mat
ionaboutI
tal
i
ans
19.
Whi
chonedi
dTewodr
osI
Iachi
evedi
near
lyt
imesofhi
srei
gn
A.Abol
i
shmentofsl
aver
yandsl
avet
rade
B.Compl
eti
onoff
ormi
ngmoder
nempi
re
C.Est
abl
i
shmentNat
ional
armi
esandi
ntr
oducedsal
aryandt
it
le
D.Repeat
edv
ict
oryov
err
egi
onal
Lor
ds
20.
All
oft
hef
oll
owi
ngar
eissuespassedbyt
het
reat
yofl
i
chagr
eementexcept
.
A.Yohanni
srecogni
zedki
ngMenel
i
kasr
ulerofShoa
B.Menl
i
kagr
eedt
opayannual
tri
but
etoYohanni
s
C.Yohanni
sagr
eedt
ost
opt
it
leki
ngofki
ng
D.Menel
i
kagr
eedt
ost
opi
ndependentcont
actwi
thf
orei
gner
s
21.
Ethi
opi
aagr
eementofhel
pint
he saf
eev
acuat
ionoft
rappedEgy
pti
anar
myv
ia
Massawat
oEgy
ptwasst
ipul
atedi
nar
ti
clesof
A.
Wuchal
etr
eat
yof1889 B.Bur
umedaconf
erenceof1878
C.Addi
sAbabat
reat
yof1896D.Adowat
reat
yof1884
22.
Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
scor
rectaboutt
hecounci
lofBor
umeda?
A.I
tfaci
l
itat
edt
heout
breakofMusl
i
mresi
stancel
edbyShay
khTol
ha
B.Et
hiopi
anMusl
i
mswer
eal
l
owedt
opr
act
icet
hei
rfai
thf
air
ly.
C.AmedeLi
banandMohammedAl
irej
ect
edconv
ersi
ont
oChr
ist
iani
ty.
D.Soset
li
detandTewahdower
edecl
aredasof
fi
cial
doct
ri
nes
 23.
Oneoft
hef
oll
owi
nghadnor
elev
ancet
othel
ong-
dist
ancet
radeofEt
hiopi
aint
he
19thcent
ury
.
A.Thewi
deuseofpapermoney
B.Exchangeofi
deasandbel
i
efsamongpeopl
etr
ader
elat
ions
C.Connect
ingt
hei
nlandt
radewi
thseaoutl
ets
D.Gener
ati
ngar
medconf
li
ctsf
ormonopol
yoft
rader
out
es
24.
Ther
eignofTewodr
osI
Iwaschar
act
eri
zedby
A.Pol
i
tical
l
yuni
tedandPeacef
ulChr
ist
ianempi
re
B.Br
it
ishcol
oni
aloccupat
ionofEt
hiopi
a
C.Chur
ch-
stat
econf
li
ctemanat
edf
rom t
hel
andr
efor
m ofTewodr
os
D.Compl
eti
onoft
hepr
ocessofempi
ref
ormat
ion
25.
Bri
ti
shdi
plomat
ici
nter
vent
ioni
nEt
hiopi
aonbehal
foft
heaggr
essornat
ionwas
ev
identf
ir
sti
n
A.Gor
don’
smi
ssi
onB.Napi
er’
sexpedi
ti
onC.
Hewet
ttr
eat
yD.
Por
tal
’
smi
ssi
on

26.
Wrongl
ink
A.MohammedRaufpashaZei
l
atoHar
ar
B.Munzi
nger
Taj
urat
oAf
ar
C.Ar
rendr
upAdul
i
stoAxum
D.MohammedRat
ti
pPashaandGener
alLor
ing ToGur
a
27.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngbat
tl he19thcEt
esoft hiopi
awasbet
weent
wor
egi
onal
lor
ds
A.Thebat
tl
eofDeber
qi C.Thebat
tl
eofDogal
e
B.Thebat
tl
eofEmbabo D.Thebat
tl
eofKuf
it
29.
Themai
nobj
ect
iveofMenel
i
k’st
err
it
ori
alexpansi
oni
nthepostAdwaper
iod(
1896-
1906)
was
A.ToCr
eat
ebuf
ferbet
weenEt
hiopi
aandEt
hiopi
an
B.ToCont
rol
areast
hatar
eri
chi
nnat
ural
resour
ces.
C.ToSt
rengt
henhi
smi
l
itar
ypoweri
nrel
ati
ont
oEur
opeans
D.ToRei
ncor
por
atet
hemedi
eval
Ethi
opi
ant
err
it
ori
es
30.
Egy
pti
anaggr
essi
onov
erEt
hiopi
awasencour
agedbyal
loft
hef
oll
owi
ngdev
elopment
s
except
A.SuccessofBr
it
ishatEur
oghei
n1868Consi
der
edEt
hiopi
aasweak.
B.Theybel
i
evedt
hati
nter
nalpol
i
ticalt
urmoi
landr
egi
onalr
ival
ri
esf
oll
owed
deat
hofTewodr
osweakenedEt
hiopi
a.
C.TheOpeni
ngofSuezcanal
asst
rat
egi
candeconomi
cadv
ant
age
D.Real
i
zedt
hatEur
opeansmi
ghtnotassi
stedEt
hiopi
a
31.
Aper
iodofnowar
,nopeaceendedwhen
A.Hewet
ttr
eat
ysi
gned C.Bat
tl
eofGur
a
B.Massawar
est
oredt
oEt
hiopi
a D.Mahadi
stdef
eat
edatKuf
it
32.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwasani
mmedi
ater
esul
tofEt
hiopi
ansv
ict
oryatt
hebat
tl
eof
Adwa?
A.Popul
arcal
li
nIt
alyf
orr
evengeagai
nstEt
hiopi
aVi
ademonst
rat
ion
B.Ther
ecogni
ti
onofEt
hiopi
ani
ndependencebyI
tal
i
ans.
C.Of
fi
cial
decl
arat
ionbyI
tal
ythati
twoul
dendi
tscol
oni
aladv
ent
uresi
nAf
ri
ca
D.Thesi
gni
ngofanagr
eementt
ofi
xtheboundar
ybet
weenEt
hiopi
aandEr
it
rea
CHAPTERSEVEN
Maj
orGl
obalDev
elopment
s
7.
1TheTwoWor
ldWar
s
I
.Thebasi
ccausesoft
heFi
rstWor
ldWarwer
e:
A.I
mper
ial
i
str
ival
ri
es
B.Col
oni
ali
sm
C.Mi
l
itar
ism
D.Cr
eat
ionofmi
l
itar
yal
l
iances(
bol
cs)E.Nat
ional
i
sm
A.I
mper
ial
ism andr
ival
ryf
orcol
oni
es
Oneoft
hebasi
ccausesoft
heFi
rstWor
ldWarwast
heeconomi
candpol
i
ticalr
ival
ri
es
amongi
ndust
ri
ali
zednat
ionsofEur
ope.Theeconomi
candpol
i
ticalr
ival
ri
eswer
ethe
r
esul
toft
hedev
elopmentofcapi
tal
i
sm.Thedev
elopmentofcapi
tal
i
sm gav
eri
set
oan
i
ntenseeconomi
ccompet
it
ionamongt
hemaj
orpower
sofEur
opet
oest
abl
i
shand
expandempi
res.I
nEur
opecount
ri
esl
i
keGer
many
,Fr
ance,Br
it
ain,Aust
ri
a-Hungar
y,
Russi
aandI
tal
ycompet
edoneanot
herov
ereconomi
cint
erest
s,t
err
it
ory
,recogni
ti
on,
gr
eatpowerst
atusandpr
est
ige.Al
lexceptAust
ri
a-Hungar
yandRussi
aal
socompet
ed
out
sideEur
opef
ort
hecont
rolofov
erseascol
oni
alpossessi
ons.Thesedev
eloped
count
ri
es al
so compet
ed f
orr
aw mat
eri
als,new oppor
tuni
ti
es ofi
nvest
mentand
pr
ofi
tabl
emar
ketf
ort
hei
rfi
nishedgoods.
Thi
sconf
li
cti
ngi
nter
est
sandov
erl
appi
ngambi
ti
onsi
nev
itabl
yledt
hem t
ocl
ashes.On
sev
eraloccasi
onsbef
ore1914conf
li
cti
ngi
nter
est
sdr
ewsev
eralEur
opeancount
ri
est
o
t
hebr
inkofal
arge-
scal
ewar
.Fori
nst
ance,Fr
anceandBr
it
ainwer
einbadt
ermswhen
Br
it
ainest
abl
i
shedauni
l
ater
alcont
rolov
erEgy
pti
n1882.Ther
elat
ionbet
weent
hese
t
wocount
ri
eswentf
rom badt
owor
sewhi
chcul
minat
edi
ntot
heFashodacr
isi
sof1898,
i
ntheSudanwher
ethesear
miesoft
het
wocount
ri
eswer
eaboutt
ofi
ght
.In1911and
1912,
Ital
yandTur
keyf
oughtf
ort
hecont
rolofLi
bya.Ger
manyandFr
ancewer
eont
he
v
ergeoff
ight
ingf
ort
hecont
rolofMor
occo.Br
it
ainl
ateri
nter
venedont
hesi
deof
Fr
ancei
n1911.Thi
sinci
dentcamet
obeknownast
heAgadi
rCr
isi
s.Theseandot
her
si
mil
ari
nci
dent
sfur
therst
rai
nedt
heexi
sti
ngt
ensi
on.
B.Mi
li
tar
ism andt
hear
msr
ace
Thegr
owi
ngcont
radi
cti
onsandst
rai
nedr
elat
ionscr
eat
edasenseofi
nsecur
it
yamong
Eur
opeanpower
s.Att
het
urnoft
hecent
ury
,thel
eadi
ngEur
opeanpower
swer
eina
st
ate off
ier
ce compet
it
ion t
o gett
hemsel
ves ahead oft
hei
rri
val
sint
erms of
ar
mament
sandmi
l
itar
ypower
.Themai
nsubj
ectofdi
scussi
oni
nmanypar
li
ament
sof
Eur
opewast
hei
ssueofmi
l
itar
ybudget
.
Fr
ance,
aft
erherdef
eati
ntheFr
anco-
Prussi
anwar(
1870-1871)wasbusi
l
yengagedi
n
bui
l
dinghermi
l
itar
ypower
.TheFr
enchnat
ional
i
stscr
it
ici
zedt
hegov
ernmentf
ort
he
def
eatFr
ancesuf
fer
ed.Mor
eov
er,
theydemandedt
hegov
ernmentr
egai
nthepr
ovi
nces
ofAl
saceandLor
ri
anewhi
cht
heyl
ostt
oGer
manyi
n1871.Fol
l
owi
ngi
tsuni
fi
cat
ion
Ger
manybecameoneoft
hemostpower
fulcount
ryi
nEur
ope.I
nor
dert
omai
ntai
nit
s
posi
ti
on,
Ger
manyi
ncr
easedi
tsmi
l
itar
ybudgetmor
ethanev
erbef
ore.
Ear
lyi
nthe19t
hcent
uryGer
manyexpandedhernav
y,mucht
othedel
i
ghtandpr
ideof
Ger
mannat
ional
i
stsandt
otheal
arm oft
heBr
it
ish.Br
it
ain'
seconomydependedonher
t
rader
out
es.Thesaf
etyoft
heser
out
esdependedont
hest
rengt
hoft
heRoy
alNav
y,t
he
Br
it
ishNav
alf
orce.Ar
emar
kabl
eachi
evemental
ongt
hisl
i
neswast
hef
actt
hatBr
it
ain
bui
l
tthemostpower
fulbat
tl
eshi
pin1906.Ont
heot
herhand,
aft
ert
hreey
ear
s,i
n1909,
Ger
manyal
sobui
l
tasi
mil
arbat
tl
eshi
p.
TheEur
opeanpower
scar
eful
l
yassessedeachot
her
'sst
rengt
hint
ermsofar
med
f
orces.Theyi
ncr
easedt
hesi
zeoft
hei
rrespect
ivear
miesandi
mpr
ovedt
hei
rwar
mat
eri
als.I
nal
mostal
lcount
ri
esofEur
ope,
nat
ionalmi
l
itar
yser
viceshadbeenmadea
st
andi
ngobl
i
gat
ionf
orci
ti
zens.I
naddi
ti
ont
otheset
her
ewaspr
opaganda,whi
ch
st
ir
redupt
henat
ional
feel
i
ngsofeachci
ti
zen.
C.Cr
eat
ionofmi
li
tar
yal
li
ance
Af
tert
heFr
anco-Pr
ussi
anwar
,Bi
smar
ckf
oll
owedapol
i
cyofi
sol
ati
ngFr
ance.Heput
t
hispol
i
cyi
ntoef
fectbyappr
oachi
nghi
sfor
merenemy
,Aust
ri
a-Hungar
y,i
n1879.
Aust
ri
aHungar
yandGer
manyconcl
udedat
reat
yoff
ri
endshi
pthatcamet
obeknown
ast
he“
DualAl
l
iance”
.Thr
eey
ear
slat
erI
tal
yjoi
nedhandswi
thmember
soft
heDual
Al
l
iancet
ofor
m ast
rongermi
l
itar
ybl
occal
l
ed“
Tri
pleAl
l
iance”
.
Thef
ormat
ionoft
heTr
ipl
eAl
l
iancecr
eat
edf
earont
hepar
tofot
herEur
opeanpower
s.
I
n1907
Br
it
ain,Fr
anceandRussi
asi
gnedaf
ri
endl
yunder
standi
ngi
nwhatwasl
atercal
l
edt
he
“
Tri
pleEnt
ent
e”.ThusEur
opewasdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wohost
il
emi
l
itar
ycamps.I
nbot
hbl
ocs
t
hemember
spl
egedt
hemsel
vest
ogi
vemi
l
itar
yai
dincaseofaggr
essi
onagai
nstone
oft
hemember
s.Howev
er,Br
it
ain’
scommi
tmentwasnotcl
earand f
ormalt
oit
s
par
tner
s.I
tal
ywasal
sounr
eli
abl
ememberoft
heTr
ipl
eAl
l
iance.Of
cour
seI
tal
yst
ayed
asmemberoft
heTr
ipl
eAl
l
ianceonl
yunt
il1915.Shej
oinedt
heTr
ipl
eEnt
ent
eint
hat
y
ear
.D.Nat
ional
i
sm
I
nni
net
eent
hcent
uryEur
ope,nat
ional
i
sm pr
ovedt
obet
hemai
nsour
ceofar
med
conf
li
cts.I
nIt
alyandGer
manynat
ional
i
sm hadachi
evednat
ionaluni
ty.Buti
thad
af
fect
edot
herEur
opeancount
ri
esi
nsomeway
s.Fori
nst
ance,t
heGer
manuni
fi
cat
ion
hadhumi
l
iat
edt
heFr
enchpeopl
e.Af
tert
hisv
ict
oryov
erFr
ancei
ntheFr
aco-
Prussi
an
war(
1870-1871)Ger
manyf
orcef
ull
ytookt
heFr
enchpr
ovi
ncesofAl
saceandLor
ri
ane.
Mor
eov
er,
thecor
onat
ionofWi
l
hel
m(Wi
l
lhel
m)Iast
heEmper
orofUni
tedGer
manywas
conduct
edi
ntheFr
enchpal
aceofHal
lofMi
rr
orsatVer
sai
l
les.Thi
scr
eat
edadesi
ref
or
r
evengeamongt
heFr
enchandwai
tforanoppor
tunet
imet
oregai
nthei
rlostpr
ovi
nces.
Mor
ethananypar
tofEur
ope,nat
ional
i
sm andnat
ionaldi
scont
entwasv
eryhi
ghi
nthe
Bal
kanr
egi
on.Thi
smadet
her
egi
onast
orm cent
eratt
heev
eofWWI
.Begi
nni
ngf
rom
t
he1820s,t
hepeopl
eoft
heBal
kanshad f
oughtwar
sofl
i
ber
ati
on agai
nstt
hei
r
oppr
essor
,Ot
tomanTur
key
.Asar
esul
t,f
iveBal
kanst
atesnamel
y;Gr
eece,Bul
gar
ia,
Rumani
a,Ser
biaandMont
enegr
oappear
edont
hemapofEur
opeasi
ndependentst
ates.
Howev
er,manyoft
hesest
atesf
eltt
hatt
hei
rindependencewasi
ncompl
ete.Thi
swas
because a l
arge numberoft
hei
rfel
l
ow nat
ional
sin pr
ovi
nces such as Bosni
a,
Her
zegov
inaandMacedoni
a.Thef
ir
stt
wopr
ovi
nceswer
eunderAust
ri
a-Hungar
y’s
cont
rol
since1878.Theot
her
,Macedoni
awasst
il
lpar
toft
heOt
tomanEmpi
re.
Russi
asuppor
tedSer
bian,nat
ional
i
sm andwi
thRussi
anappr
ovalt
heBal
kanst
ates
Ser
bia,Mot
enegr
o,Bul
gar
iaandGr
eecef
ormedaLeaguewhatwasknownast
he
Bal
kanLeague.I
ntheFi
rstBal
kanWarof1912t
heBal
kanLeaguedef
eat
edOt
toman
Tur
keyandt
ookMacedoni
a.Shor
tl
yaf
ter
,member
soft
heLeaguequar
rel
edamong
t
hemsel
vesov
ert
hedi
vi
sionoft
het
err
it
orywhi
cht
heyacqui
redf
rom Ot
tomanTur
key
.
Thi
squar
rell
edt
otheSecondBal
kanWarof1913.Asar
esul
toft
hiswar
,Bul
gar
ial
ost
al
mostal
lhergai
nsf
rom t
hef
ir
stBal
kanWar
.Ser
biabecamebi
ggerandst
rongerand
now want
edBosni
a,whi
chwasst
il
lpar
tofAust
ri
a-Hungar
y.Thi
sbecamet
hemai
n
causef
ort
hequar
relbet
weenAust
ri
a-Hungar
yandSer
biat
hatf
inal
l
yledt
otheout
br
eakoft
heFi
rstWor
ldWar(
W.W.
I)
.
TheBal
kancr
isesof1912-1913br
oughtRussi
aandSer
biacl
osert
oget
her
,and
i
ntensi
fi
edt
hehat
redofRussi
aandSer
biaf
orAust
ri
a.
I
I.Thei
mmedi
atecauseoft
hewar
Thei
mmedi
atecausef
ort
heout
breakoft
heFi
rstWor
ldWarwast
heassassi
nat
ionof
t
heAust
ri
ancr
ownpr
ince,Ar
chdukeFr
anzFer
dinandandhi
swi
feSophi
eonJune
28,
1914,atSar
ajev
o,t
hecapi
talofBosni
a.Theassassi
nwasGav
ril
oPr
inci
p,a19-
y
ear
s-ol
dSer
bnat
ional
i
st.Al
thought
heassassi
nat
iondi
dnott
akepl
acei
nSer
bia,
Aust
ri
a-Hungar
yhel
dtheSer
biangov
ernmentr
esponsi
ble.Thi
swasbecauseoft
he
exi
sti
ngt
ensi
onbet
weent
het
wot
hatr
esul
tedf
rom t
hecont
inuousSer
biannat
ional
i
st
agi
tat
ionagai
nstAust
ri
a.Bef
oret
aki
nganyact
ionagai
nstSer
bia,
Aust
ri
a-Hungar
ysent
herenv
oyt
oGer
manyt
oknowt
heat
ti
tudeofGer
manyr
egar
dingt
hesi
tuat
ion.Emper
or
Wi
l
hel
m IofGer
manyassur
edt
heenv
oyt
hatGer
manywoul
dsuppor
tanyact
ionAust
ri
a
-
Hungar
ymi
ghtt
akeagai
nstSer
bia.Thi
sst
atementofassur
anceGer
manygav
eto
Aust
ri
a-Hungar
ycamet
obeknownasadi
plomat
ic'
'
BlankCheque'
'
.Thus,Aust
ri
a-
Hungar
ysentan ul
ti
mat
um t
o Ser
bia.Ser
biar
efused t
o accepta demand whi
ch
appear
edt
ovi
olat
eit
sSov
erei
gnt
y.Thi
swast
hedemandf
ort
hei
nvol
vementofAust
ri
a-
Hungar
y'
sof
fi
cial
sint
hei
nvest
igat
ionoft
heassassi
nat
ionandt
rai
loft
heassassi
n.
Aust
ri
a-Hungar
ydecl
aredwaronSer
biaonJul
y28,1914.Fol
l
owi
ngt
hedecl
arat
ionof
waronSer
bia,t
heEur
opeanpower
sinhost
il
emi
l
itar
ybl
ocsj
oinedt
hewaroneaf
ter
anot
her
.Russi
a,whi
chconsi
der
edher
sel
ftobet
hepr
otect
oroft
heSl
avsandOr
thodox
st
atesoft
heBal
kan,
cameont
hesi
deofSer
bia.Russi
aal
sowant
edt
ouphol
dhergr
eat
poweri
nter
est
sandpr
est
igei
ntheBal
kanr
egi
onandst
art
edwarmobi
l
izat
ionor
der
.In
r
esponset
oRussi
a'
swarmobi
l
izat
ion,Ger
manysentanul
ti
mat
um t
oRussi
aandt
hen
t
oFr
ance.Russi
aref
usedt
ohal
tit
smobi
l
izat
ionandFr
ancer
efusedt
opr
omi
set
he
neut
ral
i
tyr
equi
redf
rom her
.
Fol
l
owi
ngt
hesedev
elopment
,Ger
manydecl
aredwarf
ir
stonRussi
aandt
henonFr
ance,
on1August1914and3August1914r
espect
ivel
y.Br
it
ainhadnotdeci
dedwhet
hert
o
st
ayneut
ralorj
oini
nthewaront
hesi
deofRussi
aandFr
ance.Howev
er,Ger
many
i
nvadedBel
gium onAugust3,1914,anact
ionwhi
cht
hreat
enedBr
it
ain'
sownsecur
it
y.
Br
it
aindecl
aredwaronGer
manyandheral
l
iesonAugust4,1914.Br
it
ain’
sdecl
arat
ion
ofwar
,mar
kedt
heof
fi
ci
albegi
nni
ngsoft
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
.
TheCour
seoft
heWar
Thewarwasf
oughtbet
weent
womaj
ormi
l
itar
ybl
ocs-t
heAl
l
iedpower
sandt
hecent
ral
power
sbyt
heendof1914t
hewar
ri
ngnat
ionshadl
i
nedupasf
oll
ows
Al
li
edpower
s Cent
ralpower
s

Br
it
ain,
blocl
eade Ger
many
,bl
ocl
eader

Fr
ance Aust
ri
a-Hungar
y

Russi
a,unt
il1917 Bul
gar
ia

Bel
gium Tur
key

Ser
bia
I
tal
y(j
oinedi
n1915)

USA(
joi
nedi
n1917)

Japan

TheFi
rstWor
ldWarwasf
oughti
ndi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
hewor
ld.Howev
er,t
hemai
n
t
heat
reoft
hewarwasEur
ope.I
nEur
opet
hewarwasf
oughtont
wof
ront
s:west
ernand
East
ern.Thecent
ralPower
s,si
tuat
edi
nbet
weent
heBr
it
ishandFr
enchf
orcesi
nthe
WestandRussi
aint
heEast
,wer
ecompel
l
edt
ofi
ghtont
wof
ront
s.Thi
swast
he
si
tuat
ionwhi
chGer
manyhadpl
annedt
oav
oidi
nit
swarst
rat
egyt
hatwasdr
awn
somet
imebef
ore1905.Thi
swarst
rat
egywasknownast
heSchl
i
eff
enpl
an,named
af
teri
tsaut
horAl
fr
edv
onSchl
i
eff
en,Chi
efofSt
affoft
heGer
manyar
my.Thepl
an
assumedt
hatRussi
awoul
dmobi
l
izesl
owl
yandt
heBel
gianswoul
dgi
vel
i
ttl
eorno
r
esi
stance.Ther
efor
e,t
heGer
manswoul
dinf
li
ctasuddenandcr
ushi
ngdef
eaton
Fr
ance,f
orci
nghert
omakepeace,andt
henwoul
dtur
ntot
heEast
ernFr
ontagai
nst
Russi
a.
Ont
hebasi
soft
heSchl
i
eff
enPl
an,
Ger
manyst
art
edt
heFi
rstWor
ldWaront
heWest
ern
Fr
ontwi
thamassi
veat
tackonFr
ancebygoi
ngt
hroughBel
gium andLuxembur
g.
Cont
rar
ytot
heassumpt
ionsoft
heSchl
i
eff
enPl
an,t
heBel
giansputup aher
oic
r
esi
stanceanddel
ayedt
heGer
mansf
oral
i
ttl
eti
me.Howev
er,
theGer
mansmanagedt
o
pushbackt
heBr
it
ishandFr
enchf
orcest
hathadbeensenti
ntoBel
gium anddef
eat
ed
Fr
enchat
tacksal
ongt
heFr
anco-
Ger
manf
ront
ier
.BySept
ember
,amont
haf
tert
he
begi
nni
ng oft
he war
,the Ger
mans wer
e cl
ose t
o Par
is.The Fr
ench gov
ernment
ev
acuat
ed Par
is and mov
ed t
o Bor
deaux
.Att
his cr
it
icalmoment
,the Fr
ench
commander
,Gener
alJof
fre,gav
ebat
tl
etot
headv
anci
ngGer
mansont
heMar
neRi
ver
.
Thebat
tl
eoft
heMar
nel
ast
edf
ornear
lyaweek(
Sept
ember6-
12,
1914)andf
inal
l
ythe
Ger
manswer
edr
ivenback,
thoughnotv
eryf
ar.
Despi
tet
hei
rsuccessatMar
ne,
theFr
enchgener
alswer
eunabl
etof
oll
owandexpelt
he
Ger
mansf
rom t
hear
ea.Thi
swast
hesecondmi
stakeoft
hewari
nthev
eryf
ir
stweek.
TheFr
enchbel
i
evedt
hatat
tacki
ngwasbestt
handef
ence,t
hushadt
hrownt
hei
rbest
t
roopsagai
nstadv
anci
ngGer
mansi
nthecent
erandsout
h.Fort
hisr
eason,t
heywer
e
beat
enandpushedback.
Meanwhi
l
e,ont
heEast
ernFr
ont
,Russi
amov
edf
ast
ert
hant
heGer
manshadexpect
ed.
TheRussi
ansi
nvadedEastPr
ussi
afr
om t
hesout
handeast
.Theyal
soi
nvadedt
he
pr
ovi
nceofGal
i
ciai
nAust
ri
a-Hungar
y.Thi
svi
ctor
ydi
dnotl
astl
ongandt
heRussi
ans
madet
het
hir
dmi
stake.I
nAugust
,theRussi
ansandt
heGer
mansf
ront
edoneanot
her
atTanenber
g,nor
th-east
ernpar
tofpr
esentPol
and.Theout
comeoft
hebat
tl
ewas
heav
ylossanddef
eatf
ort
heRussi
ans.
Whydi
dIt
alyj
oint
hewar
?
OnWest
ernFr
ont
,thet
wosi
dessear
chedf
oreachot
her
sweakpoi
ntst
obr
eakt
hrough.
Theyf
oundnone.Theybui
l
tal
ongt
renchwhi
chr
anf
rom Bel
giancoastacr
ossnor
ther
n
Fr
ancet
otheSwi
ssbor
der
.Thi
slongt
renchcov
erednear
ly600mi
l
ls.By1915t
hewar
hadr
eachedadeadl
ock.I
tbecamecl
eart
hatnei
thersi
decoul
ddef
eatt
heot
herqui
ckl
y.
Dur
ingt
hist
imemanybat
tl
eswer
efought
,butnosi
decoul
dcl
aim aconcl
usi
vev
ict
ory
.
Theonl
ysi
gni
fi
cantev
entof1915wast
hatI
tal
yjoi
nedt
hewaront
heAl
l
iessi
de.The
Al
l
iesbl
ocwi
nIt
alybypr
omi
sing,t
hati
ftheyachi
evedv
ict
ory
,It
alywoul
dgetherl
ost
t
err
it
ori
esf
rom Aust
ri
a(hercl
aimsf
rom Aust
ri
a).Theyhadal
sopr
omi
sedt
ogi
ve
cer
tai
npar
tsf
rom Tur
kishEmpi
re.Then,I
tal
ydecl
aredwaronAust
ri
a-Hungar
yinMay
1915.
I
ntheeast
,theGer
mansadv
ancedi
ntoRussi
aandt
heRussi
ansadv
ancedi
ntoAust
ri
a.
I
n1916t
hedeadl
ockcont
inued.Wi
tht
heent
ryofI
tal
y,t
heAl
l
iesgotl
i
ttl
eadv
ant
age.I
n
f
ourbat
tl
eswi
thAust
ri
a,t
heI
tal
i
ansgai
nedl
i
ttl
egr
ound.TheRussi
ansal
sof
acedheav
y
l
osesi
nbat
tl
est
heyf
oughtwi
thAust
ri
a-Hungar
ianandGer
manar
miesi
n1915-
1916.
Theonl
ysuccesssof
arbyt
heAl
l
iedf
orceswast
heconquestofGer
many
'sov
erseas
col
oni
es.SoonBr
it
aindeci
dedt
oopent
heof
fensi
vet
otheDar
danel
l
esbyt
aki
ngt
he
peni
nsul
aofGal
l
ipol
i(Tur
key
).Theof
fensi
vewasai
medatt
aki
ngConst
ant
inopl
e.Thi
s
wast
oputoutt
heOt
tomanTur
keyf
rom t
hewarandi
twasdeci
dedt
hatof
fensi
ve
woul
dmakei
teasi
ert
osuppl
yRussi
aandst
rengt
henSer
biaandpossi
blyl
eadi
ngt
othe
col
l
apseofAust
ri
a-Hungar
y.Howev
er,t
heGal
l
ipol
icampai
gn f
ail
ed duet
o st
rong
r
esi
stanceoft
heTur
kishar
my.Thi
sTur
kishf
orcewasl
edbyGener
alMust
aphaKemal
.
TheAl
l
ieshadt
ogi
veupt
hei
rof
fensi
vewari
n1916.
Besi
dest
his,t
hegr
eatf
leet
sofGer
manyandBr
it
aincl
ashedonceatt
heBat
tl
eof
Jut
elandi
ntheNor
thSeai
n1916.Def
eatf
oronesi
dewoul
dhav
emeantmuchmor
e
t
hant
hel
ossofaf
leet
.Thi
swoul
dhav
egi
vent
otheot
hersi
decompl
etecont
roloft
he
t
rader
out
est
oandf
rom Eur
ope.Sot
heydev
elopedawarofbl
ockade.Bot
hsi
dest
ri
ed
t
odi
srupteachot
her
str
ader
out
esandpr
eventv
italf
oodsandr
awmat
eri
alsr
eachi
ng
t
heenemy
.Thi
swasbyl
ayi
ngmi
nef
iel
dsatseaandbyusi
nganewki
ndofwar
shi
p,t
he
Submar
ine.TheGer
mansubmar
ineshadcausedhugedamagesont
heBr
it
ishshi
ps
unt
ilmi
d-1917.TheBr
it
ishdef
endedi
tsmer
chantshi
psbyescor
ti
ngsaf
elyacr
osst
he
seasbywarshi
ps.Whi
l
etheGer
mannav
yfor
cedt
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmentt
orat
iont
hei
r
peopl
e'
sfood,t
heBr
it
ishnav
yensur
edt
hatGer
many
’speopl
esuf
fer
edev
enwor
se
shor
tages.
They
ear1917wascr
uci
ali
nthecour
seoft
hewar
.Int
hisy
eart
wosi
gni
fi
cantev
ent
s
t
ookpl
ace.Oneoft
heseev
ent
swast
heout
breakofapopul
arr
evol
uti
oni
nRussi
a,i
n
Mar
ch1917.Themai
nfact
orsf
ort
heoutbr
eakoft
hisr
evol
uti
onwer
eeconomi
c
har
dshi
ps,anddi
sast
rousdef
eat
stheRussi
anar
mysuf
fer
edont
hewarf
ront
s.Thi
s
br
oughtaboutt
hedownf
all
oft
heTsar
istr
egi
meandt
heest
abl
i
shmentofaPr
ovi
sional
Gov
ernment
.Thi
sPr
ovi
si
onalgov
ernmentwasabour
geoi
sgov
ernment
.Ithadsei
zed
poweri
nMar
ch1917.Thi
sgov
ernmentcont
inuedt
hewaragai
nstt
hewi
l
loft
he
Russi
anpeopl
ewhower
eal
readyexhaust
edoft
hewar
.
TheBol
shev
iks,whowont
hesuppor
toft
hemasses,st
agedt
hesecondr
evol
uti
onon
Nov
ember7,
1917andov
ert
hrewt
hepr
ovi
sionalgov
ernment
.Immedi
atel
y,t
heysi
gned
anar
mist
ice(
cease-
fi
re)wi
tht
heCent
ralPower
s.Thi
sar
mist
icewassi
gnedonMar
ch
3,
1918att
het
ownofBr
est
-Li
tov
sk.(
hencet
heBr
est
-Li
tov
skTr
eat
y)r
esul
tedi
nRussi
a
wi
thdr
awal
from t
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
.
Anot
herev
entofgr
eati
mpor
tancewast
heent
ranceoft
heUSAi
ntot
hewaront
hesi
de
oft
heAl
l
ies.Upt
othen,t
heUSA hadr
emai
nedneut
rali
nwhatwasconsi
der
eda
Eur
opeanwar
.Thepol
i
cyoft
heUSAwhi
chst
uckt
oAmer
icanneut
ral
i
tywaschanged
asar
esul
toft
hewaratsea.I
nthewar
,asment
ionedabov
e,t
heAl
l
iedpower
sai
medat
bl
ockadi
ngt
heCent
ralPower
ssoast
ofor
cet
hem t
osur
renderf
rom l
ackoff
oodand
suppl
i
es.ButGer
manyr
espondedbysanki
ng,
bot
hwarshi
psandmer
chantshi
psbyi
ts
submar
ines.TheGer
manU-
boat
s(submar
ines)sankmanypassenger
sandf
rei
ght
v
essel
swhi
chhadmanyAmer
icansonboar
d.Thi
sinf
lamedAmer
icanpubl
i
copi
nion
agai
nstGer
manyandl
edt
heUSAt
odecl
arewaronGer
manyonApr
il6,
1917.
Amer
ica'
sent
ryi
ntot
hewardr
amat
ical
l
ychangedt
hebal
anceofpoweri
nfav
ouroft
he
Al
l
ies.I
tboost
edt
hemor
aleoft
heAl
l
iedf
orces.Amer
ica’
sfr
eshr
esour
ces,
bot
hhuman
andmat
eri
al,
arr
ivedi
nEur
opeanddev
ast
atedt
hewaref
for
tsoft
heCent
ral
Power
s.
I
nthespr
ingof1918t
hef
ir
stUni
fi
edAl
l
iedcommandwascr
eat
edi
nthewestunder
Mar
shalFoch.TheAl
l
iedf
orcescr
ushedt
hel
astdesper
ateof
fensi
veoft
heGer
mans
andpushedt
hem back.Hence,
theCent
ral
Power
sbegant
ocr
umbl
eoneaf
tert
heot
her
.
Bul
gar
iawast
hef
ir
stt
osur
renderonSept
ember30,1918.I
nOct
obersomeoft
he
subj
ectpeopl
esofAust
ri
a-Hungar
ybr
okeaway
,andEmper
orChar
lesf
ledt
hecount
ry.
The same mont
hthe Ot
toman Empi
re sur
render
ed.I
n Ger
manyon Nov
embera
r
evol
uti
onf
orced,Emper
or,Wi
l
li
am I
I(Wi
l
hel
mII
)toabdi
cat
e.Thenextday
,hef
ledt
o
Hol
l
and.Fi
nal
l
y,on11Nov
ember1918at11.
00A.
M ont
he11t
hdayoft
he11mont
h,
(
11,
11,
11,
1918)t
heGer
manssi
gnedanar
mist
ice(
cease-
fi
re)
.
Endoft
heWarandi
tsConsequences
PeaceTr
eat
ies
Thepur
poseoft
hecease-
fi
reagr
eement(
Nov
.11,
1918)wast
ost
opt
hef
ight
ingasi
t
di
d.I
thadbeenf
oll
owedbyapeacet
reat
y/t
reat
iessi
gnedbyt
hewar
ri
ngnat
ions
t
hroughwhi
cht
heywoul
dset
tl
ethei
rdi
sput
esandest
abl
i
shanendur
ingpeace.
Tot
hisef
fect
,aser
iesoft
reat
ieswer
esi
gned.Thepeacet
alksst
art
edwi
tht
hePar
is
conf
erencehel
din1919.Thedomi
nantf
igur
esi
nthepeaceconf
erencewer
etheso
cal
l
ed'
'
BigFour
''namel
y;Pr
imeMi
nist
erLl
oyedGeor
geofBr
it
ain,Pr
imeMi
nist
er.V.
Or
landoofI
tal
y,Pr
emi
erCl
emnceauofFr
ance,andPr
esi
dentWoodr
ow Wi
l
sonoft
he
USA.
Al
l
ieshel
dthev
iewt
hatt
hecent
ralpower
swer
eresponsi
blef
ort
hedest
ruct
ionoft
he
warcausedandt
heyhav
etobepuni
shedf
ori
t.Wi
tht
hisi
nmi
d,t
heBi
gfourcameup
wi
tht
hei
rownpr
oposal
s.Cl
emenceaui
nsi
stedoni
mposi
ngmi
ndhar
sht
ermson
Ger
manysoast
opr
eventi
tfr
om becomi
ngast
rongmi
l
itar
ypoweragai
n.Or
landoof
I
tal
ydemandedt
her
estoft
heAl
l
iedpower
stof
ulf
il
lwhatt
heyhadpr
omi
sedt
oIt
aly
whenshej
oinedt
hewari
n1915.Ll
oyedGeor
gehopedt
omai
ntai
nabal
anceofpower
i
n Eur
ope wi
thoutweakeni
ng Ger
manyt
oo much.Pr
esi
dentWi
l
son st
ood f
oran
endur
ingwor
ldpeacet
hatwoul
dber
eal
i
zedbyappl
yi
nghi
sFour
teenPoi
nts.Ont
he
whol
e;t
hef
inalset
tl
ementseem t
ohav
emor
eorl
esssat
isf
iedBr
it
ishandFr
ench
i
nter
est
s,t
hough Fr
ance was bi
tt
erl
ydi
sappoi
nted atnotbei
ng al
l
owed t
o annex
Ger
mant
err
it
oryupt
otheRi
verRhi
ne.
I
twasagai
nstt
hisbackgr
oundt
heAl
l
iessi
gnedt
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
les,i
nJune1919,
wi
tht
hel
eadi
ngmemberoft
hecent
ralpower
s,Ger
many
.Thet
reat
ytur
nedoutt
obe
har
shanddi
ctat
ingast
hev
ict
orsl
i
kedi
ttobe.Accor
dingt
othi
str
eat
y,Ger
manyl
ostal
l
hercol
oni
esi
nAf
ri
ca.Thesecol
oni
eswer
egi
vent
oBr
it
ain,Fr
ance,Bel
gium andSout
h
Af
ri
caast
rustt
err
it
ori
es(
Mandat
oryr
ule)t
obeadmi
nist
eredundert
hesuper
visi
onof
t
heLeagueofNat
ionsGer
manyal
sol
osthercol
oni
esi
nthePaci
fi
cOcean,whi
chwer
e
di
vi
dedamongJapan,
Aust
ral
i
aandNewZeal
and.Al
saceandLor
ri
anewer
egi
venback
t
oFr
ance.
I
ntheEast
,Ger
manysur
render
edal
mostal
llandsofPol
andwhi
chshehadgai
ned
dur
ingt
hepar
ti
ti
onofPol
andi
nthe18t
hcent
ury
.Danzi
ngwi
thapr
edomi
nant
lyGer
man
popul
ati
on was i
ncor
por
ated i
nthe Pol
i
sh t
ari
ffsy
stem (
nomi
nal
l
y)as f
ree ci
ty.
Ger
manyal
sol
ostupperSi
l
csi
atoPol
andal
thoughapl
ebi
sci
te(
1921)i
ndi
cat
eda
Ger
man maj
ori
tyt
hroughoutt
hegr
aterpar
toft
hedi
sput
ed t
err
it
ory
.Somesmal
l
di
str
ict
sli
ke Eupen,Mor
csnet
,and Mal
medy wer
etr
ansf
err
ed t
o Bel
gium and a
pl
ebi
sci
tei
nthepr
ovi
nceofSchl
eswi
ggav
epar
tofSchl
eswi
ngbackt
oDenmar
k.
TheGer
manar
mywasr
educedt
o100,
000menandt
hear
mywoul
dnotpossessheav
y
ar
ti
ll
ery
,tanksandai
rcr
aft
.TheGer
mannav
ywasl
i
mit
edi
nsi
zeandnumberofshi
ps
and coul
d hav
e no submar
ines.Ger
many was al
so f
orced t
o pay a f
inanci
al
compensat
ioncal
l
edr
epar
ati
onst
hatamount
edt
o$6,
600,
000,
000.I
nfact
,itdi
dnotpay
ev
enhal
foft
hisamount
.TheRhi
ncl
andwasmadeademi
l
itar
izedzone.Thi
str
eat
yhad
i
mposedhar
sht
ermsonGer
many
.
Subsequent
ly,t
heAl
l
iessi
gnedsi
mil
art
reat
ieswi
thot
hercent
ralpowerpar
tner
s.On
Sept
ember10,1919t
heTr
eat
yofSai
ntGer
manwassi
gnedbet
weent
heAl
l
iesand
Aust
ri
awhi
chhadal
readybecomeast
ateoni
tsown.
.Thi
str
eat
yli
mit
edt
heAust
ri
an
Republ
i
ctoanar
eaonet
ent
hthesi
zeoft
hef
ormerHabsbur
gEmpi
re.SomeofAust
ri
a
Hungar
y'
sfor
mert
err
it
ori
eswentt
othenewr
epubl
i
csofPol
andandYugosl
avi
a,andt
o
t
heki
ngdom ofI
tal
y.OnJune4,
1920asepar
ateset
tl
ementcal
l
edt
heTr
eat
yofTr
ianon
wassi
gnedbet
weent
heAl
l
iedpower
sandHungar
ywhi
chwasf
ormedasasepar
ate
f
rom t
hedi
smember
edoft
heAust
ro-
Hungar
ianEmpi
re.
Thet
reat
yofSev
reswassi
gnedbet
weent
heAl
l
iesandOt
toman-
Tur
keonAugust10,
1920.Accor
dingt
othi
str
eat
y,t
hef
ormerOt
tomant
err
it
ori
esi
ntheMi
ddl
eEastwer
e
gi
vent
oBr
it
ainandFr
anceast
rustt
err
it
ori
es.Sy
riaandLebanonwentt
oFr
ance,whi
l
e
I
raq,Pal
est
ineandTr
ans-
Jor
danwer
egi
vent
oBr
it
ain.TheAl
l
iesev
ent
ri
edt
opar
ti
ti
on
Asi
aMi
nor
,thehear
tlandofTur
key
.Howev
er,asuccessf
ulmov
ementofTur
kish
nat
ional
i
sts,l
edbyMusaphaKemal(
KemalAt
atur
k,ashewasknownsi
ncet
hen)
abor
tedt
hispl
anandest
abl
i
shedani
ndependentTur
kishRepubl
i
cin1923.TheAl
l
ies
si
gnedt
het
reat
yofLausanei
n1923wi
tht
henewr
epubl
i
c.
I
ngener
al,t
het
ermsofmostoft
heset
reat
ieswer
ehar
shandunj
ustwhi
chcaused
st
rongr
eact
ionandr
esent
menti
nthedef
eat
ednat
ions.Speci
all
ytheVer
sai
l
lest
reat
y
wasex
tremel
yhar
shwhi
chwasdenouncedbyt
heGer
mansast
he'
di
ktat
'i.
e,adi
ctat
ed
peacef
orcedonGer
many
.Indeed,asi
tispoi
ntedoutbymanyscol
ars,t
heTr
eat
yof
Ver
sai
l
lessowedseesoff
utur
ewarr
athert
hanest
abl
i
shi
ngpeacei
nEur
ope.
THESECONDWORLDWAR
Af
tert
heendofWor
ldWarI
,ther
ewasagener
albel
i
eft
hati
twast
heendal
lfut
ure
war
s.Manyoft
heAl
l
iedst
atesmenal
sot
houghtt
hatt
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
lesandt
he
LeagueofNat
ionswoul
d ensur
eal
ast
ing peace.Cont
rar
ytot
heseexpect
ati
ons,
howev
er,
thet
wodecadeswhi
chf
oll
owedt
heendofWor
ldWarIwi
tnessedwi
despr
ead
conf
li
cts.Thepost-wargov
ernment
sinal
mostal
lEur
opeancount
ri
eshadt
oface
pol
i
tical
,economi
candsoci
alpr
obl
ems.Par
ti
cul
arl
yIt
alywashar
dhi
tbyt
hesecr
ises.
I
nthey
ear
simmedi
atel
yaf
tert
hewart
her
ewaswi
despr
eadpopul
arunr
esti
nIt
aly
.The
unr
estwast
her
esul
tofpopul
arupr
isi
ngs.Wor
ker
sinl
eadi
ngi
ndust
ri
eswentonst
ri
ke.
I
not
her
s,t
heyshutdownpr
oduct
ionandt
ookov
erf
act
ori
esaf
tert
heexampl
eoft
he
Russi
anBol
shev
iks.Peasant
sal
sor
evol
tedagai
nstweal
thyl
andowner
s.Meanwhi
l
e,
t
heweal
thyl
andowner
sandt
het
ownmi
ddl
ecl
assf
ear
edacommuni
str
evol
uti
on.
I
tal
i
annat
ional
i
stsandsol
dier
swhoser
vedi
ntheI
tal
i
anar
mywer
eal
sodi
ssat
isf
ied
wi
tht
het
ermsoft
hepeaceset
tl
ement
.
Al
thoughI
tal
ywasoneoft
heAl
l
ied power
sand av
ict
ornat
ion,i
tfaced v
ari
ous
pr
obl
ems af
tert
he war
.Among t
he pr
obl
ems wer
ethe accumul
ated wardebt
s,
economi
cdepr
essi
onandunempl
oyment
.Thesepr
obl
emscausedwi
despr
eadpol
i
tical
andsoci
alunr
est
.Thepost-wargov
ernmentofI
tal
ywasunabl
etocont
rol
thesi
tuat
ion.
Thepr
evai
l
ingdi
ssat
isf
act
ionandchaoscr
eat
edaf
avour
abl
econdi
ti
onf
ort
her
iseof
Fasci
stst
opoweri
nIt
alyi
n1922.
Whatdoy
ouunder
standby“
fasci
sm”
?
Thel
eaderofI
tal
i
anFasci
stswasBeni
toMussol
i
ni(
1883-
1945)whohadf
oughti
nthe
Fi
rstWor
ldWarasacor
por
al.Bef
oret
hewarMussol
i
niwasasoci
ali
st.But
,dur
ingt
he
war
,heabandonedsoci
ali
sm andbecameanar
dentnat
ional
i
st.I
nthewary
ear
s,
Mussol
i
nidev
elopednewi
deasaboutgov
ernmentwhi
chhecal
l
ed"
fasci
sm"
.Thewor
d
"
fasci
sm"or
igi
nat
esf
rom t
heLat
int
erm"
fasces"
,whi
chwasabundl
eofst
icksbound
t
oget
herwi
thanaxe,t
hatser
vedasasy
mbolofpoweranduni
tyi
nanci
entRome.
Fasci
sm wasapol
i
ticalmov
ementt
hatpr
opagat
ed"
theuni
tyofal
lsoci
algr
oupsunder
t
hecont
rolofanat
ionst
ate"
.Accor
dingt
oMussol
i
ni,f
asci
sm wast
hedi
ctat
orshi
pof
t
hest
ateov
ermanycooper
ati
ngcl
asses.Fasci
sm wasext
remel
ynat
ional
i
sti
c.Fasci
sts
mai
ntai
ned t
hatwhat
evert
hecost
,thecauseoft
henat
ion had t
o bepr
omot
ed.
Accor
dingt
ofasci
sts,
nat
ional
goal
scoul
dbeadv
ancedbymeansofwarandconquest
.
Mussol
i
niusedal
lthedi
scont
ent
sandf
ear
soft
hepeopl
eforhi
sownpol
i
ticalend.He
pr
omi
sedt
oest
abl
i
shst
rongl
aw andor
der
,toendsoci
alunr
estandpr
otectpr
ivat
e
pr
oper
ty.Tonat
ional
i
sts,
Mussol
i
nipr
omi
sedt
orest
oreI
tal
y'
sgr
eat
ness.Tocapi
tal
i
sts
andl
andl
ords,Mussol
i
ni'
smov
ementwasadef
enceagai
nstcommuni
sm.I
naddi
ti
on,
Mussol
i
niwont
hesuppor
tofsomeoft
hewor
ker
sbypr
omi
singj
obsecur
it
yandot
her
benef
it
ssuchasol
dagepensi
onsandi
nsur
ance.Bydoi
ngso,
Mussol
i
niandhi
sFasci
st
Par
tywonpopul
arsuppor
twhi
chencour
agedhi
mtot
akest
atepower
.Accor
dingl
y,i
n
Oct
ober1922,t
heFasci
stsor
gani
zedabi
gmar
cht
oRome.Thegov
ernmentwas
di
vi
dedont
heact
iont
obet
aken.Someur
gedKi
ngVi
ctorEmmanuel
III
,thet
henKi
ngof
I
tal
y,t
odecl
aremar
ti
all
aw.Butt
heki
ngr
atherappoi
ntedMussol
i
niasPr
imeMi
nist
er.
Att
hist
ime,
theFasci
stsdi
dnothav
eamaj
ori
tyi
nthepar
li
ament
.Ther
efor
e,Mussol
i
ni
madear
rangement
sforanel
ect
iont
obehel
din1924.I
nthi
sel
ect
ionFasci
stswon
maj
ori
tyseat
sint
heI
tal
i
anpar
li
ament
.Usi
ngt
hissi
tuat
iont
ohi
sadv
ant
ageMussol
i
ni
t
henswepti
ntopower
.Hecal
l
edhi
msel
f"I
lDuce"or"
TheLeader
"andt
ooki
ntohi
s
handst
hedest
ini
esofI
tal
y,asdi
ctat
or,
int
hef
oll
owi
ngy
ear
s.
Ger
manywasanot
hercount
rywher
etheconsequencesoft
hewargav
eri
set
oFasci
sm.
Nazi
sm wast
heGer
manv
ersi
onofFasci
sm.WhenGer
manyl
ostWWIherEmper
or,
Wi
l
hel
mII
,fl
edt
oHol
l
and.Thegov
ernmentwhi
cht
ookpoweraf
terWi
l
hel
m'sdepar
tur
e
wasweak.Theweaknessoft
hegov
ernmentwasf
urt
herwor
senedwhengr
oupsof
Communi
stsknownast
heSpar
taci
stLeaguest
agedanar
medr
isi
ngi
nJanuar
y1919.
Ther
isi
ngwascr
ushed,
butt
her
eremai
nedt
hef
earofanot
hercommuni
str
evol
uti
oni
n
Ger
manywhi
chl
ast
edt
o1923.
Whatdi
dthesi
tuat
ionl
ookl
i
kei
nGer
manyoft
hei
mmedi
atepost
-wary
ear
s?
Thesuppr
essi
onoft
hecommuni
sti
nsur
rect
ionwasf
oll
owedi
n1919byel
ect
ionst
oa
Const
it
uentAssembl
y.TheAssembl
yhel
dit
smeet
ingsi
nthet
ownofWei
marand
car
ri
edoutt
het
askofwr
it
inganew const
it
uti
onf
orGer
many
.Af
tersi
xmont
hsi
n
sessi
on,t
hewor
kont
heconst
it
uti
onwascompl
etedandar
epubl
i
canr
egi
mewasset
up.Ther
epubl
i
cwascal
l
edt
heWei
marRepubl
i
c,af
tert
het
ownwher
etheConst
it
uent
Assembl
yhel
dit
smeet
ing.
TheWei
marRepubl
i
chadt
odealwi
thar
angeofpr
obl
ems.Oneoft
hepr
obl
emswas
r
elat
edt
osev
ereeconomi
csetbacks.Accor
dingt
otheVer
sai
l
lesTr
eat
y,Ger
manyhad
t
opayahugesum ofr
epar
ati
onst
otheAl
l
iedpower
s.Ther
epar
ati
onswer
efi
xedat
£6,
600,
000,
000.I
n1922t
heGer
mangov
ernmentannouncedt
hati
twasnotabl
etopay
t
her
epar
ati
ons.Toenf
orcepay
ment
,Fr
ancesentt
roopst
ooccupyGer
many
’si
ndust
ri
al
Ruhrar
ea,
tocol
l
ectr
epar
ati
onsi
nthef
orm coal
andst
eel
.Opposi
ngFr
enchoccupat
ion,
Ger
manwor
ker
swentonst
ri
ke.TheGer
mangov
ernmentt
ri
edt
ocov
ert
heexpenseby
pr
int
ingmor
eandmor
epapermoney
.Theconsequencewasaser
iousi
nfl
ati
on,a
si
tuat
ionwher
etheamountofmoneyi
nci
rcul
ati
oni
sver
yhi
ghwi
thav
eryweakbuy
ing
power
.Al
thoughi
nfl
ati
onwasf
inal
l
yst
oppedandt
heeconomyr
ecov
ered,i
trui
ned
Ger
maneconomyandweakenedt
heWei
marRepubl
i
cpol
i
tical
l
y.Ther
ewasawi
de
spr
eadbl
amedt
heRepubl
i
cforr
esent
mentt
o,t
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
lesandt
hei
nfl
ati
on
whi
chf
oll
owedt
hewar
.
Dur
ingt
heset
roubl
edy
ear
ssev
eralpar
ti
esemer
gedi
nGer
many
.Oneoft
hosepar
ti
es
wast
heNaziPar
ty.Thef
ullnameoft
hepar
tywast
heNat
ionalSoci
ali
stGer
man
Wor
ker
s’Par
ty.Thepar
tygr
ew i
npowerespeci
all
yaf
terAdol
fHi
tl
er(
1889-1945)
,a
v
eter
anofWor
ldWarI
,becamei
tsl
eader
.Hej
oinedt
hepar
tyi
nMuni
ch,aci
tyi
n
sout
her
nGer
manywher
eHi
tl
erset
tl
edaf
terser
vingi
ntheGer
manar
mydur
ingt
heFi
rst
Wor
ldWar
.
AssoonasHi
tl
erbecamet
hel
eaderoft
heNazi
s,heor
gani
zedapr
ivat
ear
myknownas
t
heSt
ormt
rooper
s(SA)or“
BrownShi
rt
s”,
namedaf
tert
hecol
ouroft
hei
runi
for
m.The
member
soft
heBr
ownShi
rt
swer
erecr
uit
edmai
nlyf
rom y
oungGer
manwarv
eter
ans
andst
reethool
i
gans.I
nNov
ember1923Hi
tl
erandhi
s Br
ownShi
rt
s st
agedacoupd’
et
at(
Ger
man:put
sch)t
otakepoweri
nMuni
ch.Butt
heGer
manpol
i
cesuppr
essedt
he
coup.Upont
hef
ail
ureoft
hecoup,Hi
tl
erwasbr
oughtt
otr
ialandsent
encedt
oser
vea
f
ivey
ear
spr
isont
erm.
I
sitpossi
blet
oar
guet
hatMei
nKampfwasabl
uepr
intt
oHi
tl
er'
sfut
ureact
ions?Why
?
Thet
imei
npr
isonwasi
mpor
tanti
nthepol
i
ticalcar
eerofHi
tl
er.Thi
swasbecause,
dur
ing hi
sti
mei
n pr
ison,Hi
tl
erwr
otean aut
obi
ogr
aphyent
it
led Mei
n Kampf(
My
St
ruggl
e).Thebookdescr
ibedt
hei
deol
ogyofNazi
sm andHi
tl
er’
sfut
urepl
ant
omake
t
heGer
mansdomi
nanti
nEur
ope.Accor
dingt
oHi
tl
er,
theGer
manswer
ea“
mast
err
ace”
whodeser
vedt
orul
e.Hebl
amedt
heJewsandt
heCommuni
stsf
orGer
many
’sdef
eati
n
t
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
.Ont
hewhol
e,al
lpol
i
ciesandpr
act
icest
heNazi
scar
ri
edoutaf
ter
t
aki
ngpoweri
nGer
manywer
eal
readyst
atedi
ntheMei
nKampf
.
They
ear
sthatf
oll
owedHi
tl
er’
srel
easef
rom pr
isoni
nDecember1924mar
kedt
he
per
iodofeconomi
crecov
eryandpol
i
ticalst
abi
l
ityi
nGer
many
.Undersuchcondi
ti
ons,
Hi
tl
erandt
heNazi
scoul
dnotgett
hesuppor
toft
hegener
alpubl
i
c.Howev
er,
theper
iod
ofeconomi
crecov
eryandpol
i
ticalst
abi
l
itywasshor
tli
ved.I
n1929Ger
maneconomy
col
l
apsedbecauseoft
heeconomi
ccr
isi
sthathi
tthewhol
ewor
ld.Theeconomi
ccr
isi
s
wast
her
esul
toft
heGr
eatDepr
essi
onwhi
chl
ast
edf
rom 1929t
o1933.Thei
mmedi
ate
causeoft
hedepr
essi
onwast
heWal
lSt
reetst
ockmar
ketcr
ashi
nAmer
icai
nOct
ober
1929.The f
undament
alcauses oft
he depr
essi
on ar
e st
il
lcont
rov
ersi
al.Per
iodi
c
economi
ccr
isi
shadbeencommoni
nthecapi
tal
i
steconomy
.Butt
heeconomi
ccr
isi
s
caused by t
he Gr
eatDepr
essi
on of1929 – 1933 was except
ional
l
y sev
ere.Al
l
i
ndust
ri
ali
zedandot
hernat
ionsoft
hewor
ldwer
ehar
dhi
tbyt
heGr
eatDepr
essi
on.I
t
wasv
erysev
erei
ntheUni
tedSt
ates.I
nmanycount
ri
eswor
ker
slostt
hei
rjobs.I
nthe
USAal
onear
ound16mi
l
li
onAmer
icanswer
eunempl
oyedi
ntheear
ly1930s.
Howdi
dHi
tl
ergett
hechancet
obecomeGer
manChancel
lori
n1933?
TheWei
marRepubl
i
cwasoneoft
heEur
opeanst
ateswhi
chwer
ebi
tt
erl
yaf
fect
edby
t
heGr
eatDepr
essi
onandt
heeconomi
ccr
isi
sitr
esul
ted.TheGr
eatDepr
essi
onst
opped
f
orei
gnl
oans,especi
all
yUS l
oans.Wor
ker
slostt
hei
rjobs.Manyent
erpr
iseswent
bankr
upt
.Thedesper
atesi
tuat
ionbr
oughtHi
tl
erandt
heNazi
sonceagai
ntot
he
pol
i
ticalscene.ManyGer
mansbegant
oli
stent
oandappr
eci
ateNazipr
opaganda,and
becameNazisuppor
ter
s.Butunt
il1932t
heNazi
swer
eami
nor
it
yint
heRei
chst
ag,t
he
Ger
manpar
li
ament
.Int
heel
ect
ionof1928,f
ori
nst
ance,t
heywononl
y12seat
sint
he
Rei
chst
ag.Buti
ntheel
ect
ionof1932,
theywon230seat
s.Al
thought
heNazi
sbecame
t
hel
argestpar
tyi
ntheRei
chst
ag,t
heywer
est
il
lshor
tofamaj
ori
ty.I
n1933t
her
ewas
pol
i
ticaldeadl
ockamongt
hepol
i
ticalpar
ti
esi
nGer
many
.Thi
swasbecausenoneoft
he
par
ti
esobt
ainedasuf
fi
cientmaj
ori
tyt
ofor
m gov
ernment
.Tosol
vet
hecr
isi
s,PaulVon
Hi
ndenbur
g,t
hePr
esi
dentoft
heWei
marRepubl
i
c,of
fer
edHi
tl
ert
heof
fi
ceofChancel
l
or,
t
hati
s,headoft
hegov
ernment(
Pri
meMi
nst
er)
.
Af
tert
aki
ngt
heof
fi
ceofChancel
l
or,Hi
tl
erar
rangedf
oranew el
ect
iont
obehel
din
1933.Theai
m oft
heel
ect
ionwast
owi
nasweepi
ngmaj
ori
tyf
ort
heNazi
sint
he
Rei
chst
ag.Toachi
evet
hisai
m,communi
sti
nfl
uenceamongt
hewor
ker
shadt
obe
r
educed.Aweekbef
oret
heel
ect
ion,t
heRei
chst
agbui
l
dingcaughtf
ir
eandbur
ned.
Wi
thoutanyev
idence,
Hit
leraccusedcommuni
stsasbei
ngr
esponsi
blef
ort
hiscr
imi
nal
act
.Iti
simpor
tantt
onot
ethatononeoccasi
onHi
tl
erwr
ote:“
Thegr
eatmassesof
peopl
e...wi
l
lmor
eeasi
l
yfal
lvi
cti
mst
oabi
gli
ethant
oasmal
lone.
”(Mei
nKampf)
.
Whoev
erwasr
eal
l
yresponsi
blef
ort
heRei
chst
agf
ir
e,Hi
tl
eri
ntendedt
oreducet
he
suppor
tcommuni
stshadamongt
hewor
ker
s.I
nthi
shewassuccessf
ul.Ci
vi
lri
ght
s
wer
esuspended,andmanycommuni
stswer
ear
rest
ed.Asar
esul
t,i
ntheel
ect
iont
he
Nazi
sobt
ainedsuf
fi
ci
entseat
sint
heRei
chst
agt
hatgav
eHi
tl
er,f
ullpower
stor
ule,i
n
ef
fect
,asadi
ctat
or.Hi
tl
ert
ookt
het
it
le“
Leader
”,Fuhr
eri
nGer
man.Soonaf
ter
war
ds,
Hi
tl
erst
art
edt
otakeaggr
essi
vemeasur
eswhi
chul
ti
mat
elyl
edt
otheout
breakoft
he
SecondWor
ldWari
n1939.
Howdi
dthepeaceset
tl
ement
smadeatt
heendofWWIor
igi
nat
eanot
herwor
ldwar
?
Thef
undament
alcauseoft
heSecondWor
ldWarwasdeepl
yroot
edi
nthepeace
set
tl
ement
smadeatt
heendofWor
ldWarI
.Ashasbeenar
guedbymanywr
it
ers,t
he
peaceset
tl
ementsowedt
heseedsofaf
utur
ewar
.Publ
i
copi
nioni
nIt
alyandGer
many
wasst
rongl
yopposedt
othepeacet
reat
ies.Thef
asci
str
egi
meswhi
chcamet
opower
i
nbot
hcount
ri
eswer
edet
ermi
nedt
orev
erset
hepeaceset
tl
ementandr
est
oret
hei
rlost
gl
oryt
hroughwarandconquest
.InJapanal
somi
l
itar
istgr
oupswhot
ookpoweri
nthe
ear
ly 1930s f
oll
owed a si
mil
arpol
i
cy ofachi
evi
ng gr
eat
ness t
hrough t
err
it
ori
al
expansi
on,whi
ch t
arget
ed Eastand Sout
h EastAsi
a and t
he Paci
fi
c.Thus,t
he
aggr
essi
vepol
i
ciesofI
tal
i
anf
asci
sts,Ger
manNazi
sandJapanesemi
l
itar
ist
sfi
nal
l
y
f
orcedt
hewor
ldt
ofaceanot
herdest
ruct
ivewari
nthet
went
iet
hcent
ury
.

Japant
ookt
hel
eadi
nwagi
ngaggr
essi
vewaroni
tsnei
ghbor
s.I
nSept
ember1931,
the
Japanesear
myconquer
edManchur
ia,t
henor
ther
npr
ovi
nceofChi
na,andsetupa
puppetgov
ernmentnamedManchukuof
orManchur
ia.Chi
naappeal
edt
otheLeagueof
Nat
ions.Whent
heLeaguecondemnedJapanasanaggr
essorandt
oldi
ttowi
thdr
aw
f
rom t
heChi
neset
err
it
ory
.TheJapaneseannouncedt
hei
rwi
thdr
awalf
rom t
heLeague
ofNat
ionson27May
,1933.Fur
theraggr
essi
veexpansi
onofJapanagai
nstChi
na
f
inal
l
yledt
otheout
breakofopenWarbet
weenJapanandChi
nai
nJul
y1937.
TheJapanesebol
dnessi
n1931encour
agedI
tal
ytomakeasi
mil
armov
eagai
nst
Et
hiopi
a.I
nDecember1934t
heFasci
stsunl
eashedt
heWal
walI
nci
dentwhi
chwas
f
oll
owedbyaf
ullscal
einv
asi
onofEt
hiopi
ainOct
ober1935.Emper
orHai
l
eSel
l
assi
e
appeal
edt
otheLeagueofNat
ions,uponwhi
cht
heLeaguecondemnedI
tal
yasan
aggr
essorandi
mposedcer
tai
nsanct
ionsoni
t.Butt
heLeague’
sact
iondi
dnotst
op
Mussol
i
nif
rom hi
smi
l
itar
yconquesti
nEt
hiopi
a.Heachi
evedaqui
ckv
ict
oryov
er
Et
hiopi
abyusi
ngpoi
songaswhi
chwasagai
nsti
nter
nat
ionall
aw.Ani
nter
nat
ional
agr
eementof1925 had f
orbi
dden t
he use ofpoi
son gas.I
tal
y had si
gned t
his
agr
eementbutMussol
i
nihadnoi
ntent
ionofkeepi
ngi
t.I
nfactl
argest
ocksofmust
ard
gashadbeensentt
oEr
it
reapr
iort
o1935r
eadyf
orusei
nthewaragai
nstEt
hiopi
a.I
n
May1936t
heI
tal
i
anar
myl
edbyMar
shal
Badogl
i
ooccupi
edAddi
sAbaba.Ont
hewhol
e,
t
heFai
l
ureoft
heLeagueofNat
ionsandt
hewest
ernpower
stot
akeef
fect
iveact
ion
agai
nstmi
l
itar
istJapanandFasci
stI
tal
yfort
hei
rcr
imi
nalacti
nManchur
iaandEt
hiopi
a
meantt
heendofcol
l
ect
ivesecur
it
y,andar
etur
noft
heol
dpr
inci
pleof"
mighti
sri
ght
."
Then camet
het
urn ofHi
tl
er,whoseaggr
essi
veact
ionswer
eresponsi
blef
ort
he
out
breakoft
heSecondWor
ldWari
nEur
ope.Hi
tl
ert
ookt
hef
oll
owi
ngaggr
essi
ve
act
ionsagai
nstt
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
lesaswel
lasagai
nsti
nter
nat
ional
law.
i
)Thei
ntr
oduct
ionofnat
ionalmi
l
itar
yser
vicei
n1935v
iol
ati
ngt
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
les
whi
chl
i
mit
edt
heGer
mangr
oundf
orcet
oonl
y100,
000menandpr
ohi
bit
edconscr
ipt
ion.
i
i
)TheGer
manar
miesoccupi
edt
hedemi
l
itar
izedzoneoft
heRhi
nel
andi
nMar
ch1936.
I
tist
ober
ecal
l
edt
hatt
heGer
manar
myhadbeenf
orbi
ddenent
ryi
ntot
hispar
tof
Ger
manybyt
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
les.Ger
manycont
inuedt
orear
m atar
api
dpace.
i
i
i)I
nMar
ch1938Ger
manar
miesannexedAust
ri
a.Foral
ongt
imeHi
tl
erhaddr
eamed
ofan“
Anschl
uss”t
hati
s,t
heannexat
ionofAust
ri
a.Asear
lyas1924,Hi
tl
erwr
otei
n
Mei
nKampft
hat“
Ger
man–Aust
ri
amustr
etur
ntot
heGr
eatGer
manmot
hercount
ry..
.
.onebl
ooddemandsoneRei
ch.[
stat
e]”Thi
sdr
eam wasr
eal
i
zedwhenAust
ri
awas
annexedbyt
heGer
manar
myi
nMar
ch1938.
i
v)I
n1938and1939Czechosl
ovaki
abecameat
argetf
orHi
tl
er’
spol
i
cyofGer
man
expansi
on.Thecr
isi
sov
erCzechosl
ovaki
amar
kedt
hel
astphasei
nthemov
etowar
ds
t
hewar
,andt
her
efor
e,i
tisi
mpor
tantt
otr
eatt
hissubj
ectatl
engt
h.
Czechosl
ovaki
a hel
d a st
rat
egi
c posi
ti
on i
n East
ern Eur
ope.I
n par
ti
cul
ar,t
he
Sudet
enl
and,aneconomi
cal
l
yimpor
tantandheav
il
yfor
ti
fi
edr
egi
oni
nnor
thwest
ern
Czechosl
ovaki
aal
ongt
heGer
manbor
der
,wast
het
argetofHi
tl
er’
saggr
essi
on.Ther
e
wer
eabout3mi
l
li
onGer
manswhol
i
vedi
ntheSudet
enl
and.Att
het
ime,
theseGer
mans
wer
eonbadt
ermswi
tht
heCzechosl
ovakgov
ernmentwhi
chpr
ovi
dedHi
tl
erapr
etextt
o
mov
eagai
nstCzechosl
ovaki
a.Hi
tl
eri
nfactencour
agedSudet
enGer
manl
eader
sto
compl
ainofCzech"
oppr
essi
on"andmakedemands.On12,Sept
ember1938Hi
tl
er
demandedt
hatt
heCzechosl
ovakgov
ernmentgi
vet
her
ightofsel
f–det
ermi
nat
iont
o
t
heGer
mansoft
heSudet
enl
and.TheCzechosl
ovakgov
ernmentnotonl
yref
usedt
o
acceptHi
tl
er’
sdemandbutal
sodecl
aredmar
ti
all
awi
nthet
err
it
ory
.Inanef
for
ttoav
ert
war
,theBr
it
ishPr
imeMi
nist
er,
Nev
il
leChamber
lai
n,agr
eedt
omeetHi
tl
ert
odi
scusst
he
pr
obl
em.TheFr
enchgov
ernmental
sogav
esuppor
ttoChamber
lai
n’
sef
for
t.Thei
ssue
wasdi
scussedatt
heMuni
chConf
erencei
nSept
ember1938.
Howwasappeasementputi
ntoact
ionatt
heMuni
chconf
erence?
I
nwhatcamet
obeknownast
heMuni
chAgr
eement
,Ger
manywasal
l
owedt
oannex
t
heSudet
enl
and.I
nret
urn,Hi
tl
erpr
omi
sedt
orespectt
hesov
erei
gnt
yoft
her
estof
Czechosl
ovaki
a.Heal
sopr
omi
sedt
oset
tl
efut
uredi
sput
esbypeacef
ulmeans.Br
it
ain
andFr
anceshoul
dinpar
tbebl
amedf
orHi
tl
er’
sbol
dmov
est
hatf
inal
l
yendedwi
tht
he
out
breakoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
.Indeal
i
ngwi
thHi
tl
er,t
heyf
oll
owedt
hepol
i
cyof
“
appeasement
”orsat
isf
yingHi
tl
er’
sdemands.Abov
eal
l
,Chamber
lai
nwast
hel
eadi
ng
pr
oponentoft
hepol
i
cyofappeasement
.Hehopedt
omai
ntai
npeaceandst
abi
l
ize
Eur
opebymaki
ngconcessi
onst
oHi
tl
er.Howev
er,i
tdi
dnott
akemucht
imet
opr
ove
t
hatappeasementwas i
nef
fect
ivei
n deal
i
ng wi
th Hi
tl
erand Mussol
i
ni.I
trat
her
encour
agedHi
tl
ert
ocont
inuewi
thhi
spl
ansofaggr
essi
veexpansi
on.Mor
eov
er,t
he
at
ti
tudeoft
hewest
ernpoweratMuni
chconf
ir
medhi
sopi
niont
hatt
hewestwoul
dnot
got
owarwi
thGer
manyi
ndef
enceofanEastEur
opeanpower
.
Whydi
dBr
it
ainandFr
ancer
efr
aint
oreactt
oMussol
i
ni'
sinv
asi
onofEt
hiopi
a?
WhenHi
tl
erv
iol
atedt
heTr
eat
yofVer
sai
l
lesbyi
ntr
oduci
ngnat
ionalmi
l
itar
yser
viceand
occupy
ingt
hedemi
l
itar
izedRhi
nel
and,Br
it
ainandFr
ancedi
dnot
hing.Af
tert
heI
tal
i
an
i
nvasi
onofEt
hiopi
a,Br
it
ainandFr
ancer
efr
ainedf
rom t
aki
ngef
fect
iveact
ion.They
f
ear
edt
oant
agoni
zeMussol
i
niandpushhi
mint
oal
l
iancewi
thHi
tl
er.Despi
tet
hei
r
caut
ion,howev
er,t
heFasci
stmi
l
itar
ybl
ocwasf
ormed.I
n1936Mussol
i
niannounced
t
hef
ormat
ionofaRome–Ber
li
nAxi
s,whi
chwast
heal
i
gnmentofI
tal
yandGer
many
.In
t
hesamey
eart
het
wopower
saswel
lasJapansi
gnedt
heAnt
i–Comi
nter
nPact(
an
ant
i–communi
stal
l
iance)
.Sov
ietRussi
awaswi
l
li
ngt
ojoi
nthewest
ernpower
sagai
nst
Ger
manyandi
tsal
l
ies.Br
it
ainandFr
ancer
efusedt
oacceptt
hispol
i
cybecauset
hey
f
ear
edt
hatt
hef
ormat
ionofsuchaf
rontwoul
dpr
ovokewar
.Inaddi
ti
on,
theBr
it
ishand
Fr
enchgov
ernment
sandt
hei
rbour
geosi
eel
i
tedi
sli
kedt
heUSSR asmuchasNazi
Ger
many
.WhenHi
tl
eri
nvadedAust
ri
a,Br
it
ainandFr
ancer
efusedt
obei
nvol
vedi
nthe
cr
isi
s.Fi
nal
l
y,i
ntheMuni
chAgr
eementt
heyat
tempt
edt
osat
isf
yHi
tl
eratt
heexpense
ofCzechosl
ovaki
a.Onhi
swayhomeaf
tert
heMuni
chAgr
eement
,Chamber
lai
nwas
conf
identt
hatt
her
ewoul
dbenomor
etr
oubl
efr
om t
heNazi
s.Het
rust
edt
hatHi
tl
er
woul
d keep hi
s pr
omi
ses.Howev
er,f
arf
rom keepi
ng hi
s pr
omi
ses,Hi
tl
erwas
encour
agedt
omakef
urt
hermov
es.On15Mar
ch,1939,onl
ysi
xmont
hsaf
tert
he
Muni
ch Agr
eement
,Hi
tl
ersenthi
s ar
mies i
nto Czechosl
ovaki
a and occupi
ed t
he
west
ernpar
toft
hecount
ry.I
neast
ernCzechosl
ovaki
aaGer
manpuppetst
atecal
l
ed
Sl
ovaki
awassetup.I
nthesamemont
h,Hi
tl
ert
urnedt
owar
dEast
ernEur
opewher
ehe
annexedMemel
from Li
thuani
a.I
twascl
eart
hatPol
andwoul
dbet
henextv
ict
im.
Whatwer
ethe maj
ort
erms ofagr
eementi
ncl
uded i
nthe Sov
iet
-Ger
man Non-
Aggr
essi
onPactof1939?
Now i
tbecame cl
eart
othe Br
it
ish and Fr
ench gov
ernment
sthatt
he pol
i
cy of
appeasementhadut
ter
lyf
ail
ed,t
houghChamber
lai
nhi
msel
fst
il
lhopedhecoul
dgeta
f
ir
m agr
eementwi
thHi
tl
er.Ther
efor
e,t
heydeci
dedt
oincr
easet
hei
rar
mament
sand
al
sopl
edgedt
hemsel
vest
ogi
vemi
l
itar
yassi
stancet
oPol
and,Gr
eece,Rumani
aand
Tur
key
,ift
hesecount
ri
eswer
einv
adedbyNaziGer
many
.Mor
eov
er,despi
temut
ual
di
str
ustbet
weent
heSov
iet
sandt
heWest
ernpower
s,t
hel
att
erwant
edt
oconsol
i
dat
e
t
heant
i-
Ger
manal
l
iancebyi
ncl
udi
ngSov
ietRussi
a.Whent
heyr
equest
edt
heSov
iet
Uni
ont
ojoi
nthem agai
nstt
heNazi
s,t
heSov
ietl
eader
,JosephSt
ali
n,askedi
nef
fecta
f
reehandf
ort
heUSSRi
nEast
ernEur
ope,especi
all
yint
heBal
ti
crepubl
i
csandPol
and.
Chamber
lai
nref
usedt
oacceptSt
ali
n’
ster
ms.Thi
spushedSt
ali
ntot
urnt
oHi
tl
er.The
consequencewast
heagr
eementknownast
heNazi–Sov
ietNon–Aggr
essi
onPact
whi
chwassi
gnedon23,August1939.I
ntheagr
eementt
het
wosi
despl
edgedt
o
r
emai
nneut
rali
foneoft
hem wasatwarwi
that
hir
dpower
.Theyal
soagr
eedt
odi
vi
de
east
ern Eur
opei
ntot
hei
rspher
esofi
nfl
uence.I
nthi
srespect
,Pol
and wast
o be
par
ti
ti
oned i
nto westand eastt
o be occupi
ed by Ger
many and Sov
ietRussi
a
r
espect
ivel
y.I
naddi
ti
on,Fi
nlandandt
heBal
ti
crepubl
i
csofEst
oni
a,Lat
viaand(
lat
er)
Li
thuani
awer
erecogni
zedaspar
toft
heSov
ietspher
eofi
nfl
uence.
Excepti
tsdi
plomat
icv
aluebot
hSt
ali
nandHi
tl
erf
rom t
hev
erybegi
nni
ngknewt
hatt
he
pactwoul
dhav
enol
ast
ingef
fect
.St
ali
ncal
cul
atedt
hatt
heagr
eementwoul
dgi
vehi
m
t
imet
ost
rengt
henSov
ietmi
l
itar
ypower
.Hi
tl
eral
sowant
edt
heagr
eementbecausei
t
woul
drel
i
evehi
m oft
heneedt
ofi
ghtt
heSov
iet
swhi
l
eGer
manyf
oughtawarel
sewher
e,
wi
thouthav
ingt
owor
ryaboutaneast
ernf
rontagai
nstt
heUSSR.TheBr
it
ishandFr
ench
l
eader
sreal
i
zedt
hatt
heNazi–Sov
ietPactdest
roy
edt
hel
astoppor
tuni
tyofst
oppi
ng
Hi
tl
erwi
thoutwar
.ButHi
tl
erst
il
lhopedt
hatt
hewestwoul
dnotactagai
nsthi
m.
Mi
li
tar
yAspect
soft
heWar
i
.The"
Bli
tzkr
ieg"
,the"
Sit
zkr
ieg"andGer
manSuccessont
heWest
ernFr
ont
.
Di
dthe"
bli
ti
zkr
ieg"r
esul
tint
hedesi
redef
fecti
nPol
and?How?
Sept
ember1,
1939wasahi
stor
icdat
easr
egar
dst
otheSecondWor
ldWar
.Ont
hisday
Hi
tl
ersar
mycr
ossedt
hePol
i
sh-
Ger
manf
ront
ierf
rom di
ff
erentdi
rect
ionsandi
nvaded
Pol
and.Thi
sev
entmar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
.Twoday
slat
er
Br
it
ainandFr
ancedecl
aredwaronGer
many
.Whet
hert
hisdecl
arat
ionofwarr
escued
Pol
andi
samat
tert
obeseeni
nthesubsequentpar
agr
aphs.I
nspi
teofi
tsnumer
ical
super
ior
it
ythePol
i
shar
mycoul
dnotst
andt
hewel
lar
medGer
manat
tacker
s.I
nthei
r
i
nvasi
onofPol
andt
heGer
mansempl
oyedawarst
rat
egyknownas"
bli
tzkr
ieg"
,whi
ch
meansal
i
ght
ning-
war
.Thekeypr
inci
plei
nthi
sst
rat
egywast
owi
naqui
ckanddeci
siv
e
v
ict
oryt
hrought
hecoor
dinat
edat
tacksoft
heGer
manai
rfor
ceandf
astmov
inggr
ound
f
orces.TheGer
mansmadeef
fect
iveuseoft
hisst
rat
egyi
nthei
rinv
asi
onofPol
and
wher
eamassi
veaer
ialst
ri
kewasf
oll
owedbyaswi
ftadv
anceoft
heGer
mani
nfant
ry
andar
mour
eddi
vi
sions.
The"
bli
tzkr
ieg"shat
ter
edwhat
everPol
i
shr
esi
stance,andi
nlesst
hanamont
hti
me
muchofPol
andwasov
err
unbyt
heGer
manar
my.Ont
he30t
hofSept
emberGer
man
t
roops ent
ered i
ntot
he Pol
i
sh capi
tal
.War
saw.Thus,t
he pol
es,wi
th no di
rect
assi
stancef
rom t
hei
rwest
ernal
l
ieswhi
chnomi
nal
l
ydecl
aredwaronGer
manywer
e
def
eat
ed.Ger
manyannexedDanzi
gandov
er30,
000squar
emi
l
esofPol
i
sht
err
it
ory
.
I
nthemeant
imet
heSov
iet
sadv
ancedqui
ckl
yint
oeast
ernPol
andt
ogeti
tsshar
eof
t
hespoi
l
s.Russi
atookov
er77,
000squar
emi
l
esofEast
ernPol
and.Ataboutt
hesame
t
imeSov
iet
sal
sof
orcedt
heBal
ti
cst
atest
oacceptt
heest
abl
i
shmentofSov
ietmi
l
itar
y
basesi
nsi
det
hei
rter
ri
tor
yandl
ateri
ncor
por
atedt
heBal
ti
cst
atesi
ntot
heUSSR(
1939-
40)
.Mor
eov
er,t
heSov
iet
sfoughtadi
ff
icul
tbutf
inal
l
yvi
ctor
iouswarwi
thFi
nlandand
annexed someFi
nni
sht
err
it
ory
.Thesemov
esgav
etheSov
iet
ssomemeasur
eof
secur
it
yagai
nstt
heNazi
inv
asi
on.Butt
heUSSRdi
dnotuset
het
imegai
nedbyt
heNazi
-
Sov
ietNon-Aggr
essi
onPactaswel
lasi
tshoul
dhav
edone,f
orwhi
chSt
ali
nisnow
bl
amed.
Foraboutsev
enmont
hsaf
tert
hePol
i
shsur
render
,ther
ewasnor
ealf
ight
ingont
he
West
ernFr
ont
.Thi
sper
iodhasbeent
ermedt
he“
Phony
”war
.Itwasal
socal
l
edt
he
“
Sit
zkr
ieg”orSi
tt
ingWar
.ThePhonywarper
iodcamet
oanendon29Apr
il
,1940when
t
heGer
manar
myi
nvadedDenmar
kandNor
way
.Denmar
ksur
render
edaf
teronl
yaf
ew
hour
sbutt
heNor
wegi
an r
esi
stancet
ookt
heGer
mansl
ongert
o ov
ercome.They
ov
ercamet
her
esi
stanceonl
yaf
tert
hest
rengt
hoft
heGer
mannav
ywasconsi
der
abl
y
r
educed.The nextv
ict
ims ofGer
man i
nvasi
on on t
he West
ern Fr
ontwer
ethe
Net
her
lands,Bel
gium andFr
ance.On10May1940,t
heNet
her
landswasat
tacked.At
t
hesamet
ime,t
heGer
mansat
tackedBel
gium andFr
anceal
ongt
heMeuser
iverand
t
hrought
heAr
denneshi
l
ls,
whi
chBr
it
ainandFr
ancebel
i
eved,
wrongl
y,t
obei
mpossi
ble
t
err
ainf
ort
anks.
TheFr
enchandBr
it
ishHi
ghCommandsdi
dnotant
ici
pat
eGer
manwarst
rat
egy
.They
expect
edt
heGer
manst
oat
tackt
hrought
hepl
ainsofBel
gium ast
heyhaddonei
n1914,
i
nWor
ldWarI
.Becauseoft
his,
Bri
ti
shandFr
enchf
orcesmov
edi
ntoBel
gium t
odef
end
whatt
heyt
houghtt
obet
hemai
nGer
manl
i
neofat
tack.Butt
heGer
mansbr
okei
nto
Fr
ancet
hrought
heAr
dennes.I
nonl
yaf
ewweekst
heGer
mans,
hav
ingbr
okent
hrough
t
heFr
enchl
i
neandt
rappedt
heAl
l
iedar
myi
nBel
gium,compel
l
edt
hisAl
l
iedf
orcet
o
r
etr
eatt
oDunki
rk,apor
tinnor
ther
nFr
ance.Thi
sar
my,number
ingmor
ethan300,
000
t
roops,wassav
edf
rom f
all
i
ngi
ntoGer
manhandsbyev
acuat
ingacr
osst
heEngl
i
sh
Channel
,butal
ltheequi
pmentwasl
eftbehi
nd.
Whydi
dMussol
i
nidecl
arewaronBr
it
ainandFr
anceatt
het
imehedi
d?
Ther
api
dsuccessoft
heGer
mansont
heWest
ernFr
ontpr
ompt
edMussol
i
nit
odecl
are
waronBr
it
ainandFr
anceon10June,1940.
Mussol
i
nimi
stakenl
ycal
cul
atedt
hatt
he
warwascl
osert
oit
send,whi
l
eitwasj
ustbegi
nni
ng,andwant
edt
obeont
hewi
nni
ng
si
de.Fourday
slat
er,onJune14,Par
issur
render
edt
otheGer
mans.Thent
heFr
ench
si
gnedanar
mist
icewi
thGer
many
,whi
chcamet
oef
fecton22June,
1940.Accor
dingt
o
t
het
ermsoft
hear
mist
ice,Ger
manyoccupi
ednor
ther
nFr
ance,i
ncl
udi
ngt
het
err
it
ory
al
ongt
heAt
lant
iccoastt
otheSpani
shbor
der
.Insout
her
nFr
anceapuppetgov
ernment
was setup underMar
shalHenr
iPet
aini
nthe t
own ofVi
chy
,hence t
he "
Vichy
gov
ernment
".
i
i
.TheBat
tl
eofBr
it
ain
Af
tert
hef
allofFr
ance,Hi
tl
ergav
eor
der
stoopenat
tackonBr
it
ain.Theof
fensi
vewas
t
obel
aunchedf
rom t
heai
r.Whatf
orcedHi
tl
er’
sdeci
sioni
nfav
ourofanaer
ialst
ri
ke
wast
hef
actt
hatGer
manyhadt
owi
nai
rsupr
emacybef
oreaf
ullscal
einv
asi
onof
Br
it
ain.Ther
efor
e,Hi
tl
erai
medatweakeni
ngBr
it
ain’
sdef
encecapaci
tybydest
roy
ing
t
heBr
it
ishRoy
alAi
rFor
ce(
RAF)andi
tsai
rf
iel
ds.TheBr
it
ishgov
ernmentwasnowl
ed
byWi
nst
onChur
chi
l
lwhohadr
epl
acedNev
il
leChamber
lai
nasPr
imeMi
nist
erofBr
it
ain
i
nMay1940.I
nhi
sfi
rstspeecht
otheHouseofCommons,Chur
chi
l
lcl
ear
lyst
atedhi
s
gov
ernment
’spol
i
cyi
nfav
ourofwaragai
nstNazi
Ger
manyasf
oll
ows:
#Youask,whati
sourpol
i
cy?Iwi
l
lsay
:Iti
stowagewar
,bysea,l
and,andai
r,wi
thal
l
ourmi
ghtandwi
thal
lthest
rengt
hthatGodcangi
veus:t
owagewaragai
nsta
monst
roust
yranny
,nev
ersur
passedi
nthedar
k,l
ament
abl
ecat
alogueofhumancr
ime.
Thati
sourpol
i
cy.Youask,
Whati
sourai
m?Icanansweri
nonewor
d:Vi
ctor
y–v
ict
ory
atal
lcost
s,v
ict
oryi
nspi
teofal
lter
ror
s;v
ict
ory
,howev
erhar
dandl
ongt
her
oadmaybe;
f
orwi
thoutv
ict
ory
,ther
eisnosur
viv
al.
$
Thi
scer
tai
nlywasacl
earmessageaboutt
hef
ir
m st
andt
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmenthad
al
readyadopt
edbyt
het
imeGer
many
’sai
rat
tacki
naugur
atedt
heBat
tl
eofBr
it
ain.
TheBat
tl
eofBr
it
ainhadt
wophases.I
tst
art
edi
near
lyAugustwhent
he“
Luf
twaf
fe”(
the
Ger
manAi
rFor
ce)beganbombi
ngsout
her
nBr
it
ain.Dur
ingt
hef
ir
stphase,i
.e.
,in
AugustandSept
ember
,theLuf
twaf
fel
aunchedi
tsat
tacki
nday
li
ght
.Theai
m oft
his
at
tackwast
owi
peoutBr
it
ishai
rf
iel
dsandf
ight
erpl
anes.Butt
heBr
it
ishRAFusedt
he
newdet
ect
ioni
nst
rument
,“Radar
”(t
hencal
l
edRDF–Radi
oDi
rect
ionFi
ndi
ng)t
olocat
e
t
heat
tacker
sbef
orehand.Consequent
ly,bycount
er-
att
acki
ng,t
heRAFconsi
der
abl
y
r
educedt
heGer
manbomberandf
ight
erpl
anesi
nai
rbat
tl
es.Thedeci
siv
eai
ract
ionsof
t
hef
ir
stphaset
ookpl
acebet
ween15and21Sept
ember
,dur
ingwhi
cht
heGer
mansl
ost
some120pl
anes.
Whatwast
het
act
icalchanget
heGer
mansi
ntr
oducedi
nthesecondphaseoft
heBat
tl
e
ofBr
it
ain?
Thesecondphaseoft
heBat
tl
eofBr
it
ainst
art
edi
near
lyOct
ober
,1940.Att
hisst
age
t
heGer
manschangedt
hei
rtact
icf
rom at
tacki
ngi
nday
li
ghtt
oni
ghtbombi
ng.Thr
ough
ni
ghtbombi
ngofLondonandBr
it
ishi
ndust
ri
alcent
res,Hi
tl
erwant
edt
odest
royBr
it
ish
i
ndust
ri
alpr
oduct
ion and t
oter
ri
fyt
he popul
ati
on whi
ch mi
ghti
nduce t
he Br
it
ish
gov
ernmentt
oaskf
orpeace.Despi
tel
argescal
edest
ruct
ion,howev
er,t
he“
Luf
twaf
fe”
wasunabl
etopar
aly
sepr
oduct
ionorbr
eakt
hemor
aleoft
heBr
it
ishpeopl
e.Byt
heend
ofNov
ember
,itbecamecl
eart
hatGer
manyhadl
ostt
heBat
tl
eofBr
it
ain.Thi
swas
Hi
tl
er’
sfi
rstmaj
ordef
eatsi
ncet
heout
breakofWor
ldWarI
I.Al
thoughBr
it
aincoul
d
def
endi
tsel
ffr
om Ger
mani
nvasi
on,
itwasnotst
rongenought
osendanar
mybacki
nto
Eur
ope.Hi
tl
ercoul
dther
efor
etur
nagai
nstt
heUSSRi
ntheeast
.
i
i
i.Ger
manI
nvasi
onoft
heSov
ietUni
on
Af
terhi
sar
my'
sfai
l
urei
ntheBat
tl
eofBr
it
ain,Hi
tl
erdeci
dedont
hei
nvasi
onoft
he
Sov
ietUni
onwhosedef
eathet
houghtwoul
dbeaccompl
i
shedbef
orewi
nter
.Ofal
l
t
hingshedi
dnotwantt
oshar
ehi
shegemonyov
erEur
opewi
thacommuni
stdi
ctat
or,
St
ali
n.Fr
om hi
sinv
asi
onHi
tl
erhopedt
ogetwhathecal
l
edt
he“
Lebensr
aum”orl
i
ving
spacewhi
cht
hev
astSov
iett
err
it
orycoul
dpr
ovi
def
orGer
manset
tl
ers.Heal
sopl
anned
t
otaket
hewheatoft
heUkr
aineandt
heoi
lfi
eldsoft
heCaucasus.Wi
tht
heseai
ms,
the
Ger
mansst
art
edt
hei
rat
tackon22June,
1941.TheSov
iet
srespondedwi
thaso-
cal
l
ed
scor
chedear
thpol
i
cy,
whi
chcal
l
edf
ordest
ruct
ionofev
ery
thi
ngt
hatcoul
dbeofuset
o
t
hei
nvader
s,whi
l
efi
ght
inghar
dast
heywer
epushedbackt
othei
nter
ioroft
hecount
ry.
TheGer
mansadv
ancedv
eryf
astandi
nNov
ember1941t
heyhadal
readypenet
rat
ed
about960kmsdeepi
ntot
heSov
ietUni
on.Byt
henKi
ev,t
hecapi
talci
tyoft
heUkr
aine,
hadf
all
en.
Leni
ngr
ad,
oneoft
hemaj
orci
ti
es,
wascutof
ffr
om anyl
andconnect
ionwi
tht
her
estof
t
heSov
ietUni
onandputundersi
ege.TheGer
manswer
eatt
heout
ski
rt
sofMoscow.
Al
thought
heSov
iet
swer
ehar
dpr
essedbyt
heenemy
,theyf
oughtwi
tht
heut
most
pat
ri
oti
sm.Theyr
all
i
edt
othecr
y“Behi
ndusi
sMoscow –t
her
eisnor
oom l
eftf
or
r
etr
eat
!”Consequent
ly,i
nDecember1941whent
heRussi
anwi
nterseti
n,t
heGer
mans
wer
epr
event
edf
rom t
aki
ngMoscowandLeni
ngr
ad.Hi
tl
er'
s"bl
i
tzkr
ig"f
ail
edt
obr
ingt
he
desi
redr
esul
tsi
nRussi
a.
Whywast
he"
bli
tkr
ig"i
nef
fect
ivei
ntheRussi
ancompai
gn?
TheAt
tackonPear
lHar
bour
Si
ncet
heconquestofManchur
iai
n1931,
theJapanesehadbeenengagedi
nthet
askof
achi
evi
ngt
hei
rul
ti
mat
egoalofexpansi
oni
nAsi
aandt
hePaci
fi
c.I
n1937t
heyl
aunched
af
ullscal
einv
asi
onov
erChi
nawhi
chr
esul
tedi
ntheest
abl
i
shmentofaJapanese-
domi
nat
edgov
ernmenti
npar
tofChi
nai
nMar
ch,
1940.I
nthemont
hst
hatf
oll
owedt
he
Japanesegov
ernmentmadei
tof
fi
cialt
hati
tspl
anwast
oest
abl
i
sha“
New Or
deri
n
Gr
eat
erEastAsi
a”.Tot
hisend,
theJapaneseadopt
edt
hesl
ogan“
Asi
afort
heAsi
ans”
.
Theydecl
aredt
hatt
hegoaloft
heJapanesegov
ernmentwast
oest
abl
i
sha“
Great
er
EastAsi
aCo-
Prosper
it
ySpher
e”.I
nfact
,theJapaneseai
m wast
orepl
aceWest
ern
i
mper
ial
i
sm byJapanesei
mper
ial
i
sm and"
Co-
prosper
it
y"f
orot
herAsi
anpeopl
eswas
onl
yacov
er.Asast
epi
nful
fi
ll
i
ngt
hisgoal
,
Japan i
nvaded t
he Tonki
n pr
ovi
nce i
nIndochi
na.I
nresponse,t
he Uni
ted St
ates
ext
endedal
oant
oChi
naandst
oppedt
heexpor
tofscr
api
ront
oJapan.Thi
spr
ompt
ed
Japant
osi
gnaTr
ipar
ti
teTr
eat
ywi
thGer
manyandI
tal
ywi
del
yknownast
he"
Ber
li
n-
Rome-
Toky
oTr
iangl
e".I
nthet
reat
ythet
hreepower
spl
edgedt
oassi
stoneanot
heri
n
t
heev
entofat
tackonanyoneoft
hem.
Whenandhowdi
drel
ati
onsbet
weenJapanandt
heUSAst
artt
ogetsour
?
I
nJul
y1941Japanext
endedi
tscont
rolov
ert
hesout
her
npar
tofI
ndochi
na.Thi
s
measur
est
rai
ned r
elat
ionsbet
weenJapanand t
heUni
ted St
ates,and soont
rade
r
elat
ionsbet
weent
het
wocount
ri
eswasser
iousl
yaf
fect
ed.TheUSAputi
ncr
easi
ng
economi
cpr
essur
eonJapansoast
ofor
cei
tswi
thdr
awalf
rom I
ndochi
naandChi
na.
I
mpor
tsofoi
landot
heressent
ialr
awmat
eri
alswer
edeni
edt
oJapanbyt
heUSA,and
l
aterbyBr
it
ain.Japanhadonl
ytwochoi
ces:t
oabandonherconquest
sorsei
zeoi
l
fiel
ds
andar
easwi
thr
awmat
eri
alsi
nSout
hEastAsi
a.Japanobv
iousl
ychoset
hel
att
er.But
t
osei
zeandhol
dtheoi
landr
aw mat
eri
alswhi
chJapanneededi
nSout
hEastAsi
a,
Japanwoul
dneedt
odest
royUSpoweri
nther
egi
on.Ther
efor
e,Japandeci
dedt
o
smashUSnav
alandai
rpoweri
nthePaci
fi
candEastAsi
a,i
fnegot
iat
ionscoul
dnot
changeUSpol
i
cyi
nfav
ourofJapan.
Whent
henegot
iat
ionsf
ail
edt
obr
ingaboutt
heexpect
edchangeson7December
1941,
Japanesebomber
slaunchedasur
pri
seat
tackont
heAmer
icannav
albaseatPear
l
Har
bour
,inHawai
i
.Int
heat
tackofDecember
,1941,t
heJapanesesank19Amer
ican
shi
psanddest
roy
ed188pl
anes.Howev
er,t
heUSai
rcr
aftcar
ri
ers,notpr
esenti
nPear
l
Har
bouratt
het
ime,wer
esav
ed.Theat
tackal
soki
l
ledmor
ethan2,
400peopl
eand
woundedanot
her1100ormor
e.Ont
hef
oll
owi
ngdayt
heUni
tedSt
atesdecl
aredwaron
Japan.On11December
,1941Ger
manyandI
tal
y,i
nkeepi
ngwi
tht
hei
ragr
eementi
nthe
Tr
ipar
ti
teTr
eat
y,decl
aredwaront
heUni
tedSt
ates.Japanf
orat
imemader
api
d
adv
ancesi
nthePaci
fi
candSout
hEastAsi
a.HongKong,
thePhi
l
ippi
nes,
Bur
ma,
Mal
aya
wer
eoccupi
ed.

i
v.TheWor
ldatWar
ThePear
lHar
bouri
nci
dentmadet
hewarf
ull
yawor
ldwar
.TheJapaneser
aidonPear
l
Har
bourandt
heconsequentent
ryoft
heUSAi
ntot
hewarupsett
hebal
anceofpoweri
n
t
heongoi
ngwar
.Unt
ilt
hen,Japan'
sexpansi
onhadgonev
irt
ual
l
yunopposed.Thi
s
at
tackhad t
he i
mmedi
ate ef
fectofsol
i
dif
ying t
he al
l
ianceson bot
h si
des.On 8
DecemberAmer
ica'
s decl
arat
ion ofwaron Japan was accompani
ed bya Br
it
ish
decl
arat
ionofwar
.On11DecemberGer
manyandI
tal
ydecl
aredwaront
heUSA.I
n
August
,1942t
hewarwasbei
ngf
oughti
nsev
eralt
heat
ressi
tuat
edi
neast
ernEur
ope,
Nor
thAf
ri
caandt
heMedi
ter
ranean,Bur
maandChi
na,andt
heAt
lant
icandt
hePaci
fi
c.
I
nthemeant
ime,I
tal
i
ant
roopshadal
readyi
nvadedEgy
ptandGr
eece.t
her
egi
on.
Ther
efor
e,Japandeci
dedt
osmashUSnav
alandai
rpoweri
nthePaci
fi
candEastAsi
a,
i
fnegot
iat
ionscoul
dnotchangeUSpol
i
cyi
nfav
ourofJapan.
Whent
henegot
iat
ionsf
ail
edt
obr
ingaboutt
heexpect
edchangeson7December
1941,
Japanesebomber
slaunchedasur
pri
seat
tackont
heAmer
icannav
albaseatPear
l
Har
bour
,inHawai
i
.Int
heat
tackofDecember
,1941,t
heJapanesesank19Amer
ican
shi
psanddest
roy
ed188pl
anes.Howev
er,t
heUSai
rcr
aftcar
ri
ers,notpr
esenti
nPear
l
Har
bouratt
het
ime,wer
esav
ed.Theat
tackal
soki
l
ledmor
ethan2,
400peopl
eand
woundedanot
her1100ormor
e.Ont
hef
oll
owi
ngdayt
heUni
tedSt
atesdecl
aredwaron
Japan.On11December
,1941Ger
manyandI
tal
y,i
nkeepi
ngwi
tht
hei
ragr
eementi
nthe
Tr
ipar
ti
teTr
eat
y,decl
aredwaront
heUni
tedSt
ates.Japanf
orat
imemader
api
d
adv
ancesi
nthePaci
fi
candSout
hEastAsi
a.HongKong,
thePhi
l
ippi
nes,
Bur
ma,
Mal
aya
wer
eoccupi
ed.
I
nthewi
nterof1941-
42Sov
ietf
orcesopenedacount
er-
off
ensi
veandpushedt
he
Ger
mansbacksomedi
stancef
rom Moscow.Buti
nthesummerof1942t
heGer
mans
openedanewof
fensi
veagai
nstt
heSov
ietUni
oni
nthesout
h.Ger
mant
roopsmount
ed
amaj
orat
tackagai
nstSt
ali
ngr
ad,amaj
ori
ndust
ri
alcent
reont
heVol
gar
iver
.Theci
ty
al
soser
vedasoneoft
heSov
iet
s'l
i
nesofcommuni
cat
ion.Thi
sci
tywasnamedaf
ter
t
heSov
ietl
eader
,JosephSt
ali
n.Thef
alloft
heci
tyt
otheGer
manswoul
dhav
easev
ere
psy
chol
ogi
cali
mpactont
heSov
iet
s’nat
ionalpr
ide.Gi
vent
his,St
ali
nandt
heSov
iet
s
wer
edet
ermi
nedt
ohol
dtheci
ty.Hi
tl
er,onhi
spar
t,wasequal
l
ydet
ermi
nedt
otaket
he
ci
tyandkeptonor
der
ingGer
manf
orcest
ocont
inuewi
tht
hei
rassaul
t.Forweeks,
fier
ce
bat
tl
eswer
efoughtf
oreachbui
l
ding,
orst
reet
.InNov
ember1942,
theSov
iet
slaunched
amaj
orcount
er-
att
ackagai
nstt
heGer
mansf
ight
ingi
nandneart
heci
ty.I
nthecount
er-
at
tack t
he Sov
iet
s enci
rcl
ed t
he Ger
mans f
ight
ing i
n St
ali
ngr
ad.Att
he t
ime,t
he
Ger
manswer
eal
readysuf
fer
ingf
rom t
heRussi
anwi
nter
.On1Febr
uar
y,1943t
he
Ger
manswer
efor
cedt
osur
render
.Thi
sbr
oughtanendt
othebat
tl
eofSt
ali
ngr
adi
n
whi
chal
argepar
toft
heGer
manar
mywasdest
roy
ed.TheSt
ali
ngr
adbat
tl
ewasa
deci
si
vet
urni
ngpoi
nti
nthecour
seofWor
ldWarI
I.I
nEur
opeont
heat
reofwart
he
heav
iestf
ight
ingwasdonebyt
heSov
ietar
mies,
andt
heSov
ietar
mieshadt
heheav
iest
l
osses.
Howdi
dtheAl
li
eswont
hewari
nAf
ri
ca?
El
sewher
e,f
ier
ce bat
tl
es wer
e st
il
lragi
ng.I
n Nor
th Af
ri
ca,t
he Ger
man f
orces
commandedbyGener
alEr
winRommelhaddomi
nat
edt
hedeser
twarsi
nce1941.I
n
1942t
heyhadnear
lyt
akenEgy
pt.I
nlat
eOct
ober
,1942t
heBr
it
ishandCommonweal
th
t
roopsunderGener
alBer
nar
dMont
gomer
ylaunchedamaj
orat
tackagai
nstRommel
’
s
t
roops.Al
l
iedf
orcesl
andedi
nAl
ger
iaandMor
occoi
nNov
ember1942.Fi
ercebat
tl
es
cont
inuedi
nthedeser
tandi
nTuni
siawhi
chcamet
oanendwi
tht
hev
ict
oryofAl
l
ied
t
roops.I
nMay
,1943,t
heAxi
sfor
cesi
nNor
thAf
ri
casur
render
edt
otheAl
l
ies.Then
f
oll
owed,i
nJul
y1943,t
hei
nvasi
onofI
tal
y.Vi
ctorEmmanuelI
II
,Ki
ngofI
tal
y,deposed
Mussol
i
niandappoi
ntedMar
shalPi
etr
oBadogl
i
oasPr
imeMi
nist
erofI
tal
y.Al
though
Mar
shalBadogl
i
opr
omi
sedHi
tl
ert
hatI
tal
ywoul
dcont
inuei
nthewaront
heAxi
ssi
de,
hesi
gnedasecr
etactofsur
rendert
otheAl
l
ies.Suspect
ingt
his,Hi
tl
ersentGer
man
f
orcesi
ntoI
tal
ywhi
choccupi
edRomeandr
escuedMussol
i
niwhowasputi
ncont
rolof
nor
ther
nIt
aly
.Heav
yfi
ght
ingwentoni
nIt
alyunt
ilt
heendoft
hewarbuton4June,
1944,
All
i
edt
roopsoccupi
edRome.Neart
heendoft
hewar
,Mussol
i
niwascapt
uredby
I
tal
i
ancommuni
stsandshotbyt
hem.
v
.Endoft
heWar
Thel
andi
ngofUS,Br
it
ishandCanadi
anf
orcesatNor
mandy(
Nor
thFr
ance)or
,the
i
nvasi
on ofNor
mandy
,on 6 June,1944 wasamaj
orbr
eakt
hrough i
ntheAl
l
ied
r
econquestofEur
ope;
Thi
sinv
asi
onwasnamedOper
ati
onOv
erl
ord.Thecommanderof
t
heAl
l
iedt
roops,t
heAmer
icanGener
alDwi
ghtEi
senhower
,or
gani
zedar
ound150,
000
t
roops,5,
300shi
psand12,
000pl
anesf
ort
hei
nvasi
on.I
npr
epar
ati
onf
ort
heat
tack,
Al
l
iedf
orcesandi
tswarmachi
nesandsuppl
i
eshadassembl
edi
nsout
her
nEngl
and.
TheGer
mansknew t
hatt
her
ewoul
dbeani
nvasi
on.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
heydi
dnotknow
whenandwher
ethei
nvasi
onwoul
dtakepl
ace.Becauseoft
his,t
heyspr
eadt
hei
r
ar
mies al
lal
ong t
he Fr
ench coastf
aci
ng t
he Engl
i
sh Channel
.The Al
l
ied t
roops
l
aunchedt
heat
tackal
onga96kmsst
ret
choft
heNor
mandycoast
.Wi
thi
namont
hand
ahal
f,t
heyhadl
i
ber
atedal
mostal
lofFr
ance.I
nthemeant
ime,Gener
alChar
lesde
Gaul
l
e,t
hel
eaderofFr
eeFr
ance,
tri
umphant
lyent
eredPar
ison25August1944.
Whendi
dtheJapanesesuf
fer
edamaj
orset
backi
nthePaci
fi
cwar
?
Meanwhi
l
e,ont
heEast
ernFr
ont
,theSov
iet
smader
api
dadv
ances.Theyl
i
ber
atedt
he
Sov
ietci
ti
esandt
err
it
ori
esoneaf
tert
heot
her
.InJul
y1944,t
heycr
ossedi
ntoPol
i
sh
t
err
it
ory
.Bet
weenAugustandOct
ober1944,t
hemaj
orpar
tofEast
ernandCent
ral
Eur
opewasunderSov
ietcont
rol
.
I
nthePaci
fi
c,USf
orceswer
einal
i
feanddeat
hst
ruggl
eagai
nstt
heJapanese.The
bat
tl
eofMi
dwayI
slandi
n1942,f
oughtent
ir
elybycar
ri
erbor
neai
rcr
aft
,wasadeci
siv
e
def
eatoft
heJapanesenav
ysuf
fer
ed.Fr
om t
henont
heUSf
orceswer
epushi
ngt
he
Japanesebacki
nthePaci
fi
candby1944wer
eget
ti
ngr
eadyt
oinv
ademai
nlandJapan.
Att
heend of1944,t
heAl
l
ied t
roops,adv
anci
ng f
rom t
hewest
,inv
aded West
ern
Ger
many
.Hi
tl
erdeci
dedt
omountacount
er-at
tackagai
nstt
heAl
l
iest
hrought
he
Ar
dennesi
nor
dert
ohal
tthei
radv
ance.Accor
dingl
y,t
heGer
mansl
aunchedt
hecount
er-
at
tacki
nmi
d-December1944,butf
ail
edt
ocheckt
heAl
l
ies'adv
ance.I
ndeed,t
hiswas
t
hel
astdesper
ateof
fensi
vet
heGer
mansmadebef
oret
heysur
render
edt
otheAl
l
ies.I
n
t
heeastt
heSov
ietRedAr
myhadal
readyr
eachedt
otheGer
manf
ront
ierl
i
ber
ati
ngeast
Eur
opeancount
ri
esont
hei
rway
.On16Apr
il
,Mar
shalZhukov
,commanderoft
he
Russi
anf
orces,l
aunchedwhatpr
ovedt
obet
hef
inalat
tackonBer
li
n.Adol
fHi
tl
erdi
d
notl
i
vet
oseeGer
many
’ssur
rendert
otheAl
l
ies.Hecommi
tt
edsui
cideaweekbef
ore
t
hecapi
tul
ati
onofBer
li
nonMay2,1945,t
otheSov
iett
roops.OneofHi
tl
er’
slast
measur
eswast
omakeAdmi
ralKar
lDoeni
tzhi
ssuccessor
.OnMay7,1945,Kar
l
Doeni
tzaut
hor
izedGer
many
’ssur
rendert
otheAl
l
ies.Ont
hatsameday
,Gener
alAl
fr
ed
Jodlsur
render
edt
heGer
manf
orcesi
nthewestt
oGener
alEi
senhower
.Thenex
tday
,
t
heGer
manf
orcesi
ntheeastsur
render
edt
oMar
shalGeor
giZhukov
.Thus8May
,1945
becameVE(
Vict
oryi
nEur
ope)whi
chmar
kedt
heendoft
hewari
nEur
ope.
Despi
teGer
many
’ssur
render
,theSecondWor
ldWarwasnoty
etov
er.TheAl
l
ieshadt
o
f
ightt
heJapanesei
nAsi
aandt
hePaci
fi
cwhocont
inuedf
ight
ingaf
terVEday
.The
Japanesesur
renderwasf
orcedbyt
heuseoft
henewl
yinv
ent
edat
omi
cbomb.On6
August
,1945,t
hef
ir
stoft
heat
omi
cbombs,wasdr
oppedont
heJapaneseci
tyof
Hi
roshi
ma.OnAugust9,t
hesecondbombwasdr
oppedonanot
herJapaneseci
ty,
Nagasaki
.Thebombscausedi
mmensehumanandmat
eri
aldest
ruct
ion.
Ont
heday
soft
hebombi
ng,
80,
000peopl
einHi
roshi
maand40,
000peopl
einNagasaki
l
ostt
hei
rli
ves.Longaf
tert
hebombi
ng,v
ict
imscont
inuedt
o suf
feranddi
efr
om
r
adi
ati
onsi
ckness.Asar
esul
t,t
hedeat
htol
lroset
oabout200,
000
Accor
dingt
otheUSPr
esi
dent
,Har
ryS.Tr
uman(
Roosev
elthaddi
edi
nApr
il1945)
,the
at
omi
cbombswer
eusedt
ohast
enJapanesesur
render
.Howev
er,Sov
iethi
stor
ians
ar
guet
hati
nter
msofmi
l
itar
yst
rat
egyt
heuseoft
hebombswasnotr
equi
red.Si
nce
Japanwast
heonl
yAxi
spowerst
il
lint
hewar
,it
ssur
rendercoul
dhav
ebeenf
orced
wi
thoutt
hosebombs.Ther
efor
e,t
heyconcl
udedi
nusi
ngt
hebombst
heUSi
ntendedt
o
demonst
rat
eit
s powert
othe Sov
iet
s whi
ch woul
d hav
e an i
mpacton post
-
war
int
ernat
ionalr
elat
ion.Sov
ietandsomenon-
Sov
iethi
stor
ianshav
eal
soar
guedt
hat
t
heUSSR'
sdecl
arat
ionofwaronJapani
nAugust1945di
dmor
etomakeJapan
sur
rendert
hant
heuseoft
heat
omi
cbombs.Apar
tfr
om t
his,t
heUSmi
ghthav
eused
t
heat
omi
cbombsagai
nstJapant
otaker
evengef
or,t
hePear
lHar
bourcat
ast
rophe.I
n
anycase,on15August1945t
heJapaneseEmper
or,Hi
rohi
to,si
gnedt
heuncondi
ti
onal
sur
renderofJapant
hatputanof
fi
cial
endt
otheSecondWor
ldWar
.
Consequencesoft
heWar
Compar
edt
oWor
ldWarI
,theSecondWor
ldWarcausedf
armor
edamaget
omat
eri
al
pr
oper
ty,
andev
engr
eat
erl
ossofhumanl
i
fe.Sev
eral
fact
orsaccount
edf
ort
his.Fi
rstof
al
l
,theSecondWor
ldWarwasf
oughti
nsev
eralt
heat
res(
areas)
.Secondl
y,i
naddi
ti
on
t
othedeat
hsi
nthef
ight
ing,t
her
ewer
emasski
l
li
ngsi
nconcent
rat
ioncamps.Thi
rdl
y,
ai
rrai
ds,st
arv
ati
onanddi
seasemadeci
vi
li
ancasual
ti
esv
eryhi
gh.Fi
nal
l
y,t
heai
rrai
ds
causedser
iousdest
ruct
iononmat
eri
alpr
oper
ty.
I
thasbeen est
imat
ed t
hatmor
ethan 70 mi
l
li
on peopl
efoughti
nthe war
.Iti
s
i
mpossi
blet
ogi
veaconcl
usi
vef
igur
eaboutwardeat
hs,butpr
obabl
yabout50mi
l
li
on
mi
ghthav
edi
edi
nact
ion.TheUSSRl
ostov
er20mi
l
li
onofi
tspopul
ati
onandChi
na
pr
obabl
ysev
eral
mil
l
ionsbutt
hef
igur
eforChi
nai
suncer
tai
n.
Mat
eri
aldest
ruct
ioncausedbyt
heSecondWor
ldWarwasf
argr
eat
ert
hani
ntheFi
rst
Wor
ldWar
.Al
mostal
lpor
tsi
nGer
many
,Fr
anceandot
hercount
ri
eswer
edest
roy
ed.
Roads and r
ail
way
s wer
e damaged by r
epeat
ed bombi
ngs.Many br
idges wer
e
dest
roy
edt
oget
herwi
thal
argenumberofl
ocomot
ivesandr
ail
waywaggons.Many
ci
ti
esandt
ownsandi
ndust
ri
alcent
ressuchast
heRuhrwer
erui
ned.War
sawhadt
obe
t
otal
l
ybui
l
tanew.I
ngener
al,mat
eri
aldamagest
opr
oper
tyhav
ebeenest
imat
edat
mor
ethant
wot
housandbi
l
li
ondol
l
ars(
$2,
000,
000,
000,
000)
.
Whatdowemeanbyt
he"
Hol
ocaust
"?
Per
hapst
hemostpai
nfulmemor
yoft
hewarwast
he“
Hol
ocaust
”.Li
ter
all
y,hol
ocaust
meantwhol
esal
e,compl
etedest
ruct
ion.Buti
nWor
ldWarI
I,i
tmeantt
hemassmur
der
ofEur
opeanJewsbyt
heor
der
sofHi
tl
erandNazi
off
ici
als.Asar
esul
tofHi
tl
er’
spl
anof
el
i
minat
ingJewsandot
hermi
nor
it
ies,12mi
l
li
onpeopl
ewer
esl
aught
ered.Oft
hese,
about6mi
l
li
onwer
eEur
opeanJews,whi
l
ether
estwer
emi
nor
it
iesl
i
keGy
psi
es,and
Sl
avs.Themasski
l
li
ngwascar
ri
edouti
nconcent
rat
ioncamps,
amongwhi
cht
hemost
i
nfamouswer
eAuschwi
tz,Dachau,Buchenwal
d,Bel
sen and Nor
dhausen.I
nthese
campst
heJewsandot
her
swor
kedandl
i
vedunderhor
ri
blecondi
ti
ons.Manydi
edof
st
arv
ati
onanddi
sease.
Ot
her
swer
emadev
ict
imsofcr
uelexper
iment
sconduct
edbyNazidoct
ors.Jews,
howev
er,wer
eusual
l
ymar
chedi
ntogaschamber
swher
etheywer
eki
l
ledwi
thpoi
son
gas.SuchNaziat
roci
ti
eshadbeengener
all
yunknownatl
easti
nthei
rful
lext
ent
,unt
il
t
heywer
erev
eal
edt
owar
dst
heendoft
hewarTheEur
opeancommuni
stst
ateshad
al
sobui
l
t,ear
li
eri
n1949,
thei
rowneconomi
cor
gani
zat
ioncal
l
edt
heCounci
lforMut
ual
Economi
cAssi
stance.I
twasal
sor
efer
redt
oast
heComecon.TheComeconwas
i
ntendedt
ost
rengt
heneconomi
cti
esamongsoci
ali
stst
ates.
Thegr
owi
ngf
earcausedbynucl
earweaponsbr
oughtst
atesmeni
nbot
hcampst
othei
r
sensest
oseeksol
uti
onsf
ort
her
elaxat
ionofCol
dWart
ensi
ons.Thi
sresul
tedi
nthe
begi
nni
ngofnew pol
i
ciessuchaspeacef
ulco-
exi
stenceanddét
ent
e.UnderPr
emi
er
Ni
ki
taKhr
ushchev
,bef
orehewasr
emov
edf
rom poweri
n1966,t
heSov
iet
sadopt
eda
new pol
i
cyt
owar
dtheWest
.Thi
spol
i
cywasknownas“
peacef
ulco-
exi
stence”
.To
Ni
ki
taKhr
ushchev
,peacef
ulco-
exi
stencemeantt
hatt
heSov
iet
swoul
dcompet
ewi
th
t
heWest
,butwoul
dav
oidwar
.Dét
ent
ewast
heWest
’sequi
val
entf
ort
heSov
iett
erm,
peacef
ulco-
exi
stence.Cl
ear
ly,t
her
ewasadesi
rei
nbot
hcampst
orel
axt
heCol
dWar
t
ensi
ons.I
nspi
teoft
his,
unt
ilt
he1970st
her
ewasl
i
ttl
epr
ogr
essi
nar
msl
i
mit
ati
ont
alks.
Thef
ir
stposi
ti
vemov
etowar
dsdét
ent
ewast
heconcl
usi
onoft
heNon-
Prol
i
fer
ati
on
Tr
eat
yin1968.Thet
reat
yai
medatpr
event
ingt
heexpansi
onofnucl
earweapons
bey
ondt
hecount
ri
est
hatal
readypossessedt
hem.Byt
heendof1971,al
lper
manent
member
sint
heUNSecur
it
yCounci
lwer
enucl
earpower
s.Al
thought
het
reat
ydi
dnot
pr
eventpr
oli
fer
ati
onofnucl
earweapons,i
tpr
omot
ed r
enewed ef
for
tst
oli
mitt
he
ar
mament
soft
hesuperpower
s.I
nNov
ember
,1969adi
sar
mamentnegot
iat
ion,
known
asSt
rat
egi
cAr
msLi
mit
ati
onTal
ks(
SALT)wasopened.
Wi
tht
hebegi
nni
ngofSALT,t
her
ear
oseagr
owi
nghopet
hatt
hef
urt
herbui
l
d-upof
nucl
earweapons,wi
tht
hei
renor
mouscost
,mi
ghtbemi
nimi
zed.Af
teral
ongdel
ay,
SALTwasconcl
udedi
n1972.Themov
etowar
ddét
ent
ereachedi
tspeaki
n1975,
when
negot
iat
iononSALTwasopened.Butbef
oret
henegot
iat
ioncoul
dgetanyf
urt
her
,new
East
-WestCol
dWart
ensi
onsbegan.Thet
ensi
onscont
inuedunt
ilt
heCol
dWari
tsel
f
f
inal
l
ycamet
oanend,
asar
esul
toft
het
wosuccessf
ulsummi
tmeet
ings(
1986-1987)
bet
weenPr
esi
dentRonal
dReaganoft
heUSAandPr
esi
dentMi
khai
lGor
bachevoft
he
USSR.
Ther
esoonf
oll
owed,
att
hebegi
nni
ngoft
he1990s,
thef
allofcommuni
sm i
ntheUSSR
aswel
lasi
nandEastandCent
ralEur
ope,andt
hebr
eakupoft
heSov
ietUni
oni
nto
i
ndependentr
epubl
i
cs.
Bi
rt
hoft
heLeagueofNat
ions
Mor
ethan once,i
n ear
li
ercent
uri
es,pr
oposal
s ai
med att
he est
abl
i
shmentofa
per
manentgr
oup oran i
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ion had been dr
own up.Such an
or
gani
zat
ionwasexpect
edt
opr
omot
ewor
ldpeace.ManyEur
opeanst
atesmenhad
dr
aft
edpl
anst
oachi
evet
hisgoal
.Thei
rdr
eam camet
ruewhent
heLeagueofNat
ions
wasest
abl
i
shedatt
heendoft
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
.TheLeagueofNat
ionsemer
gedas
t
hef
ir
sti
nter
nat
ionalor
gani
zat
ionmeantt
okeepwor
ldpeace.I
nfact
,thecov
enantof
t
heLeague,t
hati
sit
sconst
it
uti
on,hadal
readybeeni
ncor
por
atedi
ntot
heTr
eat
yof
Ver
sai
l
les.Theunder
li
nedobj
ect
iveoft
heLeaguei
sst
atedt
obeset
tl
ingdi
sput
es
t
hroughpeacef
ulmeanssuchasconci
l
iat
ion,
arbi
tr
ati
onandj
udi
cial
procedur
es.
Thef
ormat
ion oft
heLeagueofNat
ionswast
her
esul
toft
het
ir
elessef
for
tsof
Pr
esi
dentWi
l
sonoft
heUSAandhi
sfamous14poi
nts.Thel
astofhi
sFour
teenPoi
nts
st
atest
hat
:TheSecondWor
ldWarhadal
sof
ar–r
eachi
ngpol
i
ticalconsequences.I
t
hel
pedt
oaccel
erat
ethest
ruggl
efornat
ionall
i
ber
ati
onf
rom col
oni
ali
sm i
nAsi
aand
Af
ri
ca,hence,t
heemer
genceofmanynewi
ndependentst
atesi
nAsi
aandAf
ri
caaf
ter
Wor
ldWarI
I.Thewaral
sol
edt
othedev
elopmentofnewi
nter
nat
ionalal
i
gnment
s.The
USAandt
heUSSRbecamet
hesuperpower
soft
hepost
-1945per
iod.Si
nce1945t
her
e
hasbeenaser
iesofcr
isesi
nal
mostal
lpar
tsoft
hewor
ld.I
nsuchcr
ises,t
hesuper
power
sal
way
stookopposi
tesi
des.Ont
hewhol
e,t
hegr
eatpr
obl
emscr
eat
edbyt
he
SecondWor
ldWart
ookmanyy
ear
stosol
veandi
nfact
,someoft
hepr
obl
emshav
enot
y
etbeensol
ved.
7.
2TheFor
mat
ionoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsOr
gani
zat
ion(
UNO)
I
nAugust1942,Pr
esi
dentRoosev
eltofUSAandPr
imemi
nist
erWi
nst
onChur
chi
l
lof
Br
it
ainhel
dahi
stor
icconf
erenceont
heAt
lant
iccoastofCanada.I
nthi
smeet
ingt
hey
madeaj
ointdecl
arat
ionknownast
heAt
lant
icChar
teri
nwhi
cht
heyexpr
essedt
hei
r
commi
tmentt
othecr
eat
ionofani
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
ion.Thi
slai
dthef
oundat
ionf
or
t
heest
abl
i
shmentoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsOr
gani
zat
ion.
I
nJanuar
y1942t
went
ysi
xnat
ions,whot
ookpar
tint
hewaragai
nstGer
manymeti
n
Washi
ngt
onandagr
eedt
oacceptt
heAt
lant
icChar
ter
.Thef
oll
owi
ngy
ear
,Chi
na,Gr
eat
Br
it
ain,
theSov
ietUni
onandt
heUni
tedSt
ates,
meti
nMoscowandpl
edgedt
osetupan
i
nter
nat
ional
organi
zat
iont
hatcoul
dtaket
hepl
aceoft
heLeagueofNat
ions.
Bet
weenAugust
-Nov
ember1944,aconf
erenceofdel
egat
esf
rom al
l
iedcount
ri
esmet
atDumbar
tonOaks,(
nearWashi
ngt
onD.
C)t
oimpl
ementt
heMoscow decl
arat
ionof
1943.I
nJune1945,atSan-
Franci
sco,r
epr
esent
ati
vesof50nat
ionsappr
ovedt
he
char
teroft
hef
utur
eUni
tedNat
ionsOr
gani
zat
ionUNO.Thent
heUNOwasf
ormal
l
yset
uponApr
il25,
1945.
Thegoal
soft
heUNar
e:
1.mai
ntai
nint
ernat
ional
peaceandsecur
it
y
2.t
akeef
fect
ivecol
l
ect
ivemeasur
esf
ort
hepr
event
ionandr
emov
aloft
hreat
stot
he
peaceandsuppr
essact
sofaggr
essi
on.
3.encour
age i
nter
nat
ionalcooper
ati
on i
n sol
vi
ng economi
c,soci
al,cul
tur
alor
humani
tar
ianpr
obl
ems.
4.dev
elopf
ri
endl
yrel
ati
onsamongnat
ions
5.Pr
ormot
erespectf
orhumanr
ight
swi
thoutdi
sti
nct
ionast
orace,sexl
anguage,or
r
eli
gion.
TheSt
ruct
ureoft
heUni
tedNat
ionsOr
gani
zat
ion
Secr
etar
iat(
Secret
ary
Gener
al)

Tr
ust
eeshi
p
Secur
it
y Counci
l
Counci
l
Gener
al
Assembly Economicand
Social
Counci
l
I
nter
nati
onalcourt
ofJust
ice
TheGener
alAssembl y-iscomposedofal
lmemberst
at S.
espE
ec
ai
a
clAge
hme nci
mb er
esnat
ionhas
oneVot
eint
heAssembl
y,t
houghi
tmaysendupt
ofi
vedel
egat
est
oit
smeet
ings.I
t
el
ect
sthenon-
per
manentmember
stot
hesecur
it
ycounci
landt
hemember
sofot
her
.
..et
c
counci
l
sandcommi
tt
ees. I
ho FAO NESCO WHO I
MF.
.
TheSecur
it
yCounci
l-Thi
sist
hel
eadi
ngor
ganoft
heU.
N.O.I
thasf
iveper
manent
member
s:-Br
it
ain,Russi
a,t
heUSA,Fr
anceandChi
na(
aft
er1971)
.Thenumberofnon-
per
manentmemberor
igi
nal
l
ywer
esi
x,l
atergr
ew t
otenandt
henf
if
teen.Thenon-
per
manentmember
sar
eel
ect
edev
eryt
woy
ear
s.Theper
manentmember
shav
ethe
r
ightofVet
o.
Thecounci
lhasami
l
itar
yst
affcommi
tt
eeandhast
hepowert
omobi
l
izean
ar
medf
orceunderU.
Ncont
rol
.Thecounci
lmayal
soor
dert
hei
mposi
ti
onofeconomi
c
sanct
ionsagai
nstof
fendi
ngnat
ions.Thecounci
lcont
rol
stheel
ect
ionoft
heSecr
etar
y
Gener
alandt
headmi
ssi
onofnewmember
sint
otheor
gani
zat
ion.I
thasal
sot
hepower
t
osendcommi
ssi
onst
oinv
est
igat
epr
obl
emsi
nar
easofconf
li
ctsorcr
isi
s.
TheSecr
etar
iat
:Thesecr
etar
iatdr
awsi
ts15000wor
ker
sfr
om v
ari
ousmembernat
ions.
I
tisseat
edatt
heheadquar
teri
nNewYor
k.I
tsmaj
ordut
iesi
ncl
ude:
 i
mpl
ementt
hedeci
sionsoft
heAssembl
yandCounci
l
s;
 br
ingsi
ssuesofmaj
orconcer
ntot
heat
tent
ionoft
heGener
alAssembl
y;
  dr
awsupanannual
repor
toft
heor
gani
zat
ion;
 coor
dinat
etheact
ivi
ti
esanddi
rectf
undsf
ort
hemanyspeci
ali
zedagenci
es.
TheSecr
etar
yGener
al
TheSecr
etar
yGener
ali
sappoi
ntedbyt
heGener
alAssembl
yont
her
ecommendat
ionof
t
heSecur
it
yCounci
lforaper
iodoff
ivey
ear
s.Thef
ir
stUN.Secr
etar
yGener
alwas
Tr
ygi
veLi
eofNor
way
.In1952hewasf
oll
owedbyDagHammar
skj
oldofSwedenwho
di
ed i
n 1961 i
n a pl
ane cr
ash,i
n Congo. U-
ThantofBur
ma,who succeeded
Hammar
skki
oldser
vedt
heof
fi
cef
ort
wot
ermsunt
il1966.Kur
tWal
dhei
m ofAust
ri
a
succeededU-
Thanti
n1971andwassucceededbyPer
ezdeCuel
l
arofPer
u.Thencame
Then came But
ros,But
ros Gal
iofEgy
ptKof
iAnan ofGhana hel
dthe secr
etar
y
Gener
shi
psi
nce1977.
TheEconomi
candSoci
alCounci
l
I
tisassi
gnedbyt
heGener
alAssembl
yfort
hree-
yeart
erm.I
tsr
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
stohandl
e
mat
ter
srel
ated t
o economi
c and soci
alaf
fai
rs.I
tdi
scusses,st
udy and make
r
ecommendat
ions on soci
al,economi
c,humani
tar
ian and env
ironment
ali
ssues.
Thr
oughi
tsspeci
ali
zedagenci
esi
taccompl
i
shedr
emar
kabl
ewor
ks.Thesespeci
ali
zed
agenci
esar
etheI
nter
nat
ionalLabourOr
gani
zat
ion(
ILO)
,theFoodandAgr
icul
tur
al
Or
gani
zat
ion (
FAO)
,the Wor
ld Heal
th Or
gani
zat
ion (
WHO)
,the Uni
ted Nat
ions
Educat
ional
Sci
ent
if
icandCul
tur
alOr
gani
zat
ion(
UNESCO)andot
her
s.
UN-
SuccessesandLi
mit
ati
ons:Si
nce1945,
theUNhasachi
evedi
mpr
essi
vesuccesses.
I
tst
oppedt
heCi
vi
lWari
nGr
eece,andt
heKor
eanwar(
1950-
53)
.Ithal
tedt
her
eli
gious
bl
oodshedbet
weenI
ndi
aandPaki
stanandar
bit
rat
edt
heAr
ab-I
srael
iconf
li
ct.I
tal
so
medi
atedt
heSuezCanalcr
isi
sof1956amongBr
it
ain,
France,
Egy
ptandI
srael
.In1948
t
heGener
alAssembl
yhadadopt
edt
heDecl
arat
ionofHumanRi
ght
s-awor
ldchar
ter
t
hatgav
erecogni
ti
ont
othenat
uralr
ight
sofman.I
nthesamey
eari
thadappr
ovedt
he
Genoci
deConv
ent
iont
opr
otectanyet
hni
cgr
oupf
rom ext
inct
ion.
Howev
er,
theVet
oPowerenj
oyedbysomemember
saf
fect
stheUNv
erypr
inci
pleoft
he
equal
i
tyofmembernat
ions.UNi
nabi
l
ityt
oest
abl
i
shaper
manenti
nter
nat
ionalar
med
f
orcei
soneot
herl
i
mit
ati
onoft
heor
gani
zat
ion. Wi
thi
ntheUNt
her
ewer
epol
i
tical
bl
ocs(
Amer
icanbl
oc,Sov
ietbl
oc,Af
ro-
Asi
abl
oc)
.Thi
s hi
nder
edi
tsi
nter
naluni
tyand
ef
fect
iveness.
7.
3.TheEmer
genceoft
heAnt
agoni
sti
cSuper
-Power
s:t
heU.
S.A.Ver
sust
heU.
S.S.
R
Wor
ldWarI
Iwasmai
nlyf
oughti
nEur
ope.I
tresul
tedi
ngr
eat
erdest
ruct
ioni
nthe
cont
inent
.Theeconomi
esoft
hel
eadi
ngEur
opeanspower
s,i
.eFr
ance,
Bri
tai
n,Ger
many
,
wer
eser
iousl
yaf
fect
edbyt
hiswar
.Thus,t
hei
rat
tempt
sateconomi
crecov
eryt
urned
outt
o be a chal
l
engi
ng t
ask.Pol
i
tical
l
y and mi
l
itar
il
y,t
hey wer
e exhaust
ed and
weakened,
asar
esul
toft
hewar
.
Unl
i
ket
heabov
egr
oupofst
ates,howev
er,t
heU.
S.Aandt
heU.
S.S.
Rcameoutoft
he
SecondWor
ldWarmuchst
rongert
hant
heyhadbeenbef
ore.Asar
esul
t,t
heyst
yled
t
hemsel
vesast
hesuper
-power
soft
hepost
-Wor
ldWarI
Ier
a.
Bef
oret
heSecondWor
ldWar
,theU.
S.Ahadbeenf
oll
owi
ngt
hepol
i
cyofi
sol
ati
oni
sm.
Thatpol
i
cywasbasedont
heassumpt
iont
hatt
heU.
S.Acoul
dli
vei
npeace,
ifi
tav
oided
i
nvol
vementi
ntheaf
fai
rsofEur
opeandt
hewor
ld.Butt
het
woWor
ldWar
spr
ovedt
hat
t
hispol
i
cywaswr
ong,asy
ouhav
elear
nedi
nUni
tsFourandSi
xoft
hist
ext
book.
Ther
efor
e,af
ter1945,t
heU.
S.Aadopt
edapol
i
cyofact
iveengagementi
nEur
opeas
wel
lasi
not
herpar
tsoft
hewor
ld.
Exceptf
ort
hei
sl
andofHawai
i
,thet
err
it
ori
esoft
heU.
S.Ahadnotbeenbat
tl
e-gr
ounds
f
orWor
ldWarI
I.I
ndeed,t
heU.
S.Ahadser
vedassuppl
i
erofwarmat
eri
als,f
oodand
manuf
act
uredgoodsf
ort
heAl
l
iedf
orcesandst
ates,
dur
ingWor
ldWarI
I.Asar
esul
t,i
ts
agr
icul
tur
eandi
ndust
ryhadexpandeddur
ingt
hewar
.Consequent
ly,
itcameoutoft
he
SecondWor
ldWarr
icherandmor
epower
ful
thani
thadbeeni
nthepr
e-warper
iod.
Bet
ween1928and1945,t
heGr
ossNat
ionalPr
oduct(
G.N.
P)oft
heU.
S.Ahadgr
own
f
rom 91bi
l
li
ondol
l
arst
o213bi
l
li
ondol
l
ars.Af
tert
heSecondWor
ldWar
,theav
erage
i
ncomeofanAmer
icanci
ti
zenwast
wot
imest
hant
hatofaBr
it
on(
Bri
ti
shci
ti
zen)and
sev
ent
imest
hant
hatofaRussi
an.I
n1950,
mor
ethanahal
foft
hewor
ld’
stot
almot
or
v
ehi
cl
eswer
efoundi
ntheU.
S.A.Butt
hisi
snott
odenyt
heexi
stenceofpoorquar
ter
s
(
slums)andv
erypoorAmer
icansi
ntheU.
S.A,owi
ngt
otheunev
endi
str
ibut
ionof
weal
th.Nonet
hel
ess,t
heU.
S.Awasbyf
art
her
ichestcount
ryi
nthewor
ld,dur
ingt
he
i
mmedi
atepost
-warper
iod.
I
n1945,t
heU.
S.A.haddev
elopedt
heat
om bomb,t
hemostdest
ruct
iveweapont
hat
humanki
ndhadev
ermade.I
twasat
om bombst
hatwer
edr
oppedatt
het
woJapanese
ci
ti
esofHi
roshi
maandNagasaki
,att
heendofWor
ldWarI
I.Noot
herst
atehadt
his
weaponunt
ilt
heU.
S.S.
Rbui
l
tit
sowni
n1949.Consequent
ly,t
heUSAbecameasuper
-
poweri
nev
erysenseoft
hewor
d.
TheU.
S.S.
Rhadsuf
fer
edgr
eat
lyf
rom Wor
ldWarI
I.I
tlostt
went
ymi
l
li
onofi
tsci
ti
zens,
andmanymor
emi
l
li
onswer
ewounded.I
tseconomywasal
soi
nrui
ns.Russi
a’
swar
economyhadt
obechangedi
ntopeace-
ti
meeconomy
.It
sindust
ri
es,about100,
000
col
l
ect
ivef
arms,
5mi
l
li
onhomesandsome65t
housandki
l
omet
ersofr
ailr
oadshadt
o
ber
est
oredandbui
l
t.Reconst
ruct
ionandr
e-set
tl
ementwer
eapol
i
cypr
ior
it
yint
he
i
mmedi
atepost
-warper
iod.I
n1945,t
heGr
ossNat
ionalPr
oductoft
heSov
ietUni
on
(
Russi
a)amount
edt
oat
hir
doft
hatoft
heU.
S.A.Butby1953t
hegapwasconsi
der
abl
y
nar
rowed.Si
nce1949,t
heU.
S.S.
Rbecamet
hesecondcount
rycompet
ingf
ort
hegr
eat
powerst
atust
heUSAhadal
readyenj
oyed.By1949,
twosuper
-power
scoul
dbesai
dto
hav
eexi
stedi
nthewor
ld.Thosewer
etheU.
S.A.andt
heU.
S.S.
R.Nonat
ion,ot
hert
han
t
het
wo,
possessedt
heat
omi
cbombatt
het
ime,
thoughl
atermor
est
atesdev
elopedi
t.
Mor
eov
er,t
he U.
S.A and t
he U.
S.S.
R.f
oll
owed t
wo di
ff
erenti
deol
ogi
es (
pol
i
tical
phi
l
osophi
es)t
hatwer
eopposed t
o oneanot
her
.TheU.
S.Af
oll
owed t
her
oad of
capi
tal
i
sm andt
heU.
S.S.
R.t
hatofcommuni
sm.Eachwast
hel
eaderofagr
oupof
nat
ionst
hatf
oll
owedasi
mil
ari
deol
ogy
.Eachonet
ri
edt
ost
rengt
heni
tsel
f,andspr
ead
i
tsi
deol
ogyatt
heexpenseoft
heot
her
.
7.
3.Di
vi
sionoft
heWor
ldi
ntoEastandWestandt
heCol
dWar
Att
heendoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
,near
lyal
lthecount
ri
esl
i
ber
atedf
rom NaziGer
man
andFasci
stI
tal
i
anr
ulei
nEast
ernandCent
ralEur
opebecamesoci
ali
st(
communi
st)
st
ates.Those count
ri
es wer
e Pol
and,Hungar
y,Yugosl
avi
a,Bul
gar
ia,Rumani
a,
Czechosl
ovaki
a,Al
bani
aandEast
ernGer
many
.Eachoft
hem t
ookt
heof
fi
ciall
abelof
“
Peopl
e’
sDemocr
ati
c”st
ate.Lat
er,
nat
ionsl
i
keChi
na(
Bej
i
ng)
,Cuba,
Nor
thKor
ea,
Nor
th
Vi
etnam,
etc.j
oinedt
hesoci
ali
stgr
oupofst
ates.Thesoci
ali
stst
atesoft
hewor
ldmade
upt
heEast
ernbl
oc.Theywer
eledbyt
heU.
S.S.
Ruponwhi
chmostoft
hesest
ates
r
eli
edf
orsuppor
tandpr
otect
ion.
Howev
er,
lat
erYugosl
avi
a,andChi
nashookof
fdependenceont
heU.
S.S.
R.But
,ther
est
oft
hesoci
ali
stst
atesr
emai
nedundert
hegui
danceoft
heU.
S.S.
R.
TheWestwasmadeupoft
hecapi
tal
i
stnat
ionsoft
hewor
ld.Themaj
orst
atesi
nthi
s
campwer
etheU.
S.A.
,theUni
tedKi
ngdom (
Bri
tai
n),Fr
ance,t
heFeder
alRepubl
i
cof
Ger
many
,(WestGer
many
),Canada,I
tal
y,et
c.Thechampi
onoft
hecapi
tal
i
stwor
ldwas
t
heU.
S.A.Thus,t
hewor
ldwasdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wocamps(
blocs)
,knownast
heEastand
t
heWest
,si
ncet
heendoft
heSecondWor
ldWar
.TheEast(
thesoci
ali
stcamp)andt
he
West(
thecapi
tal
i
stcamp)wer
eri
val
s.Ther
ewasaper
sist
antst
ruggl
ebet
weent
het
wo
t
oexpandt
hei
rideol
ogyandspher
eofi
nfl
uencei
nthei
mmedi
atepost
warper
iod.I
t
wast
hisst
ruggl
e,bet
weent
heEastandt
heWestandt
hest
ateoft
ensi
ont
hatcamet
o
ber
efer
redt
oast
heCol
dWar
.
Asl
eaderoft
hesoci
ali
stbl
oc,t
heU.
S.S.
Rhadal
ltheCent
ralandEast
ernEur
opean
st
atesbehi
ndi
tint
heCol
dWar
.Thesoci
ali
stst
atesofEur
opewer
eal
lundert
her
uleof
communi
stdi
ctat
ors.Eur
opeancommuni
stgov
ernment
sshutof
fthei
rpeopl
esf
rom
t
her
estoft
hewor
ld.ThatwaswhyWi
nst
onChur
chi
l
lofBr
it
aincomment
edi
n1946
say
ingt
hatan“
ir
oncur
tai
n”wasdr
awnbet
weent
heEur
opeanEastandWest
.
I
n1945,t
heU.
S.S.
R.announcedt
othewor
ldt
hati
twaspr
epar
edt
ofacet
heWest
.
Mal
enkov
,anot
abl
edi
plomatandaf
utur
ePr
imeMi
nist
eroft
heU.
S.S.
R.speaki
ngon
Sov
ietf
orei
gnpol
i
cysai
d:Ther
e(ar
e)casesi
nhi
stor
ywhent
hef
rui
tsofv
ict
orysl
i
pped
outoft
hev
ict
or’
shands.Thi
smustnothappent
ous...Wemust
,int
hef
ir
stpl
ace,
consol
i
dat
e(bui
l
d)andst
rengt
henf
urt
her(
our
)Sov
ietSoci
ali
stst
ate...Andwemust
r
emembert
hatourf
ri
endswi
l
lrespectusonl
ysol
ongaswear
est
rong.
..Ther
eisnor
espectf
ort
heweakones,
andt
heweakonesgetbeat
en.
I
nthesamemanner
,inwhatcamet
obeknownast
heTr
umanDoct
ri
ne,t
heAmer
ican
Pr
esi
dent
,Har
ryTr
uman,madei
tcl
eart
othewor
ldt
hathi
scount
ry’
srel
ati
onswi
tht
he
U.
S.S.
R.woul
dbecar
ri
edont
heunder
standi
ngt
hat
:Unl
essRussi
aisf
acedwi
thani
ron
f
istandst
rongl
anguage,
wari
sint
hemaki
ng.Onl
yonel
anguagedot
heyunder
stand-
--
“
Howmanydi
vi
si
onshav
eyou?
”--
-I’
mti
redofbaby
ingt
heSov
iet
s.
I
n1947el
abor
ati
ngont
heabov
eU.
S.pol
i
cyofcont
ainment
,Tr
umanf
urt
heradded:
I
twoul
dbet
hepol
i
cyoft
heUni
tedSt
atest
osuppor
tfr
eepeopl
es,whoar
eresi
sti
ng
at
tempt
edsubj
ugat
ion(
dict
ator
ial
rul
e)byar
medmi
nor
it
iesorbyout
sidepr
essur
e.
Themai
nfeat
uresoft
heCol
dWarwer
ethef
oll
owi
ng.
*Awarofwor
ds(
str
ongpr
opagandawar
).
*I
deol
ogi
cal
str
uggl
e.
*Weaponsr
ace(
compet
it
iont
obui
l
dmor
eandmor
edest
ruct
iveweapons)
.
*Compet
it
ioni
nespi
onage(
spy
ing)
.
*Economi
cconf
li
cts(
ri
val
ri
es)
.
*Expansi
oni
nEur
opeandel
sewher
ebyal
lmeans,
shor
tofar
medf
ight
ing.
*Bui
l
dingmi
l
itar
yal
l
iances.
*Bui
l
dingmi
l
itar
ybasesi
ndi
ff
erentpar
tsoft
hewor
ld.
I
n1947Pr
esi
dentTr
umanannouncedhi
sdet
ermi
nat
iont
o“cont
ain”orst
opt
hespr
ead
ofSov
ietpower
.Thusbegant
hepol
i
cyofcont
ainmentwhi
chexpl
ainst
hewhol
e
essenceofUSpol
i
cyasr
egar
dst
otheSov
ietUni
on.TheTr
umanDoct
ri
newasone
amongt
heser
iesofpl
ansandpr
ogr
ammest
hroughwhi
cht
hepol
i
cyofcont
ainment
hadbeenputi
ntoact
ion.ThenameTr
umanDoct
ri
newasder
ivedf
rom
t
hef
amousspeechoft
hepr
esi
denti
nfr
ontoft
heAmer
icancongr
essi
n1947.Thr
ough
t
heTr
umanDoct
ri
ne,
theU.
S.gav
efi
nanci
alai
dtoGr
eeceandTur
key
.Asar
esul
toft
his
ai
d,t
het
wogov
ernment
ssuccessf
ull
yov
ercamecommuni
stat
tempt
sint
hei
rcount
ri
es
t
otakepower
.Thatwast
heU.
S.pol
i
cyofcont
ainment
,whi
chwasext
endedt
oot
her
par
tsoft
hewor
ld,
too.
Anot
herpl
anwhi
chwaspar
tofcont
ainmentwasknownast
heMar
shal
lPl
an.The
Mar
shal
lPl
an–sonamedaf
tert
heUSSecr
etar
yofSt
ateGeor
geC.Mar
shal
l
-wast
he
USpr
ogr
am t
orebui
l
dEur
opeaf
tert
heSecondWor
ldWar
.InJune1947,Geor
geC.
Mar
shal
lannouncedt
heU.
Spl
ant
ore-
bui
l
dEur
ope.Thepl
ancal
l
edupont
heEur
opean
nat
ionst
ocooper
atei
ndr
awi
ngupapl
anf
oreconomi
crecov
ery
.Accor
dingt
othe
Mar
shal
l Pl
an, t
he USA woul
d pr
ovi
de money and equi
pment r
equi
red f
or
i
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
hepl
an.Ont
hebasi
soft
hisai
d,Geor
geC.Mar
shal
linv
itedal
l
count
ri
esofEur
opet
otakepar
tint
hepr
ogr
am.Appar
ent
ly,t
hei
nvi
tat
ioni
ncl
udedt
he
Sov
ietUni
onaswel
l
.Butt
heSov
iet
snotonl
yref
usedt
otakepar
tint
hepr
ogr
am,but
al
sopr
event
edt
heEast
,communi
stgov
ernment
sofCent
ralandEast
ernEur
opef
rom
t
aki
ngpar
tint
hepr
ogr
am.Thosecount
ri
eswhi
chpar
ti
cipat
edbenef
it
edal
otf
rom t
he
pr
ogr
am.Thi
swasbecause,undert
het
ermsoft
heMar
shal
lPl
an,t
heUSAsuppl
i
ed9
bi
l
li
ondol
l
arsi
nfoury
ear
sbet
ween1948and1952,
tor
e-bui
l
dEur
ope.Thepl
anenabl
ed
West
ernEur
opet
oregai
nandev
ent
osur
passpr
e-warpr
oduct
ionr
atesi
naf
ewy
ear
s.
TheSov
iet
stookt
hepl
anasaUSmeasur
etost
rengt
hennon-
communi
stcount
ri
esi
n
Eur
opeagai
nstt
heSov
ietUni
oni
npar
ti
cul
arandt
hecommuni
stcampi
ngener
al.
Consequent
ly,
theCol
dWart
ensi
onswer
ehei
ght
ened.
Aswasst
atedabov
e,t
heCol
dWarbet
weent
hesuperpower
smani
fest
edi
tsel
fin
v
ari
ousway
s.Oneofi
tsmani
fest
ati
onswast
hef
ormat
ionofhost
il
e(opposi
ng)mi
l
itar
y
al
l
iances.I
nfor
mingami
l
itar
yal
l
iance,
itwast
heUS-
ledWestwhi
cht
ookt
hel
ead.The
f
ormat
ionofami
l
itar
yal
l
ianceamongt
hecount
ri
esoft
heWestwaspr
eci
pit
atedby
t
wocr
ises.Thecr
isesoccur
redi
nCzechosl
ovaki
aandi
ntheci
tyofBer
li
noneaf
tert
he
ot
her
.InFebr
uar
y1948,
Czechosl
ovaki
awast
akenov
erbyi
tscommuni
stsandbecame
aSov
ietsat
ell
i
te.TheCzechosl
ovakcr
isi
swasf
oll
owedbyanot
hercr
isi
sknownast
he
Ber
li
nbl
ockade(
1948-
49)
.Thi
swasSt
ali
n’
smeasur
etof
orcet
hewest
ernpower
sout
oft
hei
roccupi
edzonesofBer
li
n.JustasGer
manywasdi
vi
dedi
ntof
ourzonesof
occupat
ion,t
heci
tyofBer
li
nwasal
sodi
vi
dedi
ntof
oursect
ors(
theUS,Br
it
ish,Fr
ench
andRussi
an)
.Butt
heci
tywassi
tuat
eddeepi
nsi
det
heSov
ietZoneofGer
many
.When
Col
dWart
ensi
onshei
ght
ened,St
ali
ncutof
fal
llandandwat
err
out
esl
eadi
ngt
othe
sect
orsofBer
li
nundert
heWest
ernAl
l
ies.Thepeopl
eofWestBer
li
nsuf
fer
ed,f
rom
shor
tageofev
eryki
ndofsuppl
i
es.TheWest
ernpower
sst
art
edt
osuppl
yBer
li
nbyai
r
andi
ntheendt
heSov
ietbl
ockadewasl
i
fted.
Theabov
e-ment
ionedt
wocr
isesi
ncr
easedWest
ernconcer
naboutmi
l
itar
ydef
ense
andqui
ckenedt
hef
ormat
ionoft
heNor
thAt
lant
icTr
eat
yOr
gani
zat
ion(
NATO)i
n1949.
Thef
oundi
ngmember
sofNATOi
ncl
udedBel
gium Br
it
ain,Canada,Denmar
k,Nor
way
,
Fr
ance,I
cel
and,I
tal
y,t
heNet
her
lands,Luxembur
g and t
heUni
ted St
ates.I
n1952,
Gr
eeceandTur
keyal
soj
oinedt
heal
l
iance.I
nresponset
othi
smeasur
e,t
heSov
iet
Uni
onandi
tsEastEur
opeansat
ell
i
tesal
sosi
gnedami
l
itar
yal
l
ianceknownast
he
War
saw Pacti
nthePol
i
shcapi
tali
n1955.Theor
igi
nalf
ounder
soft
heWar
saw Pact
wer
etheU.
S.S.
R,Al
bani
a,Bul
gar
ia,Hungar
y,t
heGer
manDemocr
ati
cRepubl
i
c(East
Ger
many
),Pol
and,Rumani
aandCzechosl
ovaki
a.Member
sofeachal
l
iancesy
stem
agr
eedt
hatanat
tackononeoft
hem woul
dbeconsi
der
edasanat
tackonal
l
.
Thef
ormat
ionofant
agoni
sti
cmi
l
itar
yal
l
iancesst
rengt
henedt
hear
msr
acebet
ween
t
heUni
tedSt
atesandt
heSov
ietUni
on.Thenucl
earar
msr
aceseemst
ohav
eal
ready
st
art
edaf
tert
hef
ir
stat
omi
cbombswer
eusedonJapaneseci
ti
es.Thi
swasbecause
St
ali
nri
ghtawayor
der
edt
hedev
elopmentoft
heseweaponsi
nRussi
aatt
opspeed.
Nonet
hel
ess,unt
il1949t
heUni
tedSt
ateswast
heonl
ycount
ryt
hatpossessedt
he
at
omi
cbomb.Asl
ongast
hissi
tuat
ioncont
inued,nocount
rywasl
i
kel
ytoat
tackt
he
Uni
tedSt
ates.Butt
heUSAl
osti
tsst
atusast
hesol
eowneroft
heat
omi
cbombi
n1949,
whent
heSov
ietUni
onexpl
odedi
tsf
ir
stat
omi
cbomb.
Far
thert
hant
his,sci
ent
ist
sandengi
neer
sinbot
hRussi
aandt
heU.
S.A.wer
ewor
king
onnew way
stodel
i
vert
hedest
ruct
ivebombs.I
npl
aceofpl
anes,exper
tsi
nbot
h
count
ri
essoughtt
obui
l
drocket
-power
edmi
ssi
l
es,whi
chcoul
dtr
avelgr
eatdi
stances
athi
ghspeeds.Ev
ent
ual
l
y,t
heSov
iet
swont
hecont
est
.OnOct
ober4,
1957t
heyputan
ar
ti
fi
cialsat
ell
i
te,
Sput
nikI
,i
ntoor
bitar
oundt
heear
th.I
nter
msofmi
l
itar
yst
rat
egy
,thi
s
wasagr
eatsuccess,becauser
ocket
s,whi
chcoul
dli
ftasat
ell
i
te,coul
ddel
i
verabomb
t
oanyspotont
heear
th.OnJanuar
y31,1958t
heUni
tedSt
atesal
sosenti
tsf
ir
st
ar
ti
fi
cial
sat
ell
i
tei
ntoor
bit
.Thi
sachi
evementmadei
tcl
eart
hateachcount
rycoul
dsend
mi
ssi
l
esov
ert
heot
her
’st
err
it
oryf
rom homebases.Asar
esul
t,bot
htheSov
iet
sand
t
heAmer
icansf
ear
edt
hepossi
bleout
breakofanucl
earwar
,butst
il
lcont
inuedt
o
i
mpr
oveandi
nventmor
eandmor
edest
ruct
iveweapons.
Thepr
obl
em wi
thnucl
earbombswasnotonl
ythei
rdest
ruct
ivepower
.Ther
ewasal
so
t
he pr
obl
em ofr
elease ofa deadl
yradi
oact
ive mat
eri
al.I
n addi
ti
on,t
he costof
dev
elopi
ngandbui
l
dingnucl
earweaponsandmi
ssi
l
eswasv
eryexpensi
ve.Thesuper
power
shadt
ospendhugesumsofmoneyonweaponsandcompl
exdef
encesy
stems.
Anot
herdangerwi
thnucl
earweaponswasl
ackofguar
ant
eet
ost
opt
hei
rpr
oli
fer
ati
on,
t
hati
s,spr
eadt
oot
hercount
ri
es,
asi
nfacthashappened.
Mi
l
itar
ybaseswer
eal
sobui
l
tbyt
heU.
S.A.andt
heU.
S.S.
Ratdi
ff
erentst
rat
egi
csi
tesal
l
ov
ert
hewor
ldt
osaf
eguar
dthei
rrespect
ivespher
esofi
nfl
uencef
rom t
her
eachoft
he
ot
her
.Inot
herpar
tsoft
hewor
ld,
ground,
nav
al,
andai
rfor
cebaseswer
eal
sobui
l
twi
th
t
hesamegoal
s.
Ther
ewasal
sost
rongr
ival
ryi
ntheeconomi
cfi
eld.Fori
nst
ance,t
heWestEur
opean
nat
ions f
ormed t
he Eur
opean Economi
c Communi
ty(
E.E.
C)i
n 1957.The or
igi
nal
f
ounder
soft
he E.
E.C wer
e Fr
ance,I
tal
y,t
he Feder
alRepubl
i
cofGer
many(
West
Ger
many
),Bel
gium,Hol
l
and and Luxembur
g.Lat
er,ot
herWestEur
opean st
ates,
i
ncl
udi
ngBr
it
ain,j
oinedt
heE.
E.C.TheE.
E.C.hasnow dev
elopedi
ntot
heEur
opean
Uni
on.TheE.
E.C.wasbui
l
tor
igi
nal
l
ytoenabl
eit
smember
-st
atest
ocompet
ebet
teri
n
wor
ldeconomi
cact
ivi
ti
esandr
elat
ions.“
A gener
alassoci
ati
onofnat
ionsmustbe
f
ormedunderspeci
fi
ccov
enantf
ort
hepur
poseofaf
for
ding mut
ualguar
ant
eesof
pol
i
ticali
ndependenceandt
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
ytogr
eatandsmal
lst
atesal
i
ke"
.Al
though
W.Wi
l
sonsucceededi
nreal
i
zingt
hef
ormat
ionofLeague,hewasunabl
etogett
he
appr
ovaloft
heUSsenat
eonAmer
icasmember
shi
pint
otheLeague.Thust
heUSdi
d
notbecomeamemberoft
heLeague.Al
lbi
gnat
ionswer
efi
nal
l
ybecamemember
sof
t
heLeague.I
n1921t
heLeaguemember
shi
proset
o51,
in1932t
o57andi
n1934t
o60.
Howev
er,Ger
manywasnotal
l
owedt
ojoi
nLeaguemember
shi
punt
il1926,andRussi
a
unt
il1934.
TheLeague'
sheadquar
terwasl
ocat
edi
nGenev
a,Swi
tzer
land,
wher
ethef
ir
stAssembl
y
t
hati
naugur
atedt
hebi
rt
hoft
heor
gani
zat
ion,
meti
n1920.
TheLeagueconsi
stedofdi
ff
erentor
gans,
namel
y:
*Gener
alAssembl
y
*Counci
l
*Per
manentCour
tofJust
iceorCour
tofAr
bit
rat
ion
*Secr
etar
iat
Var
iouscommi
ssi
onsandcommi
tt
ees.I
npr
inci
ple,t
heAssembl
ywast
hehi
ghest
or
ganoft
heLeague.I
nreal
i
ty,
howev
er,
thecounci
lwast
hemostdecesi
veor
ganoft
he
League.Thecounci
ldeal
twi
thi
ssuesr
elat
edt
opeaceandsecur
it
y.Member
soft
he
counci
lwer
e:Gr
eatBr
it
ain,Fr
ance,I
tal
yand,Japanandl
atert
henumberoft
hecounci
l
i
ncr
easedt
oni
ne.Thesecounci
lwasdomi
nat
edbyt
heBi
gThr
ee.Fort
her
easont
hat
t
heUSA decl
i
nedt
ojoi
ntheLeagueandt
heSov
ietRussi
ahadnotbeenaccor
ded
of
fi
cialr
ecogni
ti
on,t
hepl
acesr
eser
vedf
ort
hesepower
sont
hecounci
lremai
ned
v
acant
.ButGer
manywasgr
ant
edaper
manentseatonheradmi
ssi
ont
otheLeaguei
n
1926.I
n 1933,Japan and Ger
many announced t
hei
rint
ent
ion t
o wi
thdr
aw f
rom
member
shi
pandi
n1934,Russi
awasadmi
tt
edandr
ecei
vedaper
manentseati
nthe
counci
l
.ThePer
manentCour
tofJust
icewasal
soconcer
nedwi
thl
egal
issues,
whi
l
ethe
Gener
alAssembl
y was pr
imar
il
y an admi
nist
rat
ive or
gan.The commi
ssi
ons and
commi
tt
eeswer
eresponsi
blef
ori
ssuesr
elat
edt
olabor
,themandat
edt
err
it
ori
esand
manyot
heri
ssuesf
rom t
imet
oti
me.
Dur
ingt
hef
ir
sty
ear
sofi
tsexi
stence,
theLeaguesuccessf
ull
yhandl
edt
hemedi
ati
onof
somenat
ionaldi
sput
es.Howev
er,
asy
ear
swentbyt
heweaknessesandi
nef
fi
ciencyof
t
heLeaguebegant
omani
fest
.Thi
swast
hatt
heLeaguehadnoef
fect
ivemechani
sm
f
orav
ert
ingwarorst
oppi
ngaggr
essi
on.Thi
swasbecausei
thadnoar
medf
orcet
o
enf
orcei
tsdeci
sions.Thus,whensomest
atesbegant
ovi
olat
ethepr
inci
pleoft
he
Leaguebyf
oll
owi
ngaggr
essi
vepol
i
cies,t
heLeaguewasunabl
etost
opwarandt
his
br
oughtanendt
oanyi
nfl
uenceoft
heor
gani
zat
ion(
League)f
ori
nst
ance,i
tfai
l
edt
o
st
opJapaneseaggr
essi
ononManchur
iai
n1931andt
heI
tal
i
anaggr
essi
ononEt
hiopi
a
i
n1935-
36.I
n1931Japanoccupi
edt
heChi
nesepr
ovi
nceofManchur
iaandt
urnedi
t
i
ntoapuppetManchust
atecal
l
edManchuko.TheLeaguecr
it
ici
zedJapanbutnot
hing
el
seandt
heonl
yresul
twast
hatJapansi
mpl
elef
ttheLeaguei
n1933.TheLeagueal
so
f
ail
edt
odosomet
hingef
fect
iveaboutt
heI
tal
i
anaggr
essi
onofEt
hiopi
a.
Someot
hershor
tcomi
ngswhi
chdi
scr
edi
tedoft
heLeaguewer
e:
*Thewor
ldbi
gpower
,theUSAwasnoti
tsmember(
neut
ral
i
tyoft
heUSA)
.
*Ger
manyandSov
iet
-Russi
awer
enotatt
hebegi
nni
ngadmi
tt
edt
othel
eague.
*Thel
eaguewasdomi
nat
edbyFr
anceandBr
it
ain.
*TheGener
alAssembl
yhadnoef
fect
ivepower
.
*TheLeaguehadnoar
medf
orcet
ost
opaggr
essor
sort
oenf
orcei
tdeci
sions.
Ot
herConsequencesoft
heWar
Anot
heri
mpor
tantconsequenceofW.
W.Iwast
hatt
heUSAemer
gedt
hemostpower
ful
count
ryi
nthewor
ld.Butt
heUSAwasnotwi
l
li
ngt
ouset
hispoweri
nagl
obalscal
e.I
t
soonst
art
edt
het
radi
ti
onalpol
i
cyofi
gnor
ingEur
opeanpr
obl
ems,
andst
ayedoutoft
he
LeagueofNat
ions.
Thewart
ookal
i
ttl
emor
ethanf
oury
ear
s,1914-
1918.I
twasf
oughti
nal
mosti
nal
l
cont
inent
s excepton Aust
ral
i
an and Amer
ican soi
l
.About65 mi
l
li
on men wer
e
mobi
l
ized.Oft
hisf
igur
e8.
5mi
l
li
onwer
eki
l
led,about21mi
l
li
onwer
ewounded.The
ci
vi
li
an casual
ti
es wer
eincal
cul
abl
e.The aggr
egat
e expendi
tur
e oft
he bel
l
iger
ent
nat
ions was est
imat
ed at35,
000,
000,
000.Thi
sfi
gur
e does noti
ncl
ude t
he cost
sust
ained i
n mat
eri
aldest
ruct
ion (
roads,machi
nes,f
act
ori
es,domest
ic and f
arm
bui
l
dings,
etc)
.
Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswer
sfr
om t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.Amaj
orcauseofWWIwas
A.adecl
i
neofi
mper
ial
i
sm
B.t
heexi
stenceofopposi
ngAl
l
iance
C.ani
ncr
easei
nactofaggr
essi
onbyEngl
and
D.t
hespr
eadofcommuni
sm i
nEur
ope

2.Whi
chcount
ri
esf
ormedt
hecent
ral
power
sint
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
?
A.Br
it
ain,
FranceandRussi
a C.Br
it
ain,
FranceandUSA
B.Ger
many
,Aust
ri
a,Hungr
y&Ot
tomanTur
key D.I
tal
y,Bul
gar
ia&Japan
3. Thei
mmedi
atecauseoft
hef
ir
stwor
ldwas
A.i
mper
ial
i
str
ival
ry
B.t
heassassi
nat
ionofFr
anzFer
dinand
C.t
hecl
ashedbet
weent
heal
l
iedpower
s&i
nter
nalpower
s
D.mi
l
itar
yal
l
iance
4.Wor
ldWarI
IinEur
opecont
ri
but
edt
othel
i
ber
ati
onofEt
hiopi
abecausei
t
A.MadeFr
ancer
emov
erest
ri
cti
onsonEt
hiopi
a’
simpor
toff
ir
ear
mst
hrough
Dj
i
bout
i.
B.Led t
he Amer
ican gov
ernmentt
o pr
ovi
de ext
ensi
ve mi
l
itar
y suppor
tto
Et
hiopi
a
C.Al
l
owedEt
hiopi
atogett
hehel
poft
heBr
it
ishi
nit
sst
ruggl
eagai
nstf
asci
sm
D.For
cedt
heI
tal
i
angov
ernmentt
owi
thdr
awi
tst
roopsf
rom Et
hiopi
atof
ighti
n
Eur
ope.
5.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngmadet
hef
ir
stwor
ldwarf
ull
yawor
ldorgl
obal
A.TheGer
manat
tackonBel
gium
B. Thedecl
areofwaronSer
biabyAust
ri
oHungar
y
C.Ther
iseoft
heNazi
sunderHi
tt
er
D.ThesankofBr
it
ishnav
igat
ionshi
pLi
nearLut
ani
abyGer
many
6. ThesecondWor
ldWar
A.r
esul
tedi
ntheemer
genceoft
wosuperpower
s
B.under
minedt
hepol
i
tical
posi
ti
onoft
hecol
oni
alpower
s
C.encour
agedt
hel
i
ber
ati
onofcol
oni
alpeopl
es
 D.wasbecameaf
oot
ingf
ort
hecol
dwar
E.al
l
7.Dur
ingwor
ldwart
hef
ir
stbal
anceofpowerchanged
A.whenBr
it
ishi
nvol
vedi
nthewar
B.
WhenI
tal
yshi
ft
edmi
l
itar
yal
l
iance
C.
whenUSSRj
oinedt
hewarwi
thAl
l
ieds
D.
WhenUSAdecl
aredwaronGer
man

8.Whatqual
i
fiedt
heUSandt
heUSSRf
orSuper
powerst
atusaf
terWor
ldWarI
I?
A.t
hei
rinv
olv
ementi
nideol
ogi
cal
war B.t
heowni
ngofAt
omi
cBomb
C.t
hei
rrespect
ivemi
l
itar
yrol
einWor
ldWarI
ID.t
hei
reconomi
candmi
l
itar
yst
rengt
h
9.I
nwhatway
sdi
dtheassassi
nat
ionofFr
anzFedi
nandbecamei
mmedi
atecausef
or
WWI
?
A.I
tledAust
ri
o-Hungar
ytopr
esentunaccept
abl
edemandt
oSer
bia
B.I
tendedRusso-
Ser
bianal
l
ianceandmadeSer
biaeasyt
oat
tack
C.I
thel
pedGer
manyt
opushAust
ri
o-Hungar
ytodecl
arewaronRussi
a
D.I
tfor
cedGer
manyt
opushAust
ri
o-Hungar
ytodecl
aredwaronRussi
aaf
ter
Ul
ti
mat
ums&bl
ankcheque
10.Whywast
heLeagueofNat
ionsest
abl
i
shedatt
heendofWor
ldWarI
?
A.Tor
esol
vei
nter
nat
ional
disput
esandav
oidt
heout
breakofwar
B.To al
l
ocat
erepar
ati
on moneyt
othev
ict
ori
ousnat
ionsnat
ionsi
naf
air
f
ashi
on
C.Tof
ightagai
nstt
hedev
elopmentofext
remei
deol
ogi
esl
i
keFasci
sm
D.Tospr
eadt
hei
deasofsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ionandgr
adual
decol
oni
zat
ion
11.Amaj
orcauseofWWIwas
E.adecl
i
neofi
mper
ial
i
sm
F.t
heexi
stenceofopposi
ngAl
l
iance
G.ani
ncr
easei
nactofaggr
essi
onbyEngl
and
H.t
hespr
eadofcommuni
sm i
nEur
ope
12.Whi
choneoft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotbasi
ccausef
orout
breakofWWI
I?
 A.Emer
genceofant
agoni
sti
cpol
i
tical
par
ti
esi
nEur
ope
B.Longt
erm ef
fectofWWIandf
ail
ureofpeacet
reat
iessi
gnedaf
terwor
ldwar
t
hef
ir
st
C.Soci
o-economi
candpol
i
tical
cri
sisaswel
laseconomi
cdepr
essi
on
D.I
nvasi
onofPol
andbyGer
many
13.Br
it
ain’
sst
atedr
easonsf
ordecl
ari
ngwaronGer
manyi
n1914was
A.Fr
enchat
tacksonGer
mancol
oni
es
B.U.
Sent
ryi
ntot
hewar
C.Ser
bianassassi
nat
ionofFr
anzFer
dinand
D.Ger
mani
nvasi
onofBel
gium

14.Whi
chcount
ri
esf
ormedt
hecent
ral
power
sint
heFi
rstWor
ldWar
?
C.Br
it
ain,
FranceandRussi
a C.Br
it
ain,
FranceandUSA
D.Ger
many
,Aust
ri
aHungr
y&Ot
tomanTur
key D.I
tal
y,Bul
gar
ia&Japan
15.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngpol
i
ticalpar
tyi
nRussi
ademandedwor
ldwarIt
oanendi
n
Russi
ansi
deandsi
gnedBr
est
-Li
tov
skt
reat
ywi
thGer
many
A.
Bol
shev
iks B.Menshev
iks C.Pr
ovi
sional
gov
ernmentD.Whi
teAr
mies
16.Al
lexceptonei
sbasi
ccausef
orout
breakofWWI
?
A.Nat
ional
i
sm C.I
ndust
ri
alr
evol
uti
on
B.Mi
l
itar
ism D.Assassi
nat
ionofAust
ri
anpr
ince
17.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
snotr
esul
tofWWI
?
A.Thr
eedy
nast
icofEur
openamel
y,Romanov
,Hunbasbur
gandHol
l
enzol
l
ern,
f
lour
ished.
B.Newnat
ionsl
i
keTur
keyandAust
ri
aemer
ged
C.Ger
manyandi
tsal
l
iesl
ostt
hegame
D.Leagueofnat
ionf
ormedaspeacekeepi
ngor
ganoft
hewor
ld
18.
Thet
wocount
ri
est
hatcameoutmuchst
rongert
hant
heywer
ebef
oret
hesecond
wor
ldwar
A.
USAandBr
it
ain B.
Bri
tai
nandI
tal
y
C.
Ger
manyandFr
ance D.
USAandUSSR
19.Accor
dingt
otheSchl
eff
enpl
an,t
hemi
l
itar
yobj
ect
iveofGer
manof
fensi
vei
nthe
f
ir
stwor
ldwarwas
A.t
odef
eatf
ir
stFr
anceont
hewest
ernf
rontbef
oremov
ingagai
nstRussi
aont
he
east
ernf
ront
B.t
odef
eatf
ir
stRussi
aont
he east
ernf
rontbef
oreopeni
ngwaronFr
anceont
he
west
ernf
ront
C.t
odef
eatt
heBr
it
ishi
ntheEngl
i
shchannelbef
oremov
ingt
owar
dsRussi
aint
he
east
ernf
ront
D.t
ofi
ghtagai
nstFr
ance,
ont
hewest
ernf
rontandRussi
aont
heeast
ernf
rontatt
he
somet
imes
20.Thef
ir
stopenv
iol
ati
onoft
hecov
enantoft
heLeagueofNat
ionsagai
nstaggr
essi
on
was
A.
TheI
tal
i
anaggr
essi
ononEt
hiopi
a
B.
Japaneseaggr
essi
onofManchur
ia
C.
TheGer
manat
tackonPol
and
D.
TheRussi
ani
nvasi
onofPol
and
21.
Onwhi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngev
entofWWI
Idi
dNazyGer
manhadgotsuppor
tfr
om
USSR?
A.
Theannex
ati
onofSudent
enl
and
B.
Thei
nvasi
onofPol
and
C.
Theoccupat
ionofCzech
D.
Att
ackonDenmar
kandNor
way
22.
TheUSSR andUSAbecamesuperpower
saf
terWWI
Ibecausebot
h
A.managet
odev
elopat
omi
cbombs
B.wer
efoundi
ngmember
sofUno
C.hadt
heonl
yvet
ori
ght
sinsecur
it
ycounci
l
D.bui
l
dthei
reconomybyl
endi
ngl
oanst
oEur
opeans
CHAPTEREI
GHT
Af
ri
canmov
etowar
dsi
ndependence
8.
1Resi
stanceandr
evol
ts
Bef
oreest
abl
i
shi
ngcol
oni
alr
ulei
nAf
ri
ca,Eur
opeanshadt
oov
ercomet
heAf
ri
can
r
esi
stance.TheAf
ri
cansdi
dnotatal
lwel
comet
heEur
opeanr
ule.
Inf
act
,theAf
ri
can
r
eact
iont
othei
mposi
ti
onofcol
oni
ali
sm wasnott
hesameev
ery
wher
e.I
nsome
par
tsofAf
ri
ca,
theEur
opeansgott
hecol
l
abor
ati
onofAf
ri
canst
hatt
heyuseddi
vi
de
andr
ulesy
stem t
ooccupyt
hear
east
heydesi
red.
SomeAf
ri
cansdev
elopedst
rongmi
l
itar
yinst
it
uti
onsbasedoncent
ral
i
zedpol
i
tical
sy
stem.I
tispossi
blet
oconsi
dert
woexampl
esofAf
ri
canr
esi
stance.f
rom Eastand
WestAf
ri
ca.I
nGer
manEastAf
ri
ca,
inwhathasnowbecomemai
nlandTanz
ani
ather
e
wasar
esi
stanceagai
nstt
heGer
mancol
oni
ali
sm andi
twasnamedt
heMaj
i-Maj
i
Rebel
l
ion (
1905-
1907)
.Thi
srebel
l
ion st
art
ed i
n 1905 when Af
ri
cansr
efused t
he
i
mposi
ti
onoff
orced l
abour
.Wi
thi
nshor
tper
iod,t
her
ebel
l
ionengul
fed muchof
Ger
manEastAf
ri
ca.Ther
ebelwar
ri
orsat
tackedal
lfor
eigner
swi
thoutdi
scr
imi
nat
ion.
The r
ebel
s caused much dest
ruct
ion and ki
l
led sev
eralf
orei
gner
s.I
n 1906 t
he
Ger
mansst
art
edacr
uelsuppr
essi
on.Ther
ebelv
il
lageswer
ebur
nedandt
hei
rcr
ops
wer
edest
roy
ed.I
n1907t
her
ebel
l
ioncamet
oanendandov
er26,
000Af
ri
canswer
e
ki
l
ledast
her
esul
toft
hisr
evol
t.I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
stensoft
housandsl
ostt
hei
rli
ves
duet
ohungerorsi
ckness.
Anot
herexampl
eisSamor
e’sst
ruggl
eagai
nstt
heFr
enchexpansi
oni
nWestAf
ri
ca
(
1882-
1898)
.HewasaMangowar
ri
orwhoconf
ront
edt
heFr
enchar
oundt
heNi
ger
Ri
ver
.Hi
scl
ashwi
tht
heFr
enchst
art
edi
n1882wi
tht
hef
ir
star
medconf
li
ctwhi
cht
ook
pl
aceatKeni
era.Hedi
dnotonl
yfi
ghtt
heFr
enchwi
thar
msbutt
hroughdi
plomat
ic
meansaswel
l
.Het
ri
edt
opl
ayof
ftheBr
it
ishagai
nstt
heFr
ench.Samor
ewasabl
eto
getmoder
nweaponsf
rom Si
err
aLeoneont
hecoast
.Lat
erhewascutof
ffr
om hi
s
suppl
yofar
ms,andf
inal
l
yhewasdef
eat
edbyt
heFr
enchi
n1898.
Ther
ewer
eal
soot
hersev
erali
nst
ancesofAf
ri
car
esi
stancet
oEur
opean
col
oni
alexpansi
on.Nev
ert
hel
ess,
Ethi
opi
awast
heonl
yAf
ri
cancount
rywhi
ch
succeededi
nwar
dingof
fEur
opeancol
oni
ali
sm.
Sev
eralf
act
orsaccount
edf
ort
hef
ail
ureofAf
ri
canr
esi
stance.Fi
rst
ly,
Afr
icanswer
e
notuni
tedt
ochal
l
enget
heEur
opeanconquest
s.Secondl
y,t
heEur
opeanshadt
he
adv
ant
ageofmoder
nfi
rear
mswhi
cht
heAf
ri
cansdi
dnotpossess.Eur
opeant
roops
wer
edi
sci
pli
ned,exper
iencedandwel
ltr
ained.Thi
rdl
y,Eur
opeanssi
gneddecept
ive
t
reat
ieswi
th Af
ri
cans,l
i
ke f
ori
nst
ance,t
he Tr
eat
yofWuchal
e,aTr
eat
ysi
gned
bet
weenEmper
orMeni
l
ikandI
tal
y.Becauseoft
hef
act
orsment
ioned,Eur
opeans
wer
einabet
terposi
ti
ont
ocr
ushAf
ri
canr
esi
stance.I
nmanycases,Eur
opean
col
oni
alr
ulei
nAf
ri
cal
ast
edf
oraboutsi
xtyorsev
ent
yyear
s.Dur
ingt
hisper
iodt
he
Eur
opeansempl
oyeddi
ff
erentf
ormsofcol
oni
aladmi
nist
rat
ion.
8.
2.Pan-
Afr
icani
sm
Pan-
Afr
ican mov
ementpassed t
hrough a numberofphases bef
orei
tbecame a
mov
ementf
orAf
ri
canuni
ty.Pan-
Afr
icanmov
ementi
nit
ial
l
ywasmai
nlyconcer
nedwi
th
bl
ackcommuni
ti
esofAf
ri
canancest
rywhol
i
vedi
nNor
thAmer
icaandt
heCar
ibbean
I
slands.Thesebl
ackpeopl
ehadcomef
rom di
ff
erent
,Af
ri
canpeopl
esandcul
tur
es.But
t
heyhadl
ostt
hei
rcul
tur
esandl
anguagesdur
ingt
het
imeofsl
aver
y.Af
terbei
ng
l
i
ber
atedf
rom sl
aver
y,t
heyr
emai
nedt
hev
ict
imsofAmer
icanandcol
oni
alr
aci
sm.Thus,
t
heywer
euni
tedbyt
hei
rcol
orandbyt
hei
rsuf
fer
ings.
I
nthe19th cent
ury
,someoft
hesebl
ackpeopl
ecamet
obel
i
evet
hatt
heycoul
dnotbe
f
reeandequali
ftheycont
inuedt
oli
vei
nAmer
ica.Theyr
esor
tedt
othei
dear
etur
ning
backt
oAf
ri
cawher
etheycoul
dbecomef
reeandequal
.Thi
sledt
othedev
elopmentof
a"
Backt
oAf
ri
ca"mov
ement
.
Thesamei
deadev
elopedf
urt
heri
ntoanot
iont
hatal
lbl
ackpeopl
eshoul
duni
tei
n
def
enseoft
hei
rcommoni
nter
est
sandagai
nstr
aci
sm.I
nit
sfi
rstf
orm pan-
Afr
icanwas
i
nfactPan-
Black"or"
Pan–Negr
o"mov
ementwhi
cht
ookshapeoutsi
deAf
ri
ca.Ev
en
i
nit
sear
lyst
age,i
tal
sost
oodf
ort
hedef
enseofAf
ri
cansi
nAf
ri
ca.TheFi
rstPan-
Af
ri
canCongr
esswashel
dinLondoni
n1900.Oneoft
heact
ionsoft
hisCongr
esswas
t
opr
otestt
oBr
it
ainsQueenVi
ctor
iaagai
nstr
aci
str
ulei
nsout
hAf
ri
caandRhodesi
a.
Fol
l
owi
ngt
hiscongr
ess,t
hel
i
ber
ati
ngi
deasofPan-
Afr
icanmov
ementf
oundt
hei
rway
i
ntoAf
ri
ca.Edwar
dHl
i
lmotBl
yden(
1832-
1912)Bur
ghar
dtDuBoi
s(1869-
1963)and
ot
her
spr
opagat
edt
hei
deaofPan-
Afr
icani
sm i
nAf
ri
ca.Thesecondcongr
esswashel
d
i
nPar
isi
n1919;
thet
hir
dwasi
nLondonandBr
ussel
sin1921;
andt
hef
our
thi
nLondon
andLi
sboni
n1923;
andt
heFi
ft
hinNewYor
kin1927.
Af
tert
heFi
ft
hCongr
esst
hei
deasofpan-
Afr
icanMov
ementdev
elopedt
owar
dsanew
f
orm.I
nthi
snewf
orm,
the"
pan-
Black"i
deagr
ewi
ntoPan-
Afr
ican.Thi
sidear
eachedi
ts
f
ulldev
elopmentwi
tht
heSi
xthPan-
Afr
icanCongr
ess,hel
dinManchest
eri
n1945.The
si
xpan-
Afr
icanCongr
esswasat
tendedbyDuBoi
s,KwameNkr
umahofGhana,Jomo
Keny
att
aofKeny
a,NnamdiAzi
hweofNi
ger
iaandt
hewel
lknownSout
hAf
ri
canwr
it
er,
Pet
erAbr
aham.Thi
shi
stor
iccongr
essadopt
edar
esol
uti
ondemandi
ngi
ndependence
f
orAf
ri
cansandanendt
ocol
oni
ali
sm.
TheFi
rstConf
erenceofI
ndependentAf
ri
canSt
ateswashel
dinAccr
a,Ghanai
nApr
il
1958.TheSecondConf
erenceconv
enedi
nDecemberoft
hesamey
eari
nthesameci
ty.
Uni
tedAr
abRepubl
i
c(Egy
pt)
,Et
hiopi
a,Ghana,Gui
nea,Li
ber
ia,Li
bya,Mor
occo and
Tuni
si
aat
tendedt
heconf
erence.Leader
sofl
i
ber
ati
onf
ront
sfr
om al
lov
erAf
ri
caal
so
at
tendedt
hisconf
erence.Bot
hConf
erencescal
l
edf
ort
hei
ndependenceoft
heent
ir
e
cont
inentf
rom col
oni
ali
sm.
I
nthemeant
imer
egi
onalgr
oupi
ngbegant
oemer
gei
nAf
ri
ca.Onesuchr
egi
onalgr
oup,
composedofex-
Frenchcol
oni
eswast
heBr
azzav
il
leGr
oup.Thegr
oupwasor
igi
nal
l
y
or
gani
zed by Fr
ance i
n 1944 and was f
urt
herst
rengt
hened i
n 1958.Ev
en af
ter
i
ndependence,
themember
sadv
ocat
edcl
oseconnect
ionswi
thFr
ance.
Asmanynewi
ndependentst
atesemer
ged,eachst
atebegant
odev
isei
tsowni
nter
nal
and ext
ernalpol
i
cies.Egy
pt,Ghana,Gui
neaand Mal
iwant
ed t
ofost
ersoci
aland
economi
cchangest
o maket
hei
rpol
i
ticali
ndependencemor
ereal
.Thesenat
ions
bel
i
evedt
hatt
heexi
sti
ngpov
ert
y,di
vi
sionsandt
hecont
inueddependenceont
he
f
ormercol
oni
alpower
swer
e maki
ng Af
ri
can i
ndependence l
essmeani
ngf
ul.They
cr
it
ici
zedwhatt ed neo-
heycal
l col
oni
ali
sm whi
chmadeAf
ri
canst
ateseconomi
cal
l
y
dependentont
hei
rfor
mercol
oni
almast
ers.They
,ther
efor
e,pr
oposedt
hecr
eat
ionof
l
argeruni
onofst
atest
hatwoul
dgr
adual
l
yev
olv
eto acont
inent
aluni
on.Themost
r
adi
caloft
hesewast
hepr
oposalf
ort
he"
Uni
tedSt
atesofAf
ri
ca"
,putf
orwar
dby
KwameNkr
umah.Wi
tht
hiscommongr
oundandv
isi
on,
Ghana,
Gui
nea,
Mal
i
,Egy
ptand
Mor
occohel
daconf
erenceoft
hei
rowni
ntheMor
occant
ownofCasabl
ancai
n1961.
Theycamet
obeknownast
heCasabl
ancaGr
oup.
Anot
hergr
oupofAf
ri
canst
atesmeti
ntheLi
ber
iancapi
talofMonr
ovi
a.Thi
sgr
oup
const
it
utedsev
eral
independentAf
ri
canst
atesi
ncl
udi
ngEt
hiopi
aandLi
ber
ia.Thegr
oup
wascommonl
yknownast
heMonr
ovi
aGr
oup.I
tsmember
sshar
edmanyv
iewsi
n
common.Al
lbel
i
evedt
hatt
hei
rowni
nter
nalpr
obl
emsmustbesol
vedf
ir
stbef
oret
he
est
abl
i
shmentofani
nter
-st
atepol
i
ticaluni
on.Thegr
oup,howev
er,bel
i
evedi
nthe
necessi
tyf
ora coor
dinat
edef
for
tamongAf
ri
canst
atesf
oreconomi
cdev
elopment
.
Near
lyal
loft
heBr
azzav
il
leGr
oupmember
slat
erj
oinedt
hisgr
oup.I
nspi
teoft
his
di
vi
sioni
ntogr
oups,Af
ri
canst
atescamet
oget
heratAddi
sAbabaandest
abl
i
shedt
he
Or
gani
sat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
ty(
OAU)i
nMay1963.
8.
3TheOr
gani
zat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
ty
Thei
deaoff
ormi
ngt
heOr
gani
zat
ionf
orAf
ri
canUni
ty(
OAU)wasar
esul
toft
hePan-
Af
ri
canMov
ement
.Aswaspoi
ntedoutear
li
er,oneoft
hei
deasexpr
essedi
nPan-
Af
ri
cani
sm wast
hedesi
ref
orAf
ri
canuni
ty.Toachi
evet
hisgoal
,thenecessar
yst
eps
hadt
obet
akenbyAf
ri
canst
hemsel
ves.Anoppor
tuni
tyf
ort
hatappear
edi
n1957.I
n
t
haty
earGhanabecamet
hef
ir
stbl
ackAf
ri
cancount
ryt
ogai
nindependenceaf
ter
Wor
ldWarI
I.Thef
ir
stl
eaderofi
ndependentGhana,KwameNkr
umah,wasoneoft
he
Af
ri
cannat
ional
i
stst
opar
ti
cipat
eatt
heManchest
erPan-
Afr
icanConf
erenceof1945.
Howdi
dtheOAUcomei
ntoexi
stence?
I
nApr
il1958Nkr
umahi
nvi
tedal
li
ndependentAf
ri
cancount
ri
est
oanAl
l
-Af
ri
caPeopl
e'
s
Conf
erenceatAccr
a.Ei
ghti
ndependentAf
ri
cancount
ri
es:Ghana,Egy
pt,t
heSudan,
Tuni
si
a,Mor
occo,Li
bya,Li
ber
ia and Et
hiopi
a par
ti
cipat
ed i
nthe conf
erence.Thi
s
conf
erence was i
mpor
tantf
ort
wo r
easons.Fi
rst
ly,r
epr
esent
ati
ves ofnat
ional
i
st
mov
ement
sfr
om 28non-
independentAf
ri
cancount
ri
esat
tendedt
heconf
erenceas
obser
ver
s.Thei
ntent
ionwast
hatf
rom whatt
heysaw att
heconf
erence,nat
ional
i
st
r
epr
esent
ati
vescoul
dhast
ent
hepr
ocessofi
ndependencei
nthei
rrespect
ivecount
ri
es.
Secondl
y,manyoft
her
esol
uti
onsoft
heconf
erencebecamecor
nerst
onesf
orOAUt
hat
wasest
abl
i
shedf
ivey
ear
slat
er.Oneoft
hoser
ead:Thememberst
atesdecl
aredt
hat
t
heywoul
dobser
veapol
i
cyof'
posi
ti
veneut
ral
i
ty'
.Theypl
edgedt
hemsel
vest
oobser
ve
one anot
her
's pol
i
ticaland t
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
y and t
o set
tl
ethei
rdi
ff
erences by
conci
l
iat
ionandmedi
ati
onwi
thi
ntheAf
ri
cancommuni
ty.
Themai
nobj
ect
iveoft
heAccr
aconf
erencewast
osetupt
heOr
gani
zat
ionf
orAf
ri
can
Uni
ty.Howev
er,wi
thr
egar
dtot
he st
ruct
ure oft
he or
gani
zat
ion,t
her
e was no
consensusamongAf
ri
canst
ates.Thi
sledt
otheemer
genceoft
wogr
oupsofst
ates
wi
thdi
ff
erenti
deas.
I
n 1961,t
het
wo gr
oupshel
d separ
ateconf
erencesatCasabl
ancaand Monr
ovi
a.
Af
ter
war
ds,
theywer
eident
if
iedast
heCasabl
ancaGr
oupandt
heMonr
ovi
aGr
oup.The
Casabl
ancaGr
oup i
ncl
uded Ghana,Gui
nea,Mal
i
,Al
ger
ia,Egy
ptand Mor
occo.The
Monr
ovi
aGr
oupconsi
stedofSi
err
aLeone,Li
ber
ia,Ni
ger
ia,Togo,Et
hiopi
aandLi
bya.
TheCasabl
ancagr
oupwasl
edbyKwameNkr
umah.St
atesi
nthi
sgr
oupwer
eregar
ded
ant
i-
West
ern,
whi
l
ethosei
ntheMonr
ovi
agr
oupwer
econsi
der
edaspr
o-West
ern.Thei
r
at
ti
tudet
owar
dst
heex-
col
oni
alpower
swasonepoi
ntofdi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
wo
gr
oups.Mor
ethant
his,howev
er,t
hemai
npoi
ntofdi
ff
erencebet
weent
het
wogr
oups
wast
hei
ssueofauni
fi
edAf
ri
caunderonegov
ernmentandoneheadofst
ate.Nkr
umah
adv
ocat
ed t
hecr
eat
ion ofasi
ngl
eAf
ri
can st
ate,each Af
ri
can st
ategi
vi
ng up i
ts
sov
erei
gnt
y.Hi
spr
oposalwoul
dreducet
henewnat
ion-
stat
est
omer
epr
ovi
ncesoft
he
cont
inent
alst
ate.
ButmostAf
ri
canst
ateswant
ed"
funct
ionalcooper
ati
onr
athert
hani
ntegr
ati
on.Thi
s
andot
herpoi
ntsofdi
ff
erencecont
inuedt
ounder
minet
hesol
i
dar
it
yofAf
ri
canst
ates.
Fort
het
imebei
ng,howev
er,anagr
eementwasr
eached,t
opost
ponet
hef
inalgoalof
f
ormi
ngaUni
tedSt
atesofAf
ri
caandf
ormt
heor
gani
zat
ionofAf
ri
canUni
ty(
OAU)
.The
OAUwasf
ormedi
nMay1963i
nAddi
sAbaba.Att
hef
oundi
ngconf
erence,
hel
dinAddi
s
Ababa,31i
ndependentst
atessi
gnedt
heChar
teroft
heOr
gani
zat
ion.Thepur
posesof
t
heOAU,
ascont
ainedi
ntheChar
ter
,incl
uded:
Topr
omot
etheuni
tyandsol
i
dar
it
yoft
he
Af
ri
canst
ates,t
ocoor
dinat
eandi
ntensi
fyt
hei
rcooper
ati
onandef
for
tst
oachi
evea
bet
terl
i
fef
ort
hepeopl
esofAf
ri
caandt
hehopet
oer
adi
cat
eal
lfor
msofcol
oni
ali
sm
f
rom t
hecont
inent
.
The f
unct
ions oft
he OAU wer
e per
for
med byv
ari
ous or
gans,commi
ssi
ons and
commi
tt
eessetupf
ort
hepur
pose.Thehi
ghestor
ganwast
heAssembl
yoft
heHeads
ofSt
ateandGov
ernment
s.Thi
sor
ganmetatl
eastonceay
ear
.Anot
heror
ganwast
he
Counci
lofMi
nist
ersmadeupoft
heFor
eignMi
nist
ersofmemberst
ates.TheCounci
l
mett
wiceay
earandpr
epar
edagendaf
ort
heannualmeet
ingsoft
heHeadsofSt
ates
andGov
ernment
s.Themosti
mpor
tantor
ganwast
heGener
alSecr
etar
iat
.Itdi
dmostof
t
hewor
koft
heOAU.TheOf
fi
ceoft
heGener
alSecr
etar
iatwasi
nAddi
sAbaba.Thef
ir
st
Gener
alSecr
etar
yoft
heOAUwasaGui
nean,Di
all
oTel
l
i.TheOAUal
sohadv
ari
ous
commi
ssi
ons setup t
o dealwi
tht
he soci
al,economi
c,educat
ional
,heal
th and
nut
ri
ti
onal
probl
emsofAf
ri
ca.
Ther
ecor
doft
heper
for
manceoft
heOAU,especi
all
ydur
ingi
tsear
lyy
ear
s,showed
bot
hsuccessesandf
ail
ures.Tobegi
nwi
thsuccesses,
theOAU,
thr
oughi
tsCommi
tt
ee
f
orLi
ber
ati
on,assi
stedt
hel
i
ber
ati
onmov
ement
soft
henon-
independentnat
ions.On
sev
erali
ssuesatt
heUni
tedNat
ions,Af
ri
canst
atesof
tent
ookauni
tedst
and.Sev
eral
bor
derdi
sput
eshav
eal
sobeenset
tl
edt
hrought
heef
for
tsoft
heOAU.Pr
obabl
y,t
he
gr
eat
estachi
evementi
nthi
srespectwast
heNi
ger
iancr
isi
sin1967.Al
thoughf
our
st
ates-I
vor
yCoast
,Tanzani
a,Zambi
aandGabon-r
ecogni
zedt
hesepar
ati
stst
ateof
Bi
afr
a,t
hev
astmaj
ori
tyofAf
ri
canst
ateskeptt
hei
rpl
edget
oAr
ti
cleI
II(
3)oft
heOAU
Char
ter
:"r
espectf
ort
hesov
erei
gnt
yandt
err
it
ori
ali
ntegr
it
yofeachmemberst
ateand
f
ori
tsi
nal
i
enabl
eri
ghtt
oindependentexi
stence'
'
.Inaccor
dancewi
tht
hisar
ti
cle,t
hey
"
adopt
edapol
i
cyoft
ryi
ngt
oreconci
l
ethet
wopar
ti
esi
ntheci
vi
lwarwi
thi
nthe
f
ramewor
kofNi
ger
ianuni
ty.
"Ev
ent
ual
l
ythecr
isi
swassol
ved.
Sev
eralf
act
orswer
eresponsi
blef
orf
ail
uresoft
heOAUi
nit
sper
for
mance.Amongt
he
f
act
ors,
onewasdi
ff
erenceofopi
nionamongmemberst
atesonmet
hodst
obeusedi
n
accompl
i
shi
ngt
het
asksoft
heor
gani
zat
ion.Aswasi
ndi
cat
edabov
e,t
heat
ti
tude
adopt
edt
owar
dst
heex-
col
oni
alpower
sandt
hest
ruct
ureoft
heOAUwer
eot
herpoi
nts
ofdi
ff
erenceamongmemberst
ates.I
naddi
ti
on,t
her
ewer
eot
herdi
ff
erences.Fi
rst
ly,
t
her
ewer
edi
ff
erencesi
nof
fi
ciall
anguagesusedbyAf
ri
canst
ates.Engl
i
sh,Fr
ench,
Por
tuguese,Spani
shand Ar
abi
cspeaki
ng st
atesexhi
bit
ed di
ff
erencesi
ntheOAU,
t
hought
hisshoul
dnothav
ebeenani
nsol
ubl
eobst
acl
etouni
tyofact
ion,hadt
her
e
beent
hedesi
ret
oachi
evei
t.Secondl
y,manyst
ateswer
emember
sofot
hernon-
Afr
ican
or
gani
zat
ions.I
nNor
thAf
ri
camanyst
atesbel
ongt
otheAr
abLeagueandt
hei
rint
erest
wast
ofi
ghtagai
nstI
srael
.Thepr
obl
em wast
hatsomemember
soft
heAr
abLeague
t
ri
edt
obr
ingt
heI
srael
iissuet
otheOAUf
orum.Thi
rdl
y,al
thought
heOAUhadsetup
v
ari
ouscommi
ssi
onst
odealwi
thsoci
al,economi
c,andr
elat
edpr
obl
ems,t
her
ewas
l
i
ttl
eachi
evementi
nthi
sfi
eld.Despi
tei
tsweaknesses,
theOAUst
ruggl
edt
ost
rengt
hen
t
hesol
i
dar
it
yofAf
ri
canst
atest
oov
ercomet
hemanypr
obl
emsf
aci
ngt
hecont
inent
.To
t
hisend,att
he36t
hOAUSummi
t,hel
dinAl
gier
sin2000,t
heHeadsofAf
ri
canSt
ates
andGov
ernment
sdeci
dedt
otr
ansf
ormt
heOAUi
ntot
heAf
ri
canUni
on.Thi
swast
he
or
igi
nal
goal
expr
essedi
nPan-
Afr
icani
sm.
Pr
obl
emsofI
ndependentAf
ri
canSt
atesandt
heOAU
Someoft
hepr
obl
emsofAf
ri
canst
atesandt
heOAUmai
nlyar
ethel
egacyofcol
oni
al
r
ule.Ot
her
shav
ebeenofAf
ri
ca’
sownmaki
ng.Mostoft
henewl
yindependentAf
ri
can
count
ri
esshar
epeopl
eswhobel
ongt
othesameet
hni
cgr
oups.Thi
shasl
edsome
Af
ri
can st
ates t
otr
ytor
edr
aw col
oni
alboundar
ies i
n accor
dance wi
th et
hni
c
set
tl
ement
s.Asar
esul
t,Af
ri
cahasseenf
requentbor
derconf
li
cts.
Et
hni
coppr
essi
onandconf
li
ctswi
thi
nAf
ri
canst
ateshav
ebr
edci
vi
lwar
s.Att
her
ootof
t
heet
hni
cconf
li
ctshav
ebeenpol
i
tical
,economi
candsoci
ali
njust
ices.
Af
ri
caal
soexper
iencedf
requentMi
l
itar
ycoups.Bet
ween1958and1969,i
ntwent
yout
oft
het
hir
ty-
eighti
ndependentAf
ri
canst
atespol
i
ticalpowerhadbeent
akenov
erby
mi
l
itar
yregi
mes.Si
ngl
epar
tyr
egi
meshav
ebeencommoni
nmostAf
ri
canst
ates.Such
r
egi
mes st
if
led democr
ati
c and economi
c dev
elopment
. They di
sal
l
owed t
he
dev
elopmentofapar
ti
cipat
orygov
ernment
.Theysquander
edgov
ernmentf
inances.
Thei
rleader
sof
tenmi
susepubl
i
cmoney
.Indeed,t
heyl
edt
hei
rcount
ri
est
oext
reme
pov
ert
y.
Af
ri
cancount
ri
esar
eEconomi
cdependentont
hei
ndust
ri
ali
zedcount
ri
es.MostAf
ri
can
st
atesst
okecanpr
ovi
deext
remel
yli
mit
edsoci
alser
vicessuchasheal
th,school
s,and
i
nfr
ast
ruct
uref
ort
hei
rpeopl
e,For
eignpower
scaneasi
l
yinv
olv
eandi
ntensi
fyt
he
exi
sti
ng pr
obl
ems.Besi
des,atpr
esentt
he cont
inenthas been beset
ted wi
tht
he
chal
l
engesoft
hepandemi
cdi
seaseHI
V.Outofagl
obalt
otalof33mi
l
li
onabout22
mi
l
li
onaf
fect
edbyt
hisdi
seasear
einAf
ri
ca,
par
ti
cul
arl
ySout
hoft
heSahar
a.Theot
her
massi
vepr
obl
em i
sunempl
oyment
,hi
ghl
evel
brai
ndr
ainr
efugeeset
c,whi
char
etheout
comeofweakeconomi
cbase(
ort
henegat
ivel
egacyoft
hepast
,col
oni
alr
ule.
)
TheOAUhasal
sopr
ovedt
obeofl
i
ttl
ehel
pinsol
vi
ngt
heseout
standi
ngpr
obl
ems.The
weaknessesoft
heOAU,
ori
ginat
edf
rom sev
eralf
act
ors.I
ntheper
iodunderdi
scussi
on,
mosti
nter
nat
ionali
ssuesi
ncl
udi
ngAf
ri
can,
gobey
ondt
hescopeoft
heOAU.Mor
eov
er,
t
heOAUl
ackedt
henecessar
yeconomi
c,pol
i
ticalandmi
l
itar
ypowerneededt
osol
ve
r
egi
onal(
int
erst
ate)conf
li
cts.For
mercol
oni
alpower
sst
il
lmai
ntai
nedgr
eati
nfl
uence
ont
heaf
fai
rsofAf
ri
canst
ates.
Successoft
heOAU
Thr
oughouti
tsexi
stence,t
heOAU hadscor
edsomesuccessesandf
acedsev
eral
pr
obl
emsi
nregar
dtoi
tsst
atedobj
ect
ives.I
thasbeen,
howev
er,
successf
uli
noneofi
ts
basi
c obj
ect
ives t
hati
sli
ber
ati
on f
rom col
oni
ali
sm.Atpr
esental
lofAf
ri
ca i
s
i
ndependentf
rom col
oni
ali
sm.I
thad i
nter
vened i
n manyconf
li
ctsf
orexampl
ein
Somal
i
aandEt
hiopi
a,Mor
occoandNi
ger
ia,Rwandaandt
heGr
eatLakesconf
li
ctsand
i
nthest
ruggl
eagai
nstApar
thei
dinSout
hAf
ri
caandNami
biat
oment
ionsome.I
thad
at
tempt
edt
omedi
atei
nal
ltheseconf
li
ctsandgai
nedsomesuccesses.Mor
eov
er,t
o
r
eal
i
zeoneofi
tsbasi
cai
msi
nbr
ingi
ngaboutcooper
ati
onamongst
atesf
oreconomi
c
dev
elopment
,regi
onal
organi
zat
ionshav
ebeensetup.
Theser
egi
onalor
gani
zat
ionscoul
dnoti
nvol
vet
hepr
ivat
esect
orst
oenhancet
he
economi
cint
egr
ati
on,di
dnotev
encr
eat
eawar
enessamongt
hepeopl
e.Fur
ther
mor
e,
t
hememberst
atesr
emai
nedr
eluct
antt
obui
l
dthei
nfr
ast
ruct
urenecessar
yforr
api
d
mov
ementofgoodsandser
vices.Toov
ercomeal
lthesehur
dlesandt
ospeedup
Af
ri
canpol
i
ticalandeconomi
cint
egr
ati
ont
heAf
ri
canUni
onwasest
abl
i
shedi
n2004.
The Af
ri
can Uni
on i
s notf
undament
all
y,di
ff
erentf
rom t
he OAU I
tis a nat
ural
dev
elopmentoft
heOAUi
ntoahi
gherl
evelofi
ntegr
ati
on,whi
chhadf
oursol
i
dbases;
t
heest
abl
i
shmentofanAl
l
-Af
ri
canpar
li
ament
,Pan-
Afr
icancour
tofJust
ice,
theAf
ri
can
Dev
elopmentFundandAf
ri
canI
nvest
mentFund.
8.4Decol
oni
zat
ionandLi
ber
ati
onst
ruggl
es
Ther
ootcausesofsomeoft
hepr
esentpr
obl
emsf
acedbyAf
ri
canst
atescanbet
raced
backt
othecol
oni
aler
a.Thesepr
obl
emsar
eeconomi
cdependence,
pol
i
ticali
nst
abi
l
ity
,
bor
derconf
li
ctsandt
heabsenceofeconomi
cint
egr
ati
on.Thust
hedev
elopmentof
Af
ri
cannat
ional
i
sm andant
i-
col
oni
alst
ruggl
ewer
etheef
fect
sofcol
oni
alexpl
oit
ati
on
andmal
admi
nst
rat
ion.
Undercol
oni
ali
sm Af
ri
cansl
ostt
hei
rfr
eedom andi
ndependence.Col
oni
ali
sm hamper
ed
t
heeconomi
cpr
ogr
essofAf
ri
caandkepti
tbackwar
d.Raci
aldi
scr
imi
nat
ion,
absenceof
pol
i
tical
independence,
andpov
ert
yar
ethedi
smal
legaci
esofcol
oni
ali
sm.
EndofWor
ldWarI
I:TheTur
ningPoi
nt
TheSecondWor
ldWarsi
gni
fi
cant
lychangedt
hegl
obalst
ateofaf
fai
rs.They
ear1945
wasat
urni
ngpoi
nti
nthecour
seoft
hest
ruggl
efori
ndependencei
nAf
ri
ca.Si
nce1945
t
he supr
emacyoft
he ol
d Eur
opean col
oni
alpower
shad been chal
l
enged byt
he
emer
genceofnew gl
obalpower
sli
ket
heSov
ietUni
onandt
heUni
tedSt
ates.The
f
ormercol
oni
alpower
swer
eexhaust
edbyt
hewar
,andconcent
rat
edmor
eont
hei
rown
r
ecov
ery
.The ef
for
tst
o suppr
ess l
i
ber
ati
on mov
ement
sin Af
ri
ca and el
sewher
e
becameexpensi
vet
othepower
s.Thepr
evai
l
ingsi
tuat
ionoft
heCol
dWarmadet
he
mai
ntenanceofcol
oni
alempi
rest
ooexpensi
veandv
erydi
ff
icul
t.
Af
tert
heSecondWor
ldWarcol
oni
ali
sm i
nAf
ri
cawaser
adi
cat
edwi
thi
nfewdecades.
Fact
orsatt
hat
,faci
l
itat
edt
hel
i
ber
ati
onst
ruggl
ewer
e:
Thepol
i
tical
changesandt
hespr
eadofl
i
ber
alt
hinki
ngwi
thi
nthecol
oni
alcount
ri
es
Thr
ought
hei
ract
ivepar
ti
cipat
ioni
nWor
ldWarI
I,manyAf
ri
canswer
eabl
etoobser
ve
Eur
opeanpower
sfi
ght
ingandpay
inggr
eatsacr
if
icest
odef
endt
hei
rsov
erei
gnt
y.
Theposi
ti
veexampl
essetbyt
hoseAsi
anst
atest
hathadwont
hei
rindependence
al
ready
,st
imul
atedt
hei
ndependencest
ruggl
einAf
ri
ca.
For
eign educat
ed Af
ri
cans t
hatr
etur
ned t
o Af
ri
ca f
il
led wi
thi
deas off
reedom,
nat
ional
i
sm anddemocr
acypr
ovi
dedt
henecessar
yleader
shi
pfort
hest
ruggl
efor
f
reedom.Asf
orei
gn educat
ed i
ntel
l
ect
ual
s,t
hese l
eader
swer
e wel
lawar
e oft
he
cont
radi
cti
onsbet
weent
hepar
li
ament
arydemocr
acyoft
hecol
oni
alpower
sint
hei
r
owncount
ri
esandt
her
eal
i
tiesofcol
oni
alAf
ri
ca.Thesei
ntel
l
ect
ual
sagi
tat
edt
hei
r
peopl
est
ofi
ghtcol
oni
ali
sm andf
orei
gndomi
nat
ions.
Theant
i-
col
oni
alst
ruggl
einAf
ri
ca,bet
weent
het
wowor
ldwar
s,al
sol
aiddownt
he
f
oundat
ionf
ort
hepost
-Wor
ldWarI
Iindependencemov
ement
s,asdi
scussedi
nuni
tSi
x.
Fr
om t
hatper
iodofst
ruggl
e,Af
ri
cansgai
nedusef
ulexper
iences.Pan-Af
ri
cani
sm al
so
cont
ri
but
edt
othest
ruggl
eforAf
ri
cani
ndependence,
especi
all
yaf
ter1945.
Thest
ruggl
eagai
nstcol
oni
alr
ulehaddi
ff
erentf
orms;t
hel
engt
hoft
imei
nwi
nni
ng
i
ndependencev
ari
ed;andt
hest
rengt
hofl
i
ber
ati
onor
gani
zat
ionsandt
hequal
i
tyof
l
eader
shi
pal
sodi
ff
ered.Thecol
oni
alpower
susedbot
hdi
plomat
icandmi
l
itar
ymeans
t
oweakent
hel
i
ber
ati
onmov
ement
s.Howev
er,l
ast
ly,Af
ri
canswont
hei
rindependence
t
hrought
hei
rst
ruggl
e.
Abr
iefandgener
alsur
veyoft
hel
i
ber
ati
onst
ruggl
eint
heI
tal
i
an,
French,
Bri
ti
sh,
Bel
gian,
Spani
shandPor
tuguesecol
oni
esi
spr
esent
edbel
ow.Att
heendoft
hesub-
topi
c,t
he
speci
alpr
obl
em oft
hest
ruggl
eforr
aci
alequal
i
tyanddemocr
acyi
nSout
hAf
ri
cai
sal
so
di
scussed.
I
tal
ianCol
oni
es-Nor
thandEastAf
ri
ca
Li
byahadbeenanI
tal
i
ancol
onysi
nce1911.TheAl
l
iesf
orcesexpel
l
edFasci
stsand
Nazi
sfr
om Li
byai
n1942i
ncol
l
abor
ati
onwi
thal
ocalr
esi
stancel
edbySay
yidI
dri
s.
Af
tert
heSecondWor
ldWar
,Br
it
ishandFr
enchf
orcesst
ayedi
nLi
bya.USAal
sosetup
ami
l
itar
ybasei
nthi
scount
ry.Wi
thSov
ietRussi
a'
spr
oposal
,thecaseofLi
byawas
pr
esent
ed t
othe UN Gener
alAssembl
y.The UN deci
ded t
hatLi
bya shoul
d be
i
ndependent
.Accor
dingl
ythei
ndependentst
ateoft
heUni
tedKi
ngdom ofLi
byawas
pr
ocl
aimedon1Januar
y1952.Li
byani
ndependenceencour
agedot
hernor
thAf
ri
can
st
atest
oint
ensi
fyt
hei
rst
ruggl
efornat
ional
independence.
Br
it
ishSomal
i
landst
ayedundert
heBr
it
ishr
uleaf
terWor
ldWarI
I.I
tal
i
anSomal
i
landhad
al
sof
all
enundert
heBr
it
ish,whent
heI
tal
i
answer
edef
eat
edanddr
ivenoutf
rom t
hat
l
andi
n1941.But
,lat
eri
twast
akenov
erbyt
heUni
tedNat
ionsandent
rust
edt
oIt
alyt
o
t
en-
yearper
iodofpr
epar
ati
onf
ordecol
oni
zat
ion.I
n1960,
Bri
ti
shandI
tal
i
anSomal
i
land
gai
nedi
ndependence.Theywer
euni
tedt
ofor
m onest
ate,
aRepubl
i
cofSomal
i
a.
Fr
enchCol
oni
es
Thel
i
ber
ati
onofFr
enchcol
oni
esi
nAf
ri
cabegani
nthe1950s.SomeFr
enchcol
oni
es
won t
hei
rindependence af
ter pr
olonged mi
l
itar
yfi
ght
ing.Ot
her
s secur
ed t
hei
r
i
ndependencepeacef
ull
y,i
nabl
oodl
essmov
ement
.Fr
enchmi
l
itar
ydef
eati
nIndo-
Chi
na
i
n1954gav
eani
mpet
usf
ort
hepeopl
esofNor
thAf
ri
cat
owageal
i
ber
ati
onwart
o
br
inganendt
oFr
enchcol
oni
alr
ule.
Thel
i
ber
ati
onst
ruggl
einMor
occowasl
edbyt
heMor
occanNat
ionalFr
ontwi
thSul
tan
MohammedVasi
tshead.I
n1953,
theRi
ffandAt
last
ri
besr
evol
ted,
andst
art
edar
med
st
ruggl
e.Af
teranegot
iat
edset
tl
ement
,Mor
occowaspr
ocl
aimedi
ndependenton2
Mar
ch1956.Fr
enchandSpani
shMor
occower
ere-
uni
tedati
ndependence.Tuni
siaal
so
woni
tsi
ndependencei
n1956undert
hel
eader
shi
pofHabi
bBour
giba.
I
nAl
ger
iat
heFr
enchf
acedapr
otr
act
edandbi
tt
erant
i-
col
oni
alst
ruggl
e.I
nAl
ger
iat
her
e
hadbeenar
elat
ivel
ylar
gernumberofEur
opeanset
tl
ers.Thesewhi
teset
tl
erswer
e
det
ermi
nedt
opr
eventt
hei
ndependenceofAl
ger
ia.Theyf
ormedt
he"
Secr
etAr
med
Or
gani
zat
ion" t
o hol
d back Al
ger
ian i
ndependence. The Al
ger
ians nat
ional
i
st
or
gani
zat
ionst
he "
Nat
ionalLi
ber
ati
onFr
ontofAl
ger
ia"(
FNLA)
,wasl
edbyAhmedBen
Bel
l
a.Thewari
nAl
ger
ial
ast
edf
rom 1954t
o1962.TheAl
ger
ianNat
ionalLi
ber
ati
on
Fr
ontt
ookt
hef
orm ofguer
ri
ll
awarandscor
edpr
ogr
essi
vesuccessesov
ert
heFr
ench
f
orces.Fi
nal
l
y,ont
hebasi
sofanagr
eementr
eachedbet
weent
heAl
ger
ianf
reedom
f
ight
ersandt
heFr
enchgov
ernment
,ar
efer
endum wasconduct
ed.Thepeopl
eof
Al
ger
ia ov
erwhel
mingl
yvot
ed f
or i
ndependence. I
n consequence,Al
ger
ia was
pr
ocl
aimedi
ndependenton1Jul
y1962.
I
n1958,
France,
underpr
esi
dentChar
lesdeGaul
l
ewaspr
epar
edt
ogr
anti
ndependence
t
o hercol
oni
es i
n westand Equat
ori
alAf
ri
ca.Onl
yGui
nea (
Conakr
y)used t
his
oppor
tuni
ty.Gui
neav
otedy
est
oindependencei
nther
efer
endum conduct
edt
hesame
y
eari
nal
lFr
enchAf
ri
cancol
oni
es.
Undert
heDemocr
ati
cPar
tyofGui
nea,
ledbySekouTour
e,Gui
neabecamei
ndependent
i
n1958.Ot
herFr
enchcol
oni
esr
emai
nedunderFr
enchr
uleunt
il1960s.I
n1960al
arge
numberofAf
ri
cancount
ri
es,achi
evedi
ndependence.Thi
sledt
othedesi
gnat
ionoft
he
y
ear1960ast
heYearofAf
ri
canI
ndependence.TheFr
enchcol
oni
est
hatbecame
i
ndependentdur
ing t
haty
earwer
e:Camer
oon,Togo (
bot
h underUN t
rust
eeshi
p),
Madagascar(
now Mal
agasyRepubl
i
c),Dahomey(
Beni
n),Ni
ger
,UpperVol
ta(
Bur
kina
Faso)
,Iv
oryCoast(
Cot
ed'
I
voi
re)
,Chad,UbangiShar
i(Cent
ralAf
ri
canRepubl
i
c),Congo
(
Brazzav
il
le)
,Gabon,
Senegal
,Fr
enchSudan(
Mal
i
)andMaur
it
ani
a.
Thef
ormerFr
enchSomal
i
land,becamei
ndependenti
n1977r
enamedFr
enchTer
ri
tor
y
ofAf
arsand I
ssas.Thi
sisnow known asDj
i
bout
i.TheComor
oIsl
andsbecame
i
ndependenti
n1975.
Br
it
ishCol
oni
es-West
,EastandSout
her
nAf
ri
ca
I
nsomecasesBr
it
ainshowedsomedegr
eeofwi
l
li
ngnesst
ogr
anthercol
oni
est
hei
r
i
ndependence.Thest
ruggl
efori
ndependencei
nwhi
te-set
tl
edcol
oni
eswasr
elat
ivel
y
bi
tt
erandt
ookmor
eyear
s.
I
ntheGol
dCoast
,thest
ruggl
ewasatf
ir
stl
edbyanor
gani
zat
ioncal
l
edt
heUni
tedGol
d
CoastConv
ent
ion.Howev
er,i
n1949,KwameNkr
umahl
eftt
heGol
dCoastconv
ent
ion
andor
gani
zedt
heConv
ent
ionPeopl
e'
sPar
ty.Nkr
umahassumedt
hel
eader
shi
pint
he
st
ruggl
efori
ndependence.TheGol
dCoastbecamei
ndependenti
n1957,andadopt
ed
t
hehi
stor
icnameofGhana.Ni
ger
iabecamei
ndependenti
n1960.
Sier
raLeoneand
Gambi
ain1961and1970r
espect
ivel
y.
Egy
pthadgai
nedi
tsi
ndependencei
n1922,
butBr
it
aincont
inuedt
ost
ati
onhert
roopsi
n
t
hatcount
ryundert
hepr
etextofsaf
eguar
dingt
hei
rint
eresti
ntheSuezCanal
.In1952a
gr
oup ofy
oung ar
myof
fi
cer
sled byCol
onelGamalAbdulNasserov
ert
hrew t
he
conser
vat
iveki
ngFar
ukandSei
zedpower
.Nassernegot
iat
edwi
tht
heBr
it
ishf
ort
he
wi
thdr
awalofBr
it
isht
roopsf
rom t
heSuezcanalar
ea.WhenBr
it
ishf
orcesev
acuat
ed
t
hecanal
zoneEgy
ptbecamef
ull
yindependenti
n1956.
Angl
o-Egy
pti
anr
uleov
ert
heSudan,(
theCondomi
nium)
,camet
oanendt
hrought
he
Angl
o -Egy
pti
an Agr
eementof12 Febr
uar
y 1953.The agr
eementaccept
ed t
he
i
ndependenceofSudan.Af
tert
hreey
ear
s,i
n1956,
Sudanbecamei
ndependent
.
I
nEastAf
ri
ca,t
heBr
it
isht
rustt
err
it
oryofTangany
ikawoni
tsi
ndependencei
n1961
undert
heTangany
ikaAf
ri
canNat
ionalUni edbyMwal
onl i
muJul
i
usNy
erer
e.Zanazi
bar
al
sobecamei
ndependenti
n1963.I
n1964t
heset
woi
ndependentst
atesf
ormeda
f
eder
ati
oncal
l
edTanzani
a.
Keny
a'sr
oad t
oindependencehad i
tsown upsand downs.Keny
ansor
gani
zed a
peasantnat
inal
i
stmov
ementknownast
heMauMau.TheMauMauhar
assedwhi
te
set
tl
ersi
nthecount
ry.Thei
dent
it
yoft
hemember
soft
hemov
ementwassecr
et.The
Mau Mau Mov
ementwas act
ive bet
ween 1952 and 1955.The mov
ementwas
suppr
essedandt
housandsofAf
ri
canswer
eimpr
isonedbyt
heBr
it
ish.I
n1960Jomo
Keny
att
aor
gani
sedt
heKeny
aAf
ri
canNat
ionalUni
on(
KANU)
.Keny
awoni
ndependence
i
n1963andKeny
atabecamei
tsf
ir
stpr
esi
dent
.
Sout
hRhodesi
a'
sroadt
oindependencehadal
soi
tsownchal
l
enge.I
n1965t
her
aci
st
whi
teset
tl
ersundert
hel
eader
shi
pofI
yanSmi
thdecl
aredwhatwascal
l
edt
heuni
l
ater
al
Decl
arat
ionofI
ndependence(
UDI
).Thi
sst
epdel
ayedmaj
ori
tyr
ulei
nthatcount
ry.
Af
ri
cans and t
he Br
it
ish gov
ernment r
eject
ed t
his one-
sided decl
arat
ion of
i
ndependence.Howev
er,t
he Br
it
ish gov
ernmentf
ail
ed t
otake mi
l
itar
yact
ions t
o
suppr
esst
hewhi
l
temi
nor
it
yraci
stgov
ernmenti
nSout
hRhodesi
a.Thus,t
heAf
ri
cans
r
esor
ttoguer
ri
ll
afi
ght
ing.Longandbi
tt
erwarwasf
oughtbyt
heZi
mbabweAf
ri
can
Nat
ionalUni
on(
ZANU)andt
heZi
mbabweAf
ri
canPeopl
e'
sUni
on(
ZAPU)l
edbyRober
t
Mugabe and Joshua Nkomo,r
espect
ivel
y.Thi
s bi
tt
erst
ruggl
e br
oughtt
he whi
te
mi
nor
it
yrul
etoanend.Amaj
ori
tyr
ulet
owasest
abl
i
shedi
nApr
il1980.Rober
tMugabe
becamet
hef
ir
stPr
imeMi
nist
erandSout
hRhodesi
aadopt
edt
henameZi
mbabwe
(
aft
erhi
stor
icZi
mbawe)
.
An or
gani
zed st
ruggl
e was conduct
ed i
n Nor
th Rhodesi
a byt
he Uni
ted Nat
ional
I
ndependencePar
ty,
undert
hel
eader
shi
pofKennet
hKaunda.Thi
sst
ruggl
eledt
oNor
th
Rhodesi
aindependencei
n1964.Thecount
ryadopt
edt
henew nameofZambi
aaf
ter
Ri
verZambezi
.Ny
asal
and became i
ndependenti
n 1964 as Mal
awiwi
th Hast
ings
KamuzuBandaasi
tspr
esi
dent
.In1966,Basut
oland(
nowLesot
ho)andBechuanal
and
(
renamedasBot
swana)becamei
ndependent
.Thei
slandcol
oni
esofMaur
it
iusand
Sey
chel
esbecamei
ndependenti
n1968and1976,
respect
ivel
y.
Bel
gianCol
oni
es-Cent
ralAf
ri
ca
Oneoft
henat
ionali
ndependencepar
ti
esemer
gedi
nBel
gianCongowast
heCongol
ese
Nat
ionalMov
ement
.Thi
spar
tywasl
edbyPat
ri
ceLumumba.Lumumbahaddev
eloped
ant
i-
imper
ial
i
standPan-
Afr
icanat
ti
tudes.Fol
l
owi
ngpopul
arr
evol
tsi
ntheCongoi
n
1959,Bel
gium wasf
orcedt
orecogni
zet
hei
ndependenceoft
heCongowhi
chwas
of
fi
cial
l
ydecl
aredi
n1960.I
ndependentDemocr
ati
cRepubl
i
cofCongoemer
gedwi
th
JosephKasav
ubuasPr
esi
dentandPat
ri
ceLumumbaasPr
imeMi
nist
er.
Howev
er,t
heendofBel
giancol
oni
alr
ulei
ntheCongowasf
oll
owedbyaci
vi
lwar
.The
mi
ner
alr
ichpr
ovi
ncesofKat
angaandKasaibr
okeawayundert
hel
eader
shi
pofMoi
se
TshombeandKal
onj
i
,respect
ivel
y.Bel
giant
roopswer
esentt
opr
otectt
heBel
gianand
Eur
opeanmi
ningi
nter
est
sint
her
egi
on.Lumumbaappeal
edt
otheUni
tedNat
ions.I
n
duecour
se,Lumumba,whohadsoci
ali
sti
ncl
i
nat
ions,wasdi
smi
ssedf
rom of
fi
ceby
Pr
esi
dentKasav
ubuon5Sept
ember1960.Ear
lyi
n1961,Lumumbawascapt
uredand
f
elli
ntot
hehandsofkat
angeset
roopsandwaski
l
led.TheUNt
roopswhi
chi
ncl
uded
f
orcesf
rom Et
hiopi
a,wer
esentt
onor
mal
i
zet
hesi
tuat
ion.I
nthi
stensesi
tuat
iont
heUN
Secr
etar
yGener
alDagHammar
skj
ölddi
edi
napl
anecr
ashwhi
l
etr
yingt
omedi
atet
he
Congocr
isi
s.Hi
ssuccessorUThantcont
inuedt
hewor
kfort
her
euni
fi
cat
ionoft
he
Congo.Kat
angesef
orceswer
edef
eat
edbyt
heUN ar
myi
n1963.UN t
roopsf
inal
l
y
wi
thdr
ew,
wit
htheCongor
e-uni
ted.
I
nJul
y1964Kasav
ubuappoi
ntedTshombeasPr
imeMi
nist
er.Tshombebecamef
ier
ce
andbr
utali
ndeal
i
ngwi
thl
ocalmat
ter
s.Kassav
ubusackedhi
min1965.I
nthesame
y
ear
,thear
myunderGener
alJoseph(
SeseSeko)Mobut
utookov
erpol
i
ticalpower
.
Tshombewenti
ntoexi
l
eandwascondemnedt
odeat
hinhi
sabsence.Mobut
uput
downKat
angeser
esi
stance,cl
ear
edhi
scount
ryofwhi
temer
cenar
iesandgr
adual
l
y
r
est
oredor
der
.Mobut
uwasconf
ir
medast
hePr
esi
dentoft
heCongoi
n1970.
Thest
ate
adopt
edanew nameofZai
re,af
tert
hef
ormernameoft
heRi
verCongo.Howev
er,
Mobut
u’s di
ctat
ori
al r
ule and mi
smanagement l
ed t
he count
ryt
o i
ncr
easi
ng
i
mpov
eri
shment
.Theex
per
ienceofCongoi
soneexampl
eoft
heki
ndofpr
obl
ems
whi
chsev
eral
newl
yindependentAf
ri
canst
ateswer
etof
ace.
TheBel
gianmandat
eter
ri
tor
iesofRwandaandBur
undibecamei
ndependentbyt
he
deci
si
onoft
heUNi
n1962.Ati
ndependence,Rwandabecamear
epubl
i
c.Bur
undiwas
madeaki
ngdom unt
ili
t,t
oo,
becamear
epubl
i
casofNov
ember1966.
ThePor
tugueseCol
oni
alEmpi
re
ThePor
tuguesewer
edet
ermi
nedt
ocont
inuet
hei
rcol
oni
alr
ulei
nthei
rAf
ri
cancol
oni
es
ofMozambi
que,Angol
a,Gui
nea-
BissauandCapeVer
de.Af
terWor
ldWarI
Ithepeopl
e
oft
hesecol
oni
esf
oughtbi
tt
erandl
ongguer
ri
ll
awar
sagai
nstPor
tuguesecol
oni
alr
ule.
Fi
ght
ing agai
nstt
heAf
ri
cannat
ionall
i
ber
ati
onf
orcespr
oved t
o bet
oo cost
lyf
or
Por
tugalt
owi
n.I
tmeantgr
eatexpendi
tur
efort
hePor
tuguesegov
ernmentoft
het
hen
Por
tuguesel
eaderCaet
ano.I
n1974,
Caet
ano’
sgov
ernmentwasov
ert
hrownbyacoup
l
edbyGener
alAnt
oni
odeSpi
nol
a.Then,t
hear
myi
nthebat
tl
efr
ontdemandedf
ort
he
endoft
hecol
oni
alwar
s.Asar
esul
t,Por
tugal
deci
dedt
oendcol
oni
alr
ulei
nAf
ri
ca.Wi
th
t
hese f
avour
abl
e condi
ti
ons, t
he "
Rev
olut
ionar
y Fr
ont f
or t
he Li
ber
ati
on of
Mozambi
que"
(FRELI
MO)
,woni
ndependencef
orMozambi
quei
n1975.TheNat
ional
Uni
onf
orTot
alI
ndependencei
nAngol
a,(
UNI
TA)
,andt
hePopul
arMov
ementf
ort
he
Li
ber
ati
on ofAngol
a,(
MPLA)bot
hin har
monyand conf
li
ctwi
th each ot
her
,won
i
ndependencef
orAngol
ain1975.TheAf
ri
canI
ndependencePar
tyofGui
neaandCape
Ver
de(
PAI
GC)l
edt
het
wosmal
lcol
oni
esofPor
tugalt
oindependencei
nthesamey
ear
.
SaoTomeandPr
inci
peal
sobecamei
ndependenti
n1975.
Spani
shandSout
hAf
ri
canCont
rol
ledTer
ri
tor
ies
Byt
heVer
sai
l
lesPeaceTr
eat
y,att
heendofWor
ldWarI
,Sout
hWestAf
ri
cawast
aken
awayf
rom Ger
manyandputundert
heRepubl
i
cofSout
hAf
ri
canmadat
oryr
ule.Af
ter
t
heSecondWor
ldWar
,ther
esponsi
bil
i
tyofl
ooki
ngaf
tert
hemandat
oryt
err
it
ori
eswas
t
ransf
err
edt
otheUni
tedNat
ions,(
UNTr
ustTer
ri
tor
ies)
.Insuchaway
,Spani
shGui
nea
gai
nedi
ndependencei
n1968andwasr
enamedEquat
ori
alGui
nea.But
,Sout
h-West
Af
ri
caent
eredi
ntoal
ongandbi
tt
erwaragai
nstt
heRepubl
i
cofSout
hAf
ri
ca.The
st
ruggl
ewasor
gani
sedandl
edbyt
he"
Sout
h-WestAf
ri
canPeopl
e'
sOr
gani
sat
ion"
(
SWAPO)
.Int
ernat
ionaldi
plomat
icpr
essur
eswer
eal
soputonSout
hAf
ri
ca.Fi
nal
l
y
Sout
h-WestAf
ri
cawoni
tsi
ndependencei
n1990.I
twasr
enamedNami
bia.
Apar
thei
dinSout
hAf
ri
ca
Twoy
ear
saf
terSout
hAf
ri
cawasf
reedf
rom Br
it
ishr
ulei
n1910,t
heAf
ri
canNat
ional
Congr
ess(
ANC)wasf
ormedi
n1912,ai
medatst
ruggl
i
ngf
ort
her
ight
soft
hebl
ack
popul
ati
on.Lat
er,
theANCcr
yst
all
i
zedi
tsdemandsi
ntoacal
lfor"
Oneman,
onev
ote.
"
I
n1948,
agener
alel
ect
ionbr
oughtt
heAf
ri
kanerNat
ionalPar
tyt
opower
.Itwas,
apar
ty
madeupofext
remer
aci
stgr
oups.I
tpr
omot
edapol
i
cyofdi
scr
imi
nat
ion,whi
chcame
obeknownasapar
t thei
d.Apar
thei
dmeanssepar
atedev
elopmentoft
her
aces,and
whi
tedomi
nat
ionoft
hemaj
ori
tybl
acksbyt
hemi
nor
it
ywhi
tes.Apar
thei
ddeni
edal
l
pol
i
ticalr
ight
stobl
acksandot
hernon-
whi
tes.UnderApar
thei
dei
ght
ysevenper
centof
al
ll
andi
nSout
hAf
ri
cawasr
eser
vedt
owhi
tes.
Addedt
othi
s,t
her
aci
stNat
ional
i
stpar
tycancel
l
edal
lthemeagerr
ightt
hebl
acksused
t
ohav
e.I
tpassedanumberofl
awst
hatdepr
ivedAf
ri
cansoft
hei
rpol
i
ticalr
ightand
human r
ight
sand i
mposed r
igi
d segr
egat
ion i
n spor
t,r
ecr
eat
ionalar
eas,school
s,
hospi
tal
s,buseset
c.
I
nreact
iont
osuchr
epr
essi
veact
s,wi
despr
eaddemonst
rat
ionsandr
iot
swer
ehel
d
manyt
imes.I
n1952t
heANC,l
edbyAl
ber
tLut
hul
i
,Ol
i
verTambo,Nel
sonMandel
aand
Wal
terSi
sul
uwagedacampai
gnofpassi
ver
esi
stancet
othev
ari
ousdi
scr
imi
nat
ory
r
ules.Butt
hegov
ernmentcont
inuedwi
thi
tsr
epr
essi
vepol
i
cy.On21Mar
ch1960,
pol
i
cef
ir
edonapeacef
ulandunar
meddemonst
rat
orsatshar
pev
il
le.72peopl
ewer
e
ki
l
ledandsome186i
ncl
udi
ngwomenandchi
l
drenwer
ewounded.Thei
nci
denti
s
r
eml
aredast
heshar
pev
il
lemassacr
e.Theactar
ousedwor
ldwi
decondemnat
ion.Many
nat
ionsenact
edeconomi
csanct
ionsagai
nstt
her
aci
stgov
ernmentofSout
hAf
ri
ca.The
r
aci
stgov
ernmentar
rest
ed t
he opposi
ti
on l
eader
sincl
udi
ng Nel
son Mandel
a and
bannedal
lbl
ackpol
i
ticalor
gani
zat
ionasi
l
legal
.Mandel
awasi
njai
latRobbeni
sland
unt
ilhewasr
eleasedi
n1990.
Thest
ruggl
eoft
heANCf
inal
l
ybor
efr
uit
.Apar
thai
dwasabol
i
shedand"
onemanone
v
ote"wasi
ntr
oducedi
nSout
hAf
ri
ca.I
nApr
il1994,Mandel
awonel
ect
ionandhel
d
of
fi
ceast
hef
ir
stdemocr
ati
cal
l
yel
ect
edpr
esi
dentoft
heRepubl
i
cofSout
hAf
ri
caHe
wasabl
etor
econci
l
ebl
acksandwhi
tesi
npeace.I
n1999,
hel
eftt
hepr
esi
dencyf
ort
he
nextdemocr
ati
cal
l
yel
ect
edpr
esi
dentwhohappenedt
obehi
ssecond–i
n–command
i
ntheANC.Mandel
l
ahasl
eftar
ichl
egacyofdemocr
ati
cgov
ernmenti
nSout
hAf
ri
ca.
Ef
fect
sofCol
oni
ali
sm i
nAf
ri
ca
- Economyandcul
tur
eoft
heAf
ri
canswer
edest
roy
ed,
- Af
ri
cansl
ostt
hei
rfr
eedom,
- TheAf
ri
canswer
eexpl
oit
edandoppr
essed,
- TheAf
ri
canswer
edi
suni
tedandwer
efor
cedt
oacceptf
orei
gncul
tur
e,et
c.
Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswer
sfr
om t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.Af
t he6thconf
ert erencehadi
nManchest
eri
n1845,
themai
ngoalofpan-Af
ri
can
mov
ementwast
oreal
i
zet
he
A.Uni
tyofAf
ri
canpeopl
es C.Cul
tur
aldi
ver
sit
yAf
ri
canspeopl
e
B.Ter
ri
tor
ial
int
egr
it
yofAf
ri
ca D.I
ndependenceofAf
ri
cans
2.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
egi
onalgr
oupi
ngmember
sbel
i
evedt
hatt
hei
rowni
nter
nal
pr
obl
emsmustbesol
vedf
ir
stbef
oret
heest
abl
i
shmentani
nter
-st
atepol
i
tical
uni
on
A.Br
azzav
il
le gr
oup B.Casabl
anca gr
oup C.Monr
ovi
a gr
oup D.neo-
Col
oni
ali
sm
3.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwasnotf
act
ort
hatf
aci
l
itat
ed t
hel
i
ber
ati
onst
ruggl
eof
Af
ri
cansi
nthepost
-wor
ldwart
hesecond
A.Pol
i
tical
changesandspr
eadofl
i
ber
alt
hinki
ngwi
thi
nthecol
oni
alcount
ri
es
B.Act
ivepar
ti
cipat
ionofAf
ri
cansi
nint
hewargav
econf
idence
C.Theposi
ti
veexampl
e setbyAsi
ansst
atest
hathadwoni
ndependenceear
li
er
t
hanAf
ri
cans
D.The educat
ed i
ntel
l
ect
ual
s adopt
ed cul
tur
e ofcol
oni
ali
sm as mean of
dev
elopmentandmoder
nit
y
7.Thef
ir
stbl
ackAf
ri
cancount
ryt
oadopti
ndependencef
rom Br
it
ishr
e-namedas
A.Ghana B.Guenea C.Al
ger
ia D.Mal
i
8.As Fr
enchSudanwasf
orMal
itoMadi
boTi
taasNor
thRhodesi
awasf
or
t
o
A. Zi
mbabuwe,
Rober
tMugabe C.ZANU,
JoshuaNkomo
B.Zambi
a,Kennet
hKaunda D.Zambi
a,Hast
ingt
a
 9. Vot
edy
esandgoti
ndependencef
rom Fr
enchr
uleaf
terChar
lesdeGaul
l
e
gav
eoppor
tunel
y
A.Gui
neaBi
ssau B.Fr
enchGui
nea C.Gui
neaConakr
y D.Equat
ori
alGui
nea
10.
FNLAwasr
esi
stancemov
ementofAl
ger
iaagai
nstbyAhmedBenBel
l
aas
wasr
esi
stancemov
`tofMozambi
queagai
nstPor
tuguese
A.FRELI
MOB.PAI
GC C.UNI
TA D.MPLA
11.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwast
rueaboutApar
thei
dinsout
hAf
ri
ca
A.I
twascr
yst
ali
zedi
tsdemandi
ntoacel
lforonemant
o“onev
ote”
B.I
twasdi
scr
imi
nat
oryandr
aci
sm l
edbyNel
sonMendel
a
C.I
tgav
efr
eedom f
orAncdemonst
rat
orscal
l
edShar
pev
il
lemassacr
e
D.I
twassegr
egat
ioni
nspor
t,r
ecr
eat
ionalar
eas,chur
ches,school
s–et
cand
whi
temi
nor
it
yrul
eov
erbl
ackmaj
ori
ty
12.
All
oft
hef
oll
owi
ngst
atement
sexpr
essNel
sonMendel
agenui
nel
yexcept
A.Thef
ir
stdemocr
ati
cpr
esi
dentofSout
hAf
ri
ca
B.Whoi
mpr
isonedatRi
bbonI
slandf
orabout27y
ear
s
C.Abl
etor
econci
l
ebl
acksandwhi
teswi
thr
evenger
athert
hanpeace
D.Lef
thi
spr
esi
dencyf
ort
henextdemocr
ati
cal
l
yel
ect
edPr
esi
dentpeacef
ull
y
13.
Whi
ch oft
he f
fcont
ri
but
ed t
othe f
ail
ure ofAf
ri
can r
esi
stance t
o Eur
opean
col
oni
ali
sm?
A.
FewAf
ri
canst
hemsel
veswer
ewi
l
li
ngt
opaysacr
if
icef
orf
reedom
B.Cl
assst
ruggl
einAf
ri
cansoci
eti
esweakenedAf
ri
canr
esi
stance
C.
Eur
opecol
oni
alpower
susedAf
ri
canmer
cenar
iesagai
nstr
esi
stance
D.
Ther
ewer
etoof
ewcompet
entAf
ri
canl
eader
stoor
gani
zer
esi
stance
14.
Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngbat
tl
emar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngofcol
oni
alr
ival
ry?
A.Omdur
man B.Tel
ElKabi
rC.Fashoda D.Adwa
15.Thef
ir
stAf
ri
cancount
rywhi
chwonnomi
nal
independencewas
A.
Egy
ptB.
GhanaC.
Sout
hAf
ri
caD.
Uganda
13.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sfal
seaboutAf
ri
cancol
oni
alr
esi
stancebet
weent
het
wo
wor
ld
war
s?
A.YoungKi
ki
yuassoci
ati
onor
gani
zedi
nKeny
aagai
nstBr
it
isht
orest
oref
ert
il
eland
 occupi
edbywhi
teset
tl
ers
B.
Col
oni
alassembl
ywhi
chest
abl
i
shedi
nUgandat
hroughagr
eementi
scal
l
edLuki
ko
C.
Ancbasi
cal
l
yst
oodagai
nstapar
thei
dsi
nSout
hAf
ri
canandi
twast
he f
ir
st
democr
ati
c
par
tyi
nAf
ri
ca
D.
NeoDust
erwast
heonl
yAf
ri
canconst
it
uti
oni
nTuni
siaagai
nstFr
enchandwon
nomi
nal
i
ndependence
14.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngi
sper
suasi
vest
atementaboutOAUandUNO?
A.t
hef
ormerwast
odecol
oni
zeAf
ri
canswher
east
hel
att
eri
stocol
oni
ali
zet
heAf
ri
ca
B.bot
hwer
e/ar
eint
ernat
ional
organi
zat
ionest
abl
i
shedt
oensur
ewor
ldpeace
C.bot
hhav
e/hadv
etopower
ssuchas Br
it
ain,
USA,
USSR andChi
nawhi
chcan
di
spr
oveor
appr
ovedeci
si
ons
E.t
hef
ormerasf
orcont
inent
alpeacekeepi
ngwher
east
hel
att
eri
stokeep
gl
obal
peaceaf
terwor
ldwart
wo

CHAPTERNI
NE
Et
hiopi
afr
om l
iber
ati
ont
orev
olut
ion
9.
1.Hai
leSel
assi
e'
sComeBackandBr
it
ishDomi
nat
ion
Hai
l
eSel
assi
ere-
ent
eredAddi
sAbabaonMay5,1941,f
oll
owi
ngt
hedef
eatof
I
tal
i
anf
orcesbypat
ri
otsandBr
it
ishf
orces,
asex
plai
nedi
nUni
tFi
ve.Hi
simper
ialpower
wasr
est
ored;andhet
ookcont
roloft
hegov
ernmentofEt
hiopi
a.Pat
ri
ots,
theOr
thodox
Chur
chandnobl
emenaccept
edt
her
est
orat
ionoft
hemonar
chy
.Col
l
abor
ator
sofI
tal
i
an
occupat
ionwer
eal
sopar
donedandaccommodat
edi
nHai
l
eSel
assi
e'
snewgov
ernment
.
Howev
er,
Hai
l
eSel
assi
e'
spowerwasl
i
mit
edbyt
heBr
it
ishMi
l
itar
yAdmi
nist
rat
ion
i
nEt
hiopi
a.TheBr
it
ishr
egar
dedt
hewhol
eofI
tal
i
anEastAf
ri
ca,i
ncl
udi
ngEt
hiopi
a,
whi
chhadcomeundert
hei
rcont
rol
,asOccupi
edEnemyTer
ri
tor
y[OETA]
.Int
hecaseof
Et
hiopi
a,t
heBr
it
ishpr
act
ical
l
yshar
edgov
ernment
alpower
swi
thHai
l
eSel
assi
e.The
Br
it
ishOccupi
edEnemyTer
ri
tor
yAdmi
nist
rat
ionkeptf
ori
tsel
fpower
sint
hear
easof
f
inance,t
hear
myandf
orei
gnaf
fai
rs.Ov
erl
appi
ngofpower
sal
socr
eat
edpr
obl
emsf
or
Hai
l
eSel
assi
e.Al
thought
hisar
rangementi
nawayhel
pedHai
l
eSel
assi
etobr
ingpeace
andnor
mal
i
zat
ioni
nthecount
rysi
de,Hai
l
eSel
assi
eneededt
oregul
atehi
srel
ati
ons
wi
tht
heBr
it
ish.Heal
sowant
edt
oregai
nthecompl
eteandi
ndependentpower
soft
he
monar
chy
.Fort
hatpur
pose,henegot
iat
edwi
tht
heBr
it
ishandsi
gnedt
wosi
gni
fi
cant
agr
eement
s.
OnJanuar
y31,1942,t
hef
ir
stAngl
o-Et
hiopi
anAgr
eementwassi
gned.Thi
sagr
eement
r
ecogni
zedEt
hiopi
aasasov
erei
gnst
ate.Howev
er,i
tal
l
owedt
heBr
it
isht
ohav
efi
nal
aut
hor
it
yov
erEt
hiopi
a'
sfor
eignr
elat
ions,admi
nist
rat
ion,f
inanceandt
hemi
l
itar
y.The
Br
it
ishr
easonedt
hatt
heSecondWor
ldWarwasst
il
lbei
ngf
oughtandDj
i
bout
iwas
underapr
o-Nazi
,Vi
chygov
ernment
,andt
her
emi
ghtbeadangerf
rom t
hatdi
rect
ion.
TheEmper
orhadnoot
herchoi
cebutt
oacceptwhatt
heBr
it
ishaskedf
or.Thi
spassi
ve
accept
ancepr
ovi
dedanexcusef
ort
heBr
it
ishof
fi
cial
stohav
eext
raor
dinar
yri
ght
s
par
ti
cul
arl
yint
he Ogaden,and ov
ercer
tai
n st
rat
egi
c ar
eas,such as t
he Fr
ench
Somal
i
landbor
derar
easandt
heAddi
s-Ababa-
Dji
bout
irai
l
way
.
The Br
it
ish combi
ned t
he Ogaden wi
thf
ormerI
tal
i
an Somal
i
land and began t
o
admi
nist
ert
hewhol
ear
eat
aki
ngMogadi
shuasacent
re.I
n1940,
theyhadpr
oposedt
o
combi
net
hef
iveSomal
i
-inhabi
tedt
err
it
ori
esofNor
ther
ndi
str
ictofKeny
a,I
tal
i
anSomal
i
l
and,
Bri
ti
shSomal
iland,
Dji
bout
iandt
heOgadent
ofor
m asi
ngl
est
atecal
l
edSomal
i
a.
Abov
eal
l
,theydev
elopedapl
ant
ocr
eat
ewhatt
heycal
l
ed'
'
Great
erSomal
i
a''
.Thei
r
secr
etpl
oti
ntheReser
vedAr
ea,
alongt
hesout
heast
ernbor
der
s,f
orcedt
heEmper
ort
o
open anot
herr
ound ofnegot
iat
ions.The Second Angl
o-Et
hiopi
an Agr
eementwas
si
gnedonDecember1944.Byt
hisagr
eementt
heBr
it
ishr
ecogni
zedt
heOgadenand
t
heReser
vedAr
eaasani
ntegr
alpar
tsofEt
hiopi
a.Theyr
equest
edonl
ytor
emai
nint
he
r
egi
onsf
ort
wo mor
eyear
sunt
ilt
heendofWor
ldWarI
I.Theyal
so madesome
concessi
onst
otheEmper
or:t
her
ightt
orecr
uitnon-
Bri
ti
shf
orei
gnper
sonnelandt
ouse
t
heDj
i
bout
irai
l
wayl
i
neasanout
let
.Theyal
soagr
eedt
otr
ainanEt
hiopi
anmi
l
itar
yfor
ce,
t
orepl
acet
hei
rar
my,
whi
chhadbeendomi
nanti
nthecount
rysi
nce1941.
I
n1948t
heUNpl
acedI
tal
i
anSomal
i
landunderI
tal
i
anTr
ust
eeshi
p.Wi
tht
hist
heBr
it
ish
desi
ret
oreal
i
zet
hei
deaofGr
eat
erSomal
i
afai
l
ed.TheBr
it
ishagr
eedt
other
etur
nof
t
heOgadent
oEt
hiopi
a.Butt
heykeptt
heHaud gr
azi
ngl
andandal
sot
hecor
ri
dor
knownast
he"
Reser
ved Ar
ea"
,st
ret
chi
ng f
rom t
heHaud t
othebor
derofFr
ench
Somal
i
land,
aspar
tofBr
it
ishSomal
i
land.Ther
etur
nofOgadenwasadi
plomat
icv
ict
ory
f
ort
heEmper
or.
Af
teranot
herr
oundofdi
plomat
ict
alks,t
heBr
it
ishgav
eupandr
est
oredt
heHaudand
t
heReser
vedAr
eat
otheEt
hiopi
angov
ernmenti
n1955.Pol
i
ticalgr
oupsi
nBr
it
ish
Somal
i
landandi
ntheI
tal
i
anTr
ustt
err
it
oryexpr
essedt
hei
rpr
otestagai
nstt
heBr
it
ish
agr
eementwi
thEt
hiopi
aov
ert
heHaud.Somemember
soft
hosegr
oupscamei
ntot
he
Ogadenandagi
tat
edt
hepeopl
etor
ebel
.TheEt
hiopi
angov
ernmentr
espondedbyusi
ng
f
orcewhi
chhel
pedi
ttor
egai
ncont
rol
overt
her
egi
on.
Per
iodofAmer
icanI
nfl
uence
Af
terWor
ldWarI
IAmer
icani
nfl
uencebecamepower
fuli
ntheMi
ddl
eEast
.Att
hist
ime
i
twasEt
hiopi
awhi
cht
ookt
hei
nit
iat
ivet
ogetcl
osert
otheAmer
icans.TheEmper
or,
whocoul
dnol
ongert
oler
ateBr
it
ishheav
y-handov
erEt
hiopi
an,
want
edal
l
iancewi
tht
he
USA.Of
fi
cialcont
act
s bet
ween t
he t
wo st
ates began i
n 1943.Et
hiopi
afor
mal
l
y
r
equest
edt
heU.
S.Af
ormi
l
itar
yai
daswel
lasot
herexper
tsandl
egaladv
isor
s.I
n1945,
t
heEmper
ormetPr
esi
dentRoosev
elti
nEgy
ptandaskedf
orsuppor
tint
hest
ruggl
eto
r
egai
ntheOgadenandEr
it
rea.Theunder
standi
ngr
eachedt
her
ebecamet
hebasi
sfor
f
utur
eEt
hiopi
an-
Amer
icanf
ri
endshi
pandcooper
ati
on.
TheAmer
icanshadf
eltt
hest
rat
egi
cimpor
tanceoft
heRedSeaandi
npar
ti
cul
art
he
Radi
oMar
inai
nEr
it
rea.Theyhadal
readyt
akencont
rolofRadi
oMar
inai
n1942.Af
ter
1953Radi
oMar
ine(
Qagnew st
ati
on)becameal
argesel
f-
cont
ainedbase,wi
thmor
e
t
han300 U.
S.mi
l
itar
yper
sonnel
,and becameani
mpor
tantl
i
nki
ntheU.
S gl
obal
communi
cat
ionsnet
wor
k.
I
n1948,Br
it
aindeci
dedt
obr
inganendt
oheradmi
nist
rat
ioni
nEr
it
rea.Amer
ican
r
epl
acedBr
it
ainast
hedomi
nantpoweri
nEt
hiopi
asi
nce1953.Thet
hreatf
rom t
he
communi
stbl
oc made Er
it
rea an i
ncr
easi
ngl
yval
uabl
e assett
oret
ain.Thus t
he
Amer
icanspr
efer
redEr
it
reat
obeapar
tofEt
hiopi
aandsuppor
tedEt
hiopi
a'
scl
aim ov
er
t
hatt
err
it
ory
.
Et
hiopi
a'
sst
andi
ntheKor
eanWarconv
incedt
heAmer
icansmor
e.Dur
ingt
heKor
ean
War(
1950-
53)t
heEmper
orshowedwi
l
li
ngnesst
opr
ovi
det
roopst
ofi
ghtundert
heU.
N.,
whi
chdepl
oyedchi
efl
yAmer
icanf
orces.Nor
thKor
ea'
sgoalwast
ouni
teSout
hKor
ea
wi
tht
heNor
th undercommuni
sm.TheUN gav
emi
l
itar
ysuppor
tto Sout
h Kor
ea.
Et
hiopi
a'
spar
ti
cipat
ioni
ntheWarwasani
ndi
cat
iont
hati
tident
if
iedi
tsi
nter
estwi
tht
he
west
ernwor
ld.TheAmer
icanst
ookEt
hiopi
aasapot
ent
ialal
l
y,whi
chmi
ghtpl
ayan
i
mpor
tantr
olei
nthepol
i
tcsoft
heMi
ddl
eEast
.Oncet
hef
eder
ati
onofEr
it
reawi
th
Et
hiopi
awasendor
sed,t
heEt
hiopi
angov
ernmentper
suadedt
heUSAt
ogi
vei
tmi
l
itar
y
suppor
t.I
nOct
ober1952negot
iat
ionswer
ehel
dtor
egul
ari
zet
hest
atusoft
heU.
S.
communi
cat
ions base.By t
hen t
he base was named t
he "
Qagnew St
ati
on"t
o
commemor
atet
heEt
hiopi
anbat
tal
i
ont
hatf
oughti
nKor
eaandr
etur
nedon22May
1952.Thet
wost
atessi
gnedanagr
eementi
n1953gov
erni
ngt
heQagnewSt
ati
onand
ot
herf
aci
l
iti
esi
nEr
it
reawhi
chr
emai
nedi
nfor
ceunt
il1978.
Twoaddi
ti
onalagr
eement
sst
rengt
henedt
heEt
hio-Amer
icanpar
tner
shi
p.The'
'
Poi
nt
FourAgr
eement'
'
signedi
n1952l
aidt
hef
oundat
ionf
orAmer
icanassi
stancei
nthef
iel
d
ofeducat
ionandpubl
i
cheal
th.Poi
ntFour
,ast
heor
gani
zat
ioncamet
obeknown,was
i
nvol
ved i
n agr
icul
tur
al,publ
i
c heal
th,educat
ion,t
our
istand publ
i
c admi
nist
rat
ion
t
rai
ningandawar
dingofschol
arshi
ps.I
n1953,
anot
hert
reat
ywassi
gnedf
orUSmi
l
itar
y
assi
stance.A uni
tknownasMi
l
itar
yAssi
stanceandAdv
isor
yGr
oup(
MAAG)was
assi
gnedt
oal
lbr
anchesofmi
l
itar
yuni
tsandt
rai
ningi
nst
it
uti
onsoft
heEt
hiopi
anar
med
f
orces.
TheU.
S.Agav
etoEt
hiopi
ami
l
itar
yai
dwhi
chi
ncr
easedaf
ter1960,par
ti
cul
arl
ywhen
Somal
i
abecamei
ndependentandent
eredi
ntoconf
li
ctwi
thEt
hiopi
a.By1970,60per
centoft
heUSA'
smi
l
itar
yai
dtoAf
ri
cawentt
oEt
hiopi
a.Byt
henAmer
icansuppor
tto
Et
hiopi
amai
ntai
nedbyf
art
hel
argestar
myi
nsub-
Sahar
anAf
ri
ca.TheUSAandt
he
USSRwer
epl
ayi
ngt
heCol
dWargamei
ntheHor
nofAf
ri
ca,si
nceSomal
i
awasget
ti
ng
si
mil
armi
l
itar
yai
dfr
om t
heU.
S.S.
R.
Amer
icanmi
l
itar
yassi
stanceenabl
edEt
hiopi
ant
roopst
opl
ayt
her
oleofi
nter
nat
ional
peace-
keeperundert
heUNi
nAf
ri
ca.I
n1960,dur
ingt
heCongoCr
isi
sEt
hiopi
ant
roops
ser
vedasaUNpeace-
keepi
ngf
orce.
Amer
icanassi
stancewasal
sogi
veni
nthef
iel
dofci
vi
lav
iat
ion.I
n1945t
heAmer
ican
Tr
ans-cont
inent
alandWest
ernAi
rLi
nes(
TWA)hel
pedt
osetupt
heEt
hiopi
anAi
rLi
nes
(
EAL)
,Pr
ovi
dingi
tmanager
ialandsuper
visor
yper
sonnel
.Theot
hermaj
orar
eaof
Amer
icansuppor
twasi
nthef
iel
dofr
oadr
epai
randconst
ruct
ion.Roadsbui
l
tbyt
he
I
tal
i
anshadbeenbadl
ydamagedi
nthecour
seoft
hewarofl
i
ber
ati
onandr
epai
rwasa
bur
denont
heEt
hiopi
angov
ernment
.InJanuar
y1957,t
heI
mper
ialHi
ghwayAut
hor
it
y
wasest
abl
i
shedwi
tht
hehel
poft
heAmer
icans.Loansf
orr
epai
randr
oadconst
ruct
ion
wer
eobt
ainedf
rom t
heI
nter
nat
ionalBankf
orReconst
ruct
ionandDev
elopment(
IBRD)
,
most
lyf
unded byt
heU.
S.A.Amer
ican i
nfl
uencewasal
so gr
eati
nthespher
eof
educat
ion.Wi
tht
heexcept
ionofaf
ewel
i
teschool
srunbyt
heBr
it
ishandt
heFr
ench,
educat
ionwasconduct
edal
ongAmer
icanl
i
nes.I
nthenat
ional
Uni
ver
sit
y,t
heenr
olment
andev
aluat
ionsy
stem wer
emodel
l
edonst
andar
dAmer
icancol
l
eges.
Amer
icanPeaceCor
psv
olunt
eert
eacher
s,whocamei
nthe1960s,accept
edt
eachi
ng
assi
gnment
sint
hehi
ghschool
s,ev
eni
nremot
etowns.Theycont
ri
but
edal
oti
n
adv
anci
ngeducat
ioni
nEt
hiopi
a.
Lat
er,howev
er,ant
i-
Amer
icani
sm gr
ewst
rongamongt
hel
eft
-wi
ngUni
ver
sit
yst
udent
s
i
nthel
ate1960'
sandear
ly1970s.Thesest
udent
svi
ewedt
heUSAasani
mper
ial
i
st
st
ate suppor
ti
ng a r
egi
me whi
ch was r
eact
ionar
y and an obst
acl
eto pr
ogr
ess.
Fur
ther
mor
e,t
hev
alueofEt
hiopi
afort
heUSA di
mini
shedi
nthe1970’
s.Thatwas
becauset
heU.
S.Awasabl
etogetanewal
l
yint
heRedSear
egi
on.Thenewal
l
ywas
Egy
ptunderpr
esi
dentAnwarSadat
.Pr
evi
ousl
yEgy
pt,underPr
esi
dentGamalAbdl
Nasser
,hadbeenanal
l
yoft
heU.
S.S.
R.Butt
hatchangedaf
ter1973.Asar
esul
t,when
Hai
l
eSel
l
assi
e'
sgov
ernmentcr
umpl
ed,
theU.
S.Adi
dnotcomet
oit
shel
p.Et
hiopi
awas
scar
cel
ycapi
tal
i
stev
enont
heev
eoft
he1974Rev
olut
ion.Ther
ewasonl
yav
erysmal
l
commer
cialbour
geoi
si
e,andhar
dlyani
ndust
ri
albour
geoi
sie.Ther
efor
e,l
i
keot
herThi
rd
Wor
ldcount
ri
es,Et
hiopi
afoundi
tsel
finaposi
ti
onofdependenceonext
ernalcapi
tal
i
st
count
ri
es.Hai
l
eSel
l
assi
ebui
l
thi
sabsol
uti
sm t
hroughext
ernal
suppor
t,par
ti
cul
arl
yfr
om
t
heU.
S.A.
9.
2TheEr
it
reanPr
obl
em
Er
it
reabecomeanI
tal
i
ancol
onyi
n1890.I
n1941,
wit
htheexpul
sionoft
heFasci
star
my,
i
twast
akenov
erbyt
heBr
it
ishadmi
nist
rat
ionasanOccupi
edEnemyTer
ri
tor
y.Byt
he
t
imet
heEmper
orwasr
aisi
ngt
heEt
hiopi
anf
lagi
nAddi
sAbabaonMay5,1941,t
he
peopl
einAsmar
awer
ehol
dingademonst
rat
ioncal
l
ingf
ort
her
euni
fi
cat
ionofEr
it
rea
wi
thEt
hiopi
a.Ont
hesameday
,thel
eader
soft
hedemonst
rat
ionannounced t
he
f
ormat
ionoft
heUni
oni
stPar
ty,
anor
gani
zat
iont
hatwast
opl
ayani
mpor
tantr
olei
nthe
f
utur
eofEr
it
rea.
Wi
tht
he comi
ng oft
he Br
it
ish,Er
it
rea made some adv
ance t
owar
ds pol
i
tical
dev
elopment
.TheBr
it
ishal
l
owedt
her
ightoff
reespeechandpr
ess,andt
her
ightt
o
f
orm pol
i
ticalpar
ti
es.Pol
i
ticalpar
it
ies gr
ew i
n numberwi
thi
n a shor
tper
iod.
Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
hesepol
i
ticalpar
ti
eswer
efoundedonet
hni
candr
eli
giousbasi
s.The
Br
it
ishdel
i
ber
atel
yencour
ageddi
ff
erencesamongt
hesepar
ti
es.Thatwasbecause
t
heyhadt
hepl
anofsepar
ati
ngt
hewest
ernl
owl
andr
egi
ont
oaddi
ttot
hei
rcol
ony
,the
Sudan.Regar
dingt
hehi
ghl
andt
err
it
oryoft
heTegr
egna-
speaki
nggr
oups,t
heypl
anned
t
ojoi
nitwi
thTi
grayt
ofor
m asepar
ateTi
graySt
ate.Tot
hisef
fect
,theBr
it
ishpr
oposed
i
n1943t
otheEr
it
reanhi
ghl
andel
i
test
hef
ormat
ionofauni
tedTi
gray
.Thoset
hat
accept
edt
hepr
oposalf
ormedasepar
ati
stgr
oupt
hatl
aterev
olv
edi
ntowhatcamet
o
beknownast
heLi
ber
alPr
ogr
essi
vePar
t edbyRasTessemaAsmer
yl om.Besi
des,t
he
Br
it
ishencour
agedt
heMusl
i
mst
oest
abl
i
sht
hei
rownpol
i
ticalor
gani
zat
ion.I
n1946,
t
heMusl
i
m Leaguewasf
ormed.
I
tdemandedi
ndependencef
orMusl
i
m-i
nhabi
tedl
owl
andEr
it
reaoruni
onwi
tht
heSudan.
Bet
weenJanuar
yandFebr
uar
y1947,t
heUni
oni
stPar
ty,t
heLi
ber
alPr
ogr
essi
vePar
ty
andt
heMusl
i
m Leaguewer
edul
yregi
ster
ed.Apr
o-I
tal
i
anpar
tywasal
sof
ormedl
ater
,
t
owar
dst
heendoft
hey
ear
.Thi
spar
tywant
edt
her
etur
nofI
tal
i
ancol
oni
alr
uleunder
t
hecov
erofUN Tr
ust
eeshi
p.I
twasdomi
nat
edbyI
tal
i
ansandhal
f-
cast
es,whower
e
wel
lest
abl
i
shed i
n Er
it
rea.Howev
er,i
thad f
ew f
oll
ower
sand coul
d notpl
ayany
meani
ngf
ulr
oleatt
hecomi
ngoft
heCommi
ssi
onofEnqui
ry.
I
n1947,t
heFourPower
sCommi
ssi
onofEnqui
ry,r
epr
esent
ingt
heUSA,USSR,Br
it
ain
andFr
ance,
wassentt
oEr
it
reat
odet
ermi
net
hef
utur
eofEr
it
reanpeopl
e.Thear
ri
valof
t
heCommi
ssi
onsi
gnal
edt
hecl
i
maxofpol
i
ticalagi
tat
ion,i
nwhi
cht
heUni
oni
stPar
ty
andt
heMusl
i
m Leaguecameoutast
hemaj
orr
ival
s.I
n1948,anassessmentof
peopl
e'
sopi
nionwashel
dinAsmar
a,ont
hef
utur
eofEr
it
rea.Cl
oset
o50percentst
ood
f
ori
ndependence,
whi
l
eot
her
svot
edf
oruni
tywi
thEt
hiopi
a,andaf
ewchoseuni
onwi
th
t
heSudan.Asar
esul
t,t
heCommi
ssi
oncoul
dnotdeci
deandr
efer
redt
hemat
tert
othe
UNGener
alAssembl
yin1948.
I
n1950,t
heUNappoi
ntedaCommi
ssi
onoff
ivemenf
rom Bur
ma,Guat
ernal
a,Nor
way
,
Paki
stanandSout
hAf
ri
cat
odeci
det
hef
ateofEr
it
rea.Butt
heCommi
ssi
ondi
dnot
comet
ounani
mit
yov
ert
hei
ssue.Twomember
s,f
rom Guat
ernal
aandPaki
stan,opt
ed
f
ori
ndependence.Sout
hAf
ri
caandBur
mar
ecommendedf
eder
ati
onwi
thEt
hiopi
a.
Nor
wayf
avour
eduni
onwi
thEt
hiopi
a.TheUNGener
alAssembl
ysuppor
tedt
hemaj
ori
ty
opi
nion,andt
heUSAandBr
it
ainf
oll
owed.Asar
esul
t,t
heGener
alAssembl
yvot
edt
o
t
hatef
fecti
n1950.Accor
dingl
y,Er
it
reawasf
eder
atedwi
thEt
hiopi
ain1952.
AnEr
it
reanconst
it
uti
onwaswr
it
tenbyt
heUN,whi
chamongot
hert
hingspr
ohi
bit
ed
(
accor
dingt
oAr
ti
cl
e91)t
heEr
it
reanPar
li
amentf
rom passi
ngl
egi
slat
iont
hatv
iol
ated
t
heFeder
alAct
.Pol
i
ticalpar
ti
eswer
eor
gani
zedandcompet
edf
ort
heseat
sint
he
Legi
sl
atur
e.I
nthef
ir
stel
ect
ionof1952,
thepr
o-Et
hiopi
anUni
oni
stPar
tyemer
gedast
he
l
argestpar
ty.I
tgot32outoft
he68seat
sint
he Par
li
ament
.Thef
ounderoft
hepar
ty,
Tedl
aBahr
u,becamet
hechi
efExecut
iveofEr
it
rea.
Att
heout
setoft
hef
eder
alar
rangement
,theEmper
orandhi
srepr
esent
ati
veswer
e
agai
nstEr
it
rea'
s separ
atei
dent
it
y undert
he f
eder
alsy
stem.They accept
ed t
he
ar
rangementonl
youtofnecessi
ty.TheEmper
ordi
dnotwantt
oacceptt
hespeci
al
st
atusgi
vent
oEr
it
rea.Hef
ear
edt
hatt
her
elat
ivel
yhi
gherdegr
eeofdemocr
acyandci
vi
l
l
i
ber
tyexer
cisedbyt
heEr
it
reansmi
ghti
nci
tet
her
estoft
heEt
hiopi
anpeopl
ethatwer
e
underhi
saut
ocr
ati
crul
e.Howev
er,Pr
imeMi
nist
erAki
l
il
uHabt
ewl
d wasabl
etoseei
n
t
imet
hedangeroft
hedi
ssol
uti
onoft
heEr
it
reanFeder
ati
on,andopposedt
oiti
nthe
ear
ly 1960s.Butt
he Emper
orwas det
ermi
ned t
ofol
l
ow hi
s own i
nter
est
s and
t
ranspl
ant
edhi
saut
ocr
ati
crul
einEr
it
rea.Thi
sant
agoni
zedal
ltheEr
it
reanpar
ti
es
i
ncl
udi
ngt
heUni
oni
stPar
tyt
hathadst
ruggl
edf
ort
heuni
onofEr
it
reawi
thEt
hiopi
a.I
n
1955 Tedl
a Bahr
u,t
he Chi
efExecut
ive oft
he Er
it
rean Assembl
y,r
esi
gned under
pr
essur
efr
om t
heEmper
or,and wasr
epl
aced byAsr
ateKassa,a Shoan not
abl
e
Fol
l
owi
ngt
hat
,theEmper
ormadeAmhar
ict
heof
fi
ciall
anguagei
npl
aceofAr
abi
cand
Ti
gri
gna.Heal
sot
ermi
nat
edt
heuseofanEr
it
reanf
lagandhoi
stedt
heEt
hiopi
anf
lag
i
nst
ead.I
naddi
ti
on,hef
orbadeal
lsor
tsofpol
i
ticalact
ivi
ti
es.Heappoi
ntedmor
eloy
al
Chr
ist
ianst
oresponsi
bleposi
ti
ons.
I
nNov
ember1962,t
heEr
it
reanAssembl
yvot
edi
tsel
foutofexi
stencebyendi
ngt
he
f
eder
alar
rangementanddeci
dedt
ouni
tewi
tht
her
estofEt
hiopi
a.Er
it
real
osti
ts
f
eder
alst
atusandbecameoneoft
hepr
ovi
ncesofEt
hiopi
a.Theext
inct
ionoft
he
f
eder
ati
onconsol
i
dat
edi
nter
nalandext
ernalopposi
ti
on.Foury
ear
sear
li
er,i
n1958,
Er
it
reansi
nexi
l
ehadal
readyf
oundedt
heEr
it
reanLi
ber
ati
onMov
ement(
ELM)i
nCai
ro.
TheELM wasamov
ementwhi
chsoughtt
o achi
evei
tsobj
ect
ivebypol
i
ticaland
di
plomat
icmeans,i
ncl
udi
ngi
nter
vent
ionf
rom t
heUN.Thi
sor
gani
zat
ionwassoon
neut
ral
i
zed,and t
he Er
it
rean Li
ber
ati
on Fr
ont(
ELF)came i
nto exi
stence i
n 1961
est
abl
i
shedbyEr
it
reanexi
l
esi
ntheMi
ddl
eEast
.TheELFst
art
edt
orecei
veI
raqiand
Sy
riansuppor
t.I
tst
art
edt
olaunchar
medat
tacksi
nSept
emberoft
haty
ear
,undert
he
l
eader
shi
pofaf
ormerr
ebel
,I
dri
sAwat
e,i
nthewest
ernl
owl
ands.
Butt
heELF'
ssect
ari
anconcept
ionoft
hest
ruggl
esoonr
esul
tedi
ndi
vi
sionwi
thi
nit
sel
f.
Asar
esul
t,t
hreemaj
orgr
oupsemer
ged.Theset
hreegr
oupsbegant
hepr
ocessof
mer
geri
n1972t
ofor
mtheEr
it
reanLi
ber
ati
onFr
ontandPopul
arLi
ber
ati
onFor
ce(
ELF-
PLF)
.In1973t
heEr
it
reanPeopl
e'
sLi
ber
ati
onFr
ont(
EPLF)wasf
ormed.
Thel
asty
ear
sofHai
l
eSel
l
assi
e'
srei
gnwi
thnessedt
woor
gani
zat
ionscompet
ingf
or
r
ecogni
ti
onasl
eaderoft
heEr
it
reansepar
ati
stmov
ement
s:ELFandEPLF,ori
nthei
r
popul
arAr
abi
cdesi
gnat
ion Jabha(
Front
)andSha'
abi
ya (
Popul
ar)
.Thet
wogr
oups
car
ri
edoutar
elent
lessst
ruggl
eforsupr
emacyi
ntheper
iodf
rom 1972-
1974,i
nwhi
ch
t
heEPLFt
ri
umphed.By1974,t
heEPLFhadov
er10,
000member
sint
hef
iel
dfi
ght
ing
agai
nstt
heEt
hiopi
anar
my.
Unt
ilt
heout
breakoft
he1974Rev
olut
ion,
themov
ementi
nEr
it
rear
emai
nedonl
yal
ocal
i
ssuewi
thoutgai
ningwi
deri
nter
nat
ionalr
ecogni
ti
on.I
twasonl
yaf
ew Ar
abst
ates
whi
chwer
esy
mpat
het
ict
othemov
ementandpr
ovi
dedmat
eri
alsuppor
t.Theyr
egar
ded
Er
it
reaasan“
Arab”l
andand hat
edt
her
egi
meofHai
l
eSel
assi
ebecauseofi
tscl
ose
t
ieswi
thI
srael
.
Af
tert
he1967Ar
ab–I
srael
iWar
,mostst
atesoft
heMi
ddl
eEastandt
hePer
sianGul
f
adopt
edast
rongani
t-
Zioni
stpol
i
cy.Thi
swasagr
eatoppor
tuni
tyt
otheEr
it
reancause.
Ar
absuppor
ttot
heEr
it
reanmov
ementbecamesi
gni
fi
cant
.
I
nEt
hiopi
a,ev
ent
heEt
hiopi
anl
eft
ist
sint
hest
udentmov
ement
,whi
chhadaf
ir
m st
and
onEt
hiopi
anuni
ty,
inpr
inci
pleadopt
edt
heposi
ti
onofr
ecogni
zi
ngt
her
ightofEr
it
reans
t
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion.
9.
3Opposi
ti
onsagai
nstHai
leSel
assi
e'
sGov
ernment
I
n1936,somepr
omi
nentmenamongt
hear
ist
ocr
atsbol
dlyopposedt
heEmper
or'
s
deci
si
ont
ogoi
ntoexi
l
etoappealt
otheLeagueofNat
ions.Wheni
n1941,hewas
r
est
oredt
ohi
sthr
onewi
tht
hebacki
ngoft
heBr
it
ishgov
ernment
,manyr
esent
edhi
s
r
est
orat
iont
opower
.Ont
opoft
hat
,theEmper
orf
avor
edt
heexi
l
esandev
ensome
col
l
abor
ator
s,(
'bandas'
,
)ignor
ingandmar
ginal
i
zingt
hegenui
nepat
ri
ots.
Bl
att
a Takal
a Wal
da Hawar
yat was one oft
he mostr
enowned pat
ri
ots oft
he
occupat
ionper
iod,whoor
gani
zedt
hepat
ri
otst
ofi
ghtagai
nstt
heFasci
sts.Het
ri
edal
l
meanst
opr
ventt
heEmper
orf
rom r
etur
ningt
othet
hronei
n1941.Whent
heEmper
or
wasr
est
oredt
opowerhest
art
edt
opl
otagai
nsthi
m.Hi
sfi
rstpl
otst
art
edsoonaf
ter
l
i
ber
ati
oni
n1941.Hi
spl
otwasuncov
eredbuthewasputi
npr
isonandf
reedi
n1945.
Hewasagai
ninv
olv
edi
nanot
herpl
ott
hef
oll
owi
ngy
ear
.Thi
sti
mehi
sdet
ent
ionl
ast
ed
unt
il1954.On hi
srel
ease,Takal
a was gi
ven a hi
gh gov
ernmentpost
,becomi
ng
successi
vel
yVi
ceMi
nist
eroft
heI
nter
iorandAf
aNegus.I
nNov
ember
,1969,howev
er,
he or
gani
zed a gr
oup ofar
med men t
o assassi
nat
ethe Emper
or.The pl
otwas
di
scov
ered,
andhewaski
l
ledi
nashoot-outwi
tht
hepol
i
ce.
Bel
ayZel
ekewasanot
herf
amouspat
ri
oti
cleaderi
nthest
ruggl
eagai
nstt
hef
asci
sts
f
rom hi
shomebase,i
neast
ernGoj
j
am.Hi
scour
agemadehi
m al
egendar
yher
o
t
hroughoutGoj
j
am andEt
hiopi
aatl
arge.Hi
spopul
ari
tywasnotv
erymuchappr
eci
ated
byt
heEmper
or.TheEmper
orwasv
erysuspi
ciousofhi
m andwant
edt
oremov
ehi
m
f
rom hi
shomebase.Tot
hisef
fect
,theEmper
orgav
eBel
ayt
hechoi
ceofei
thert
obe
Gov
ernor
-Gener
alofoneoft
hepr
ovi
ncesi
nthesout
hoft
hecount
rywi
tht
het
it
leof
Rasorgover chenaAwr
norofBi aja.Bel
ayr
eject
edt
hef
ormerandaccept
edt
hel
att
er.
TheEmper
orgr
ant
edot
herGoj
j
amepat
ri
otshi
ght
it
lesandposi
ti
ons.ButBel
aywas
r
ewar
dedwi
thonl
ythet
it
leofDej
azmat
ch andmadegover
norofBi
chenadi
str
ict
.Bel
ay,
amanwi
thagr
eatambi
ti
on,di
dnotl
i
kewhathegot
.Mor
ethant
hat
,thel
ossofMot
a
andpar
tofDebr
eMar
qosdi
str
ict
swhi
chhadbeenunderhi
scont
rol
,anger
edhi
m asa
di
sgr
acet
ohi
sreput
ati
on.Outofanger
,Bel
aymadet
hei
l
l-
fat
eddeci
siont
ost
andup
agai
nstt
hegov
ernmentbyt
urni
ngt
obandi
tr
y.
Heexpr
essedhi
sgr
iev
ancebydi
sobey
ingor
der
scomi
ngf
rom bot
htheGov
ernor
-
Gener
alandt
hecent
ralgov
ernment
.InFebr
uar
y,1944acombi
nedf
orcef
rom t
her
est
ofGoj
j
am andAddi
sAbabai
nvadedhi
sdi
str
ict
.Af
tert
hreemont
hsoff
ight
ing,he
sur
render
edandwasbr
oughtt
oAddi
sAbaba.Ther
e,hewaskepti
npr
ison.A f
ew
mont
hsl
ater
,hebr
okeoutofpr
ison,butwascapt
uredonhi
swayt
oGoj
j
am.Hewas
br
oughtbackt
oAddi
sAbaba,
andwasl
atermadet
ost
andt
ri
alandwaspubl
i
clyhanged.
Bi
twadedNegashBezabi
hwast
hegr
andsonofKi
ngTekl
eHai
manotofGoj
j
am.Li
ke
sev
eralot
her
s,hewasar
enownedpat
ri
oti
nGoj
j
am dur
ingt
heI
tal
i
anoccupat
ion.He
hadr
eachedt
her
ankofVi
ce-
Mini
sterandhadbeenappoi
ntedPr
esi
dentoft
heSenat
e
bef
orehi
sconspi
racy
.In1951hel
edapl
otagai
nstt
heEmper
or.Thepl
ot,r
epor
tedl
y,
wast
oassassi
nat
etheemper
orandpr
ocl
aim ar
epubl
i
c.I
nhi
sat
tempthegott
he
suppor
tofsomef
ormerpat
ri
otsandar
mymember
s.Thepl
otwas,
howev
er,
discov
ered.
Thepl
ott
erswer
ecaughtwhi
l
ecar
ryi
ngonasecr
etmeet
ing.Theywer
etr
iedand
sent
encedt
ovar
ioust
ermsofi
mpr
isonment
.Thepl
ot,l
i
ket
heot
her
sbef
orei
t,was
car
ri
edoutonani
ndi
vi
dual
basi
s,uncoor
dinat
ed,
anddest
inedt
ofai
l
ure.
TheWey
aneRebel
li
onof1942-
43
Af
ter1941,t
henewl
yrest
oredr
egi
memadeaqui
ckmov
etowar
dsTi
gray
,inpar
ti
cul
ar
t
oreasser
tit
saut
hor
it
ybyi
mposi
ngt
axat
ion.Her
ethechal
l
engecamef
rom t
radi
ti
onal
l
ords.Mor
eov
er,Br
it
ish i
nfl
uence was v
ery hi
gh,because t
he Br
it
ish want
ed t
o
admi
nist
erEr
it
reaandTi
grayast
heI
tal
i
anshaduni
tedt
hem i
n1936-
1941.Topr
event
t
heBr
it
ishpl
an,
Hai
l
eSel
assi
eappoi
ntedhi
sownof
fi
cial
sint
hepr
ovi
nce.Theof
fi
cial
s,
howev
er,wer
ecor
rupt
.Theyusedunnecessar
yfor
ceandf
raudi
nthepr
ocessoft
ax
col
l
ect
ion.Fur
ther
mor
e,t
he peasant
s wer
efor
ced t
o pr
ovi
de pr
ovi
sions t
otax
assessor
sandt
hei
rfol
l
ower
s.Somet
imes,t
hegov
ernmentst
ati
onedcont
ingent
sof
mi
l
iti
aindi
str
ict
s,unt
ilal
ltaxeswer
ecol
l
ect
ed.Thecul
ti
vat
orshadt
osuppor
tthe
mi
l
iti
aindi
str
ict
sunt
ilal
ltaxeswer
ecol
l
ect
ed.Acasei
npoi
ntwast
hemi
l
iti
ast
ati
oned
bet
weenKor
em andQui
ha,whower
epoor
lypai
dandasar
esul
ttur
nedt
oloot
ing,and
r
api
ngofpeasant
s,aswel
lascr
eat
ingdest
ruct
ion.
Anot
hercauseoft
her
ebel
l
ionwast
heage-
oldconf
li
ctbet
weent
heRay
aandAzebo
et
hni
cgr
oupsandt
hegov
ernment
.TheRay
aandAzeboet
hni
cgr
oupsont
heeast
ern
edgeoft
heTi
graypl
ateaudi
dnotwantt
oloset
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onall
ocalpower
stot
he
gov
ernment
.TheWaj
i
rat
,whower
eChr
ist
ians,hadel
ect
edel
der
swi
thadmi
nist
rat
ive
power
.Ingener
al,asl
ongast
heyhadbeenwi
l
li
ngt
opayt
ri
but
e,t
heyhadbeenl
eftt
o
exer
ciset
hei
rtr
adi
ti
onalr
ight
sinf
ormert
imes.Theconf
li
ctcr
oppedupwhent
hest
ate
st
art
edt
oappoi
nti
tsownadmi
nist
rat
orsi
nther
egi
on.I
naddi
ti
on,someoft
henobi
l
ity
j
oinedt
her
evol
ttor
egai
ntr
adi
ti
onalpr
ivi
l
eges.TheWey
aner
ebel
l
ionachi
evedsome
r
emar
kabl
esuccessunderanabl
eleader
,Bl
att
aHai
l
eMar
iam Radda,
andspr
eadov
era
wi
dear
eabet
ween1942and1943.
Thegov
ernmentassi
gnedt
hef
ormerpat
ri
otl
eaderRasAbebeAr
egayt
ocommandi
ts
f
orcesagai
nstt
her
ebel
l
ion.Thegov
ernmental
soappeal
edsuccessf
ull
ytot
heBr
it
ish
f
orai
rat
tacksont
her
ebel
s.Fi
nal
l
y,ar
ti
ll
eryandbombi
ngf
rom t
heai
rcr
ushedt
he
r
ebel
l
ionbyt
heendof1943.
TheFai
ledCoupd’
etatof1960
The1960at
t edcoupd’
empt etatwast
hef
ir
stofi
tski
nd.I
twasor
gani
zedbyeducat
ed
of
fi
cial
stoov
ert
hrow Hai
l
eSel
assi
e’
sgov
ernment
.It
'sl
eaderwasGener
alMengi
stu
Neway
,theCommanderoft
heI
mper
ialBody
guar
d.Themast
er-
mindbehi hecoup
ndt
washi
syoungerbr
otherGer
mameNeway
.Ger
mamehad r
etur
ned t
o Et
hiopi
a by
i
mper
ialor
deri
n1954,af
tergr
aduat
ingwi
thanM.
Adegr
eei
nSoci
alSci
encesi
nthe
USA.He wor
ked f
ort
he gov
ernmentunderv
ari
ous capaci
ti
es.Real
i
zing t
hatany
peacef
ulwayofchangeandr
efor
m wasi
mpossi
ble,
Ger
mameandhi
sbr
otherMengi
stu
t
urnedt
oacoupd’
etat
,wi
tht
hehel
pofof
fi
cer
sint
heI
mper
ial
Body
guar
d.
he coup st
When t art
ed,t
he r
ebel
s made t
hei
rint
ent
ion publ
i
c by st
ati
ng t
he
backwar
dnessoft
hecount
ryi
ncont
rastt
othenewl
yindependentAf
ri
canst
ates.The
l
att
erwer
eshowi
ngr
api
dpr
ogr
essi
nthepat
hofdev
elopment
.Thus,wi
thoutdi
rect
ly
at
tacki
ngt
heEmper
or,
theypoi
ntedoutt
hei
nef
fect
ivenessofhi
sregi
met
obr
ingabout
r
eal
progr
ess.
Secur
ingt
hesuppor
toft
heChi
efoft
heAddi
sAbabaPol
i
ceFor
cet
her
ebel
slaunched
t
act
icalsur
pri
se.Theysei
zedpubl
i
cbui
l
dingsandt
ookashost
agessomemember
sof
t
hei
mper
ialf
ami
l
yandl
eadi
ngf
igur
esi
nthegov
ernment
.Ther
eignofHai
l
eSel
assi
e
wasdecl
aredt
ohav
eended.Asf
awosenwasmadet
hemout
h-pi
eceoft
her
ebel
s;he
wast
obet
heconst
it
uti
onal
monar
choft
hecount
ry,
pai
dandsal
ari
ed.OnDecember14,
1960,anewgov
ernmentwasdecl
ared.TheHeadofGov
ernmentwast
obet
hel
i
ber
al
ar
ist atRasI
ocr mir
uHai
l
eSel
assi
e(acl
oser
elat
iveoft
heEmper
or)
.
Ther
ebel
sfai
l
edt
oputot
herl
eadi
ngof
fi
cial
s,nobl
esandar
mygener
alsundercont
rol
.
Theyal
sof
ail
edt
ogett
hesuppor
tofot
hermi
l
itar
yuni
tsf hecoup.Consequent
ort ly,
t
heyf
acedal
onet
hej
ointr
eact
ionoft
heAr
myandt
heAi
rfor
ce.TheEmper
orwasi
n
Sout
hAmer
i hecoupwasst
cawhent aged,buthecamebackhomequi
ckl
ytosav
ehi
s
endanger
edt
hrone.
TheI
mper
ialBody
guar
dal
ongwi
tht
hePol
i
ceFor
ce(
underi
tsl
eaderBr
igadi
er-
Gener
al
Tsi
geDi
bu)coul
dnotr
esi
stt
hemi
ghtoft
heAr
myandAi
rFor
ce.Thel
oyal
i
stswon
v
ict
oryaf
terabat
tl
ethatl
ast
edonl
ytwoday
s.Losi
nghope,t
heNewaybr
other
sshot
t
hehost
ages,
18i
nnumber
,hel
dint
heGanat
eLe’
ulPal
ace(
nowMai
ncampusofAddi
s
AbabaUni
ver
sit
y).Ther
eaf
ter
,theyf
ledt
otheout
ski
rt
sofAddi
sAbaba.Ast
heymade
t
hei
rexi
t,t
heEmper
ormadehi
svi
ctor
iousent
ryi
ntot
hecapi
tal
.Ther
ebell
eader
swer
e
unabl
etoescape.Ger
mamewaski
l
ledont
hewayt
oMountZequal
a.Att
hesamepl
ace
andt
imeMengi
stuwasbadl
ywoundedandcapt
ured.Mengi
stuwasl
aterbr
oughtt
o
t
ri
alandhanged.
Thecoup waseasi
l
ycr
ushed.Onl
ytheUni
ver
sit
yst
udent
ssuppor
tedi
tscauseby
st
agi
ng a demonst
rat
ion.I
n spi
te ofi
tsf
ail
ure,t
he r
ebel
l
ion made a power
ful
i
mpr
essi
on on educat
ed peopl
e,and showed t
hati
twaspossi
blet
oremov
ethe
monar
chy
.“Thet
orchofchangehadbeenki
ndl
edbyt
her
ebel
l
ion”
.Uni
ver
sit
yst
udent
s
becamet
het
orch-
bear
ersoft
hischangei
nthey
ear
sahead,andkeptont
hei
rst
ruggl
e
agai
nstt
hei
mper
ial
regi
me.

PeasantRebel
li
ons
TheBal
eRebel
li
on
TheBal
epeasantr
ebel
l
ionhaddeep-
root
edsoci
alandpol
i
ticalcauses.Gr
iev
ances
st
emmi
ng f
rom mal
admi
nist
rat
ion,l
and al
i
enat
ion,heav
ytaxat
ion,et
hni
c di
scor
ds
bet
ween set
tl
ers and nat
ivef
armer
s,and r
eli
gious bi
as wer
e some oft
he maj
or
pr
obl
emsi
nther
egi
on.
Thebur
eaucr
atsbegant
oexpr
opr
iat
epeasantl
andst
urni
ngt
hem i
ntot
enant
sunder
di
ff
erentpr
etext
s.Bet
ween1942-
1970t
hegov
ernmentgr
ant
edmor
ethan4,
828,
560
hect
aresofl
andt
odi
gni
tar
ies,andmi
l
itar
yandci
vi
lser
vant
sinmanypr
ovi
ncesi
nthe
sout
h.Per
hapsasmuchas30percentofi
mper
ial
landgr
ant
sinsout
her
nEt
hiopi
awer
e
l
ocat
edi
nBal
epr
ovi
nce.Thi
sledt
oser
iousl
andshor
tagei
nthepr
ovi
nce.
Howev
er,i
twast
he1963l
andr
e-measur
ementpol
i
cyi
nther
egi
ont
hatspar
kedt
he
r
ebel
l
ion.Asar
esul
t,l
andowner
swer
eabl
etopossessl
andmor
ethandoubl
ethei
r
l
awf
ulpossessi
ons.Whent
heywer
ecompel
l
edt
opayt
axar
rear
sont
heext
ral
ands,
t
hel
andl
ordsputt
hebur
denofex
trat
axont
hepeasantcul
ti
vat
ors.
Di
scont
entwasal
sor
if
eamongpast
oral
i
stsoft
hepr
ovi
nce.Thepast
oral
i
stsav
oided
pay
ingt
axesbycr
ossi
ngt
hei
nter
nat
ionalboundar
ies,onl
ytor
etur
nassoonast
het
ax
col
l
ect
orshaddi
sappear
edf
rom t
hescene.Mor
eov
er,t
heSomal
inat
ional
i
stagi
tat
ions
oft
heRepubl
i
cofSomal
i
aoft
heear
ly1960spr
esent
edachal
l
enget
othegov
ernment
.
Then,t
heEt
hiopi
angov
ernmentbegant
oti
ght
eni
tscont
rolov
ert
hebor
derl
i
nesi
n
r
egul
ati
ngt
hemov
ementofpast
oral
i
stspar
ti
cul
arl
yint
heDel
oandWabear
eas.
I
naddi
ti
ont
other
egul
art
axpai
dont
hei
rli
vest
ock,
past
oral
i
stswer
erequi
redt
opayf
or
past
uri
ngt
hei
rani
mal
sonwhatwer
eregar
dedasst
atel
ands.Thepol
i
ceandmi
l
iti
a
t
hatwer
esentt
ocol
l
ectt
axesusual
l
yloot
edandr
aped,andcommi
tt
edal
lsor
ts
i
njust
ices.These,gener
all
ywor
senedt
hedi
ff
icul
ttr
adi
ti
onalr
elat
ions,bet
weent
he
Chr
ist
ianof
fi
ci
alsandt
heMusl
i
m past
oral
i
sts.Ont
heev
eoft
her
ebel
l
ion,t
henew
Gov
er ,Fi
nor tawr
ariWor
ku Enqusel
assi
e,cont
inued ant
agoni
zi
ng t
he Musl
i
m l
ocal
popul
ati
on.Het
ookt
hesi
deoft
heChr
ist
ianset
tl
ers.
I
slam wast
hei
deol
ogyt
hatbr
oughtt
heOr
omoandt
heSomal
ioft
hepr
ovi
ncet
oget
her
.
Ext
ernal
l
ytheSomal
iRepubl
i
c’sexpansi
oni
stpol
i
cyt
hatconsi
der
edBal
easpar
tofi
ts
t
err
air
redent
a(unr
edeemedt
err
it
ory
,i.
e.t
err
it
orycl
aimedf
orSomal
i
a)pr
ovi
dedal
l
sor
tsofencour
agementt
othem.I
tcal
l
edupont
heal
readydi
ssat
isf
iedMusl
i
mst
o
st
andf
ir
mlyagai
nstt
heHai
l
eSel
assi
eregi
me.
Rebel
l
ionst
art
edi
nthev
il
lageofAf
ker
,int
hedi
str
ictofEl
-ker
e,undert
hel
eader
shi
pof
Kahi
n Abdi
.Wi
th hi
s gr
oup,he began t
o st
ri
ke on gov
ernmenti
nst
all
ati
ons.I
n
Sept
ember 1963,t
he gr
oup bur
nt gov
ernment post
sin Af
ker
.Si
mil
ar gr
oups
si
mul
taneousl
ydi
dthesamet
hingi
nWabeandDel
o.I
nWabei
twascar
redoutbyHaj
i i
I
shahaMohammedDadii obyBal
nDel ambar
asWaqoLugo. hHaj
Bot j
iIshahandWaqo
Lugohadsomet
raci
ngandr
ecei
vedencour
agementi
nMogadi
shu.
I
n1964,i
nani
nter
-cl
anconf
li
ct,t
heBor
anaandGuj
iOr
omodr
oveoutt
heEt
hiopi
an
Somal
i
sandRay
ituOr
omof
rom Si
damo,andf
orcedt
hem t
ofl
eeacr
osst
heGenal
e
r
iveri
ntoBal
e.Fr
ust
rat
edbyl
ackofr
esponsef
rom t
hegov
ernment
,thel
eader
soft
hese
di
slocat
edcl
answentt
oMogadi
shu.Amongt
hosechi
ef eGr
swer azmat
chCher
riGut
u
andhi
sbr
otherWaqoGut
u,addi
ti
onal
fut
urel
eader
soft
her
ebel
l
ion.
Theseandot
hergr
oupswhogotmi
l
itar
ytr
aini
ngandweaponsi
nMogadi
shur
etur
ned
t
othear
easofBal
ein1965.Thenundert
hel
eader
shi
pofWaqoGut
u,andwi
thWaqo
Lugo as hi
sli
eut
enant
,theyst
art
ed or
gani
zed r
esi
stance agai
nstHai
l
e Sel
assi
e’
s
r
egi
me.Thef
ir
str
ebelact
iont
ookpl
aceon8Febr
uar
y1965,whenasmal
lfor
ceunder
Al
i
yeChi
rr
iov
err
ant
het
ownofOber
so,dest
roy
ingt
heonl
yOr
thodoxChur
cht
her
eand
bur
ningst
atedocument
s.TheChr
ist
ianset
tl
ersf
ledt
oMenaandNegel
e-Bor
ana.Thr
ee
day
slat
er,WaqoGut
uwi
thabout250r
ebel
sat
tackedt
het
ownofBi
dre.Thet
ownf
ell
i
ntot
hehandsoft
her
ebel
sonFebr
uar
y18,af
teranengagementwi
tht
hepol
i
cef
orce
f
rom Negel
e.
Then,
thegov
ernorofBal
e,pr
ompt
ly,
askedt
heEmper
ort
ost
ati
onal
argemi
l
itar
yfor
ce
i
nthepr
ovi
ncet
omai
ntai
nlawandor
der
.InMar
ch1965,i
nanot
herengagement
,two
di
str
ictadmi
nist
rat
ors,
alongwi
thmanypol
i
ceandt
err
it
ori
alsol
dier
s,wer
eki
l
ledbyt
he
r
ebel
s.
I
nDecember1966,t
hegov
ernmentputNegel
e-Bor
anaandal
lthedi
str
ict
sofBal
e
(
exceptFasi
ldi
str
ict
)undermar
ti
all
aw.Twoar
mybr
igadesconsi
sti
ngof4,
500men
andv
olunt
eer
swer hecommandofFi
eputundert tawr
ariWor
quf
ort
hepr
osecut
ionof
t
hecampai
gn.Theobj
ect
ivewaspr
imar
il
ytocutof
fthemai
nrebelsuppl
yrout
esf
rom
Somal
i
aand t
o sei
zet
hei
rrearbase.Asar
esul
t,i
nlesst
han t
hreemont
hst
he
r
esi
stance i
n Negel
e-Bor
ana (
Sidamo)was ext
ingui
shed i
n ear
ly 1967.Butt
he
r
esi
stancei
nBal
econt
inuedf
oranot
hert
hreey
ear
s.
Accor
dingt
oof
fi
ci
alsour
ces,
thest
atel
ostav
eryl
ownumberofi
tsmen,
notmor
ethan
54asopposedt
o871f
ort
her
ebel
s.Thear
mycr
eat
edgr
eatsuf
fer
ingt
othepeasant
s,
wheni
tdest
roy
edv
il
lages,ani
mal
sandcr
ops.Af
tert
hewar
,howev
er,t
hest
atet
reat
ed
t
hepeopl
efai
rl
y.Ther
ewasnor
evenge,andnoneoft
her
ebell
eader
swasdepor
tedor
puni
shed.Thegov
ernmentcancel
l
edal
lar
rear
sinl
andt
axesupt
o1967.Fur
ther
mor
e,
t
hest
ateel
evat
ed someoft
hel
ocalgent
ryt
o hi
gheradmi
nist
rat
ivepost
s,whi
ch
ev
ent
ual
l
yhel
pedt
ost
rengt
heni
tspol
i
ticalpoweri
nther
egi
on.Fi
nal
l
y,WaqoGut
uwas
gi
vent
het
it
leofGr
azmachandhect
aresofl
and.Hebecameaweal
thymanowni
ng
muchl
i
vest
ockandpl
ent
yofl
andi
nhi
svi
l
lageofMedaWal
abunearMenat
own.
TheGoj
jam Rebel
li
on
Thecor
ruptr
uleofDej
azmat
chTsehayeEnquosi
l
assi
e,whohadbeenGov
ernor
-Gener
al
oft
hepr
ovi
ncesi
nce1960,hadbeent
hemai
nsour
ceofpol
i
ticaldi
ssat
isf
act
ioni
n
Goj
j
am.Hi
spol
i
cyofappoi
nti
ngof
fi
cial
sfr
om out
sidet
her
egi
oncr
eat
edr
esent
ment
amongt
hel
ocalgent
ry.Fur
ther
mor
e,hi
spol
i
cyofi
mpov
eri
shi
ngt
heGoj
j
amenobl
esby
st
art
ingt
hecol
l
ect
ionofov
erduear
rear
sandaccusi
ngt
hosewhodi
dnotpaymadehi
m
t
heenemyoft
henobi
l
ityandt
hepeasant
ryal
i
ke.
Thecondi
ti
onsi
nGoj
j
am mov
edf
rom badt
owor
sewhent
hegov
ernori
ssuedadecr
ee
t
hatr
equi
redal
lci
ti
zenst
ohav
ethei
rgunsr
egi
ster
eduponpay
ment
.Accor
dingt
othi
s
decr
ec,
allgun-
hol
der
swer
etoobeyt
hedecr
eeandgett
hei
rweaponsr
egi
ster
edwi
thi
n
t
hreemont
hsorot
her
wisef
orf
eitt
hei
rpr
oper
ty.Thehast
ymannerofi
tsenf
orcement
soonbecameasour
ceofpubl
i
cout
cry
.Itwascl
eart
othepeopl
ethatt
her
eali
ntent
ion
oft
hegov
ernorwast
odi
sar
mthepopul
ati
onandt
obr
ingt
hem t
otot
alsubmi
ssi
on.
Hence,t
hisr
epr
essi
vepol
i
cysoonbecameal
i
abi
l
ityt
othest
ate.I
tmadet
hemasses
st
andagai
nstt
hest
ate.
The1967I
ncomeTaxPr
ocl
amat
ion i
gni
tedt
her
ebel
l
ion.DamotandMot
adi
str
ict
s
wer
eatt
hef
oref
rontoft
her
ebel
l
ion.Theyr
efusedt
oel
ectoradmi
ttaxassessor
s,and
pr
event
ed t
he adj
acentdi
str
ict
sfr
om obey
ing gov
ernmentdi
rect
ives.Atf
ir
st,t
he
pr
otestt
ookt
hef
orm ofpet
it
ion,andappeal
sthr
oughdel
egat
ions.Onl
ywhent
hese
f
ail
eddi
dtheyt
urnt
ovi
olentt
act
ics.On7Febr
uar
y1968,r
ebel
l
iouspeasant
sfr
om t
he
t
wodi
str
ict
smetatt
heAzwar
iri
verandt
ookasol
emnoat
hofuni
tyandact
ion,
elect
ing
t
hei
rleader
s.Theyagr
eedt
oexpelal
lst
ateof
fi
ci
als,boy
cot
tgov
ernmentcour
tsandt
o
dest
royt
hepr
oper
tyoft
rai
tor
s(i
.e.t
hosewhodi
dnotobeyt
hei
rdeci
sion)
.
Byt
heendofFebr
uar
y1968near
lyal
lst
ateof
fi
ci
alshadwi
thdr
awnf
rom t
hear
eaand
f
ornear
lyt
wo mont
hst
her
ebel
swer
einf
ullcont
roloft
hedi
str
ict
s.Resi
stance
expandedi
ntot
headj
acentdi
str
ict
sofBi
chena,
Debr
eMar
qosandBahrDar
.
Byt
hemi
ddl
eofMar
ch1968,
about60%ofeast
ernGoj
j
am hadopenl
ygoneagai
nstt
he
st
ate.I
tisr
emar
kabl
ethatl
i
ttl
evi
olencewasusedsof
ar.Asar
esul
t,t
hegov
ernment
wasr
eluct
antt
ocommi
tit
sel
ftof
orcef
ulmeans,t
hinki
ngt
hatt
her
esi
stancewoul
dbe
gr
adual
l
ysol
vedpeacef
ull
y.
Themoodchanged,howev
er,f
oll
owi
ngasmal
linci
denti
nDebr
eMar
qosdi
str
icti
nthe
v
il
lageofAwobel
.On9Mar
ch,1968,t
hev
il
lager
swer
eenj
oyi
ngaf
easti
nthei
rvi
l
lage
chur
ch.Att
het
ime,t
hedeput
yadmi
nist
rat
orar
ri
vedwi
thhi
sfol
l
ower
sandguar
dsand
begant
omeasur
eapl
otofl
and.Al
lcr
iedoutagai
nstwhatt
headmi
nist
rat
orwasdoi
ng.
Theymanagedt
ost
opt
hemeasur
ement
,for
cingt
heassessor
stol
eav
ethev
il
lage.
Auni
tofmi
l
iti
aundert
hecommandofDemi
ssAl
ami
rew,t
heGov
ernoroft
hedi
str
ict
,
wassentt
oAwobel
.Then,t
hemi
l
iti
aloot
edpr
oper
tyandappr
ehendedsev
ent
ymen.
Fi
ft
y-si
xoft
hem wer
elat
ersent
encedt
opr
ison.On6Apr
il
,1968mor
ethant
hree
t
housand r
ebel
sfr
om Bi
chena,Damot
,Debr
e Mar
qos,and Mot
a mov
ed t
owar
ds
Mengi
stot
o sett
hepr
isoner
sfr
eeandt
o puni
shDemi
ssAl
amer
ew.Aboutsev
en
ki
l
omet
ersshor
toft
hei
rgoal
,ther
ebel
smetacombi
nedf
orceoft
heTer
ri
tor
ialAr
my
andt
hePol
i
ce.Af
tert
woday
sofcont
inuousf
ight
ing,gov
ernmentf
orcesr
anoutof
ammuni
ti
on,
andonl
ythet
imel
yar
ri
valofr
egul
art
roopssav
edt
hem.Thi
swast
hef
ir
st
di
recti
nvol
vementoft
hear
myi
ntheconf
li
ct.
I
twas af
tert
hisi
nci
dentt
hatt
he cent
ralgov
ernmentsentcommi
ssi
on af
ter
commi
ssi
ont
olooki
ntot
hepr
obl
em.OnApr
il17,pr
esent
edt
hei
rpr
obl
emst
othe
Emper
orbot
hor
all
yandi
nwr
it
ingi
nAddi
sAbaba.Theyi
nfor
medhi
m oft
hei
rmi
ser
ies
underbadgov
ernor
sandmi
l
iti
a.Theyaskedf
orbet
tergov
ernance,bet
tereducat
ional
,
heal
thandt
ranspor
tfaci
l
iti
esanddemandedt
hest
oppi
ngoft
axassessment
.The
Emper
or,howev
er,wasnotpl
easedwi
thsuchbol
dnessandr
eject
edt
hei
rpl
eas.He
war
nedt
hem t
ogi
veupt
hei
r“unl
awf
ulact
ivi
ti
es”
.Deepl
ydi
sappoi
ntedandempt
y
handed,
theyr
etur
nedhome.
On1June,1968acommi
ssi
on,madeupofr
epr
esent
ati
vesf
rom t
heMi
nist
ryoft
he
I
nter
iorand Fi
nancecamet
o Goj
j
am.Thecommi
ssi
onspentel
evenday
smov
ing
ar
oundt
hedi
str
ict
sofBi
chena,Debr
aMar
qos,DamotandMot
a.Badi
nAddi
sAbaba,
t
hecommi
ssi
onr
ecommendedmi
l
itar
ymeanst
oendt
hepr
obl
em.
Suddenl
y,v
iol
encest
art
edbet
weenJune18and20.Sev
eralcl
ashesoccur
red,i
nwhi
ch
bot
hthe gov
ernmentand peasantsi
des suf
fer
ed heav
y casual
ti
es.The cent
ral
gov
ernmentqui
ckl
ysent900 t
roops.Mot
a and Bi
chena wer
e putundermi
l
itar
y
admi
nist
rat
ion.I
nthemeant
ime,
thet
hir
dandt
hel
astcommi
ssi
onwassentt
oGoj
j
am.
I
ti udedDej
ncl azmat
chKi
fl
eEr
get
u,t
heMi
nist
eroft
heI
nter
i ,andDej
or azmat
chKi
fl
e
Dadi
,aCr
ownCounci
l
lor
.Theyar
ri
vedatDabr
aMar
qosonJul
y5,t
ohav
edi
rectt
alks
wi
tht
her
ebel
s.Thedel
egat
iont
rav
eledbyai
randr
oad,
li
steni
ngt
ost
ori
esofr
epr
essi
on
andr
etur
nedt
oAddi
sAbaba.I
tsubmi
tt
edacompr
ehensi
ver
epor
t,st
ati
ngt
hatt
he
pr
ovi
nci
alof
fi
ci
alshadl
ostt
het
rustandconf
idenceoft
hepeopl
e.On23Jul
y1969
Dej
azmat
chTsehayuwast
ransf
err
edt aandDej
oKaf azmat
chDer
ejeMakonenr
epl
aced
hi
m.Ot
herof
fi
cial
sappoi
ntedbyTsehay
uwer
erepl
acedbyt
hel
ocalgent
ryofBi
chena
andDabr
aMar
qos.A f
ew day
slat
er,agener
alpar
donwasdecl
ared.Rebel
swer
e
or
der
edt
oputdownt
hei
rar
msandr
etur
ntot
hei
rfar
ms.OnSept
ember7,al
lfar
mer
s
wer
emadef
reef
rom al
lpenal
ti
esf
orpastf
ail
uret
opayt
ax.But
,theyhadt
opay
ar
rear
sbyDecember1972.
Bef
orecondi
ti
onsr
etur
nedt
onor
mal
i
ty,ov
er-
zeal
ousadmi
nist
rat
orsbegant
ocol
l
ect
t
axesusi
ngf
orcef
ulmet
hods.Thi
swasf
oll
owedbycl
ashesi
nDamotandMot
a.The
mostser
iouswast
heonet
hatbr
okeouton17Oct
ober1968,
fol
l
owi
ngt
her
ebelat
tack
ont
hepol
i
cequar
ter
satDambachadi
str
ict
.Af
tert
woday
soff
ight
ing,
thati
nvol
vedt
he
Ai
rFor
ce,
ther
ebel
swi
thdr
ewl
eav
ingbehi
nd50deadandmanymor
ewounded.Ont
he
gov
ernmentsi
de,f
ivewer
eki
l
led and si
xwounded.TheAi
rFor
ceat
tacked some
v
il
lagesi
nnor
ther
nDamotandwest
ernMot
a.
Thest
ate’
sPol
i
cecommi
ssi
onpai
daone-
dayv
isi
ttoGoj
j
am i
nmi
d-Decemberand
r
ecommendedt
hatadel
egat
ioni
ncl
udi
ngnobl
esf
rom Dabr
aMar
qosbesentt
oDamot
t
opaci
fyt
hepeasant
s.Adel
egat
ionl
edbyt
her
enownGoj
j
amenobl
eman,
Hai
l
eMar
iam
Kebede,ar
ri
ved atFer
es Beton December21.I
taddr
essed a huge gat
her
ing,
emot
ional
l
yappeal
i
ngt
othepeopl
etoputdownt
hei
rweaponsandspar
ethel
andf
orm
v
iol
ence.Heal
sopr
omi hatr
sedt istl
andwoul
dnev
erbemeasur
edbutt
hatt
axhadt
o
bepai
d!Ther
eaf
ter
,ther
esi
stancedecr
easedgr
eat
ly.Onl
yDega-Damotr
efusedt
o
submi
t.Thegov
ernmentor
der
edTer
ri
tor
ialAr
myf
orcesandpeasant
sfr
om AgawMi
dir
andWenber
atoi
nvadeDegaDamot
.ByFebr
uar
y1969,al
lresi
stancehadbeenbr
oken
downandt
hesi
tuat
ionwasf
air
lycal
m.
I
nMay1969t
heEmper
orv
isi
tedGoj
j
am.Hegav
epr
omot
ionsandf
east
sandawar
ded
t
it
lesandmedal
s,whi
chwasi
ntendedt
opl
easet
hegent
ryandt
hecl
ergy
.Thepeasant
s
hadal
sowonsi
gni
fi
cantconcessi
ons.Mostoft
heunpopul
arbur
eaucr
atshadbeen
r
emov
edandt
axassessor
swer
erecal
l
ed.Thei
ncomet
axwaspost
ponedi
ndef
ini
tel
y.
Mor
eov
er,f
armer
swer
efr
eedf
rom pay
ingt
axar
rear
sfort
hepr
evi
ous19y
ear
s.Al
lof
t
hepeasant
srecei
vedpar
don.

TheEt
hiopi
anSt
udentMov
ement
Theest
abl
i
shmentofi
nst
it
uti
onsofhi
ghereducat
ionwasbeguni
nthepost
-l
iber
ati
on
per
iod.Thef
ir
stuni
ver
sit
ycol
l
egewasest
abl
i
shedi
n1950,f
oll
owedbyopeni
ngof
col
l
egesi
nsomeot
heri
mpor
tantt
ownsoft
hecount
ry.Teacher
sandcur
ri
cul
awer
e
i
mpor
tedf
rom t
hewest
ernwor
ld.
Butduet
oof
fi
cialcensor
shi
p,mat
eri
alsonEt
hiopi
awer
enotav
ail
abl
etoenl
i
ght
ent
he
st
udent
sandenabl
ethem t
olookcr
it
ical
l
yatt
heexi
sti
ngsoci
alpr
obl
ems.Thegoalof
t
he educat
ion sy
stem was nott
o pr
oduce a pot
ent
ialchal
l
enge,butt
o pr
oduce
t
echnocr
atswhowoul
dbesuppor
ti
vet
other
egi
me.Howev
er,ast
hest
udent
swer
e
exposedt
owest
ernv
aluesandpol
i
ticalsy
stems,t
heyst
art
edt
omakecompar
isons
bet
weent
hei
rsoci
etyandt
hewest
ernwor
ld.Theyst
art
edt
oquest
ionwhyt
hei
rcount
ry
r
emai
nedbackwar
d.
Despi
tecensor
shi
pandt
heunf
avor
abl
esi
tuat
ion,
studentnewspaper
swer
est
art
edand
associ
ati
onswer
efor
medi
ntheuni
ver
sit
y.Then,st
udent
sbegant
opl
ayani
mpor
tant
r
olei
nexposi
ngt
her
eact
ionar
ynat
ureofHai
l
eSel
l
assi
e’
sregi
me.Thef
ir
stnewspaper
was“
NewsandVi
ews”andt
hef
ir
stst
udent
sassoci
ati
onwast
he"
Uni
ver
sit
ySt
udent
Uni
on"est
abl
i
shedi
n1959.I
nEt
hiopi
a,t
hewhol
est
udentbodyi
ngener
alandt
he
uni
ver
sit
yst
udent
sinpar
ti
cul
arpl
ayed t
her
oleofapol
i
ticalopposi
ti
onf
ormany
r
easons.I
nthef
ir
stpl
ace,
theabsenceofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
esandast
rongi
ndi
genouscl
ass
oft
rader
s and ent
repr
eneur
slef
tonl
ythe st
udent
s as f
ocalpoi
nti
n expr
essi
ng
opposi
ti
onagai
nstt
her
egi
me.Secondl
y,t
hesoci
alr
espectgi
vent
otheeducat
edf
ew,
in
acount
ryofahi
ghr
ateofi
l
li
ter
acy
,gav
ethi
sgr
oupofst
udent
sasenseofr
esponsi
bil
i
ty
f
ort
hei
rcount
ry.Thi
rdl
y,t
hecampusl
i
fegav
est
udentl
eader
stheoppor
tuni
tyt
o
di
scussnat
ionali
ssuesandi
nfl
uencest
udent
ssoast
omaket
hem payat
tent
iont
othe
mi
ser
iesoft
hemasses.
Thef
ir
stsoci
alcr
it
ici
sm agai
nstHai
l
eSel
l
assi
e’
sregi
mewasexpr
essedi
nthef
orm of
t
radi
ti
onalpoet
rybyuni
ver
sit
yst
udent
sint
hei
rcampus,i
nwhi
cht
hemessagei
s
passedbymeansofunder
stat
ementandwor
dpl
ay.Thear
ri
valofy
oungmenf
rom
Engl
i
sh-
speaki
ngAf
ri
cancount
ri
eshadi
nfl
uenceont
hepol
i
ticalawar
enessoft
he
uni
ver
sit
yst
udent
s.
Schol
arshi
p st
udent
sthatcame f
rom di
ff
erentAf
ri
can count
ri
es had j
oined t
he
Uni
ver
sit
y atAddi
s Ababa,af
ter1958.They wer
e gr
eat
ly shocked by t
he st
ri
ct
censor
shi
pandl
ackofpol
i
ticalf
reedom i
nEt
hiopi
a.Theyhadwr
ongl
ybel
i
evedt
hat
Et
hiopi
awasapl
aceoff
reedom andcoul
dbeanexampl
eforAf
ri
ca.TheAf
ri
can
st
udent
stol
dthei
rEt
hiopi
anst
udentf
ri
endsaboutt
hest
ruggl
eint
hei
rrespect
ive
count
ri
est
ogai
nindependenceandf
rom col
oni
alr
ule.Nodoubtt
hest
udent
sdr
ew
l
essonsf
rom t
hesedi
scussi
ons.
Mor
ethant
hat
,howev
er,i
twast
heat
t edcoupd’
empt etatof1960whi
chunder
mined
t
hepopul
ari
tyoft
heEmper
or.I
thel
pedt
hest
udent
stobol
dlyengagei
nthest
ruggl
e
agai
nstt
her
egi
me.Abov
eal
l
,itwasonl
ytheuni
ver
sit
yst
udent
swhocamebehi
ndt
he
causeoft
hecoupbyst
agi
ngdemonst
rat
ions.Af
tert
hecoupf
ail
ed,t
hest
udent
swer
e
madet
oapol
ogi
zepubl
i
clyi
nwr
it
ingt
otheEmper
or.Howev
er,
ther
ewasnodoubtt
hat
t
heEmper
orandt
hepubl
i
cwer
ewel
lawar
eoft
hest
udent
s’suppor
tfort
heai
msoft
he
coup-
maker
s.
I
n1961,t
heconsol
i
dat
ionofsev
eralcol
l
egesunderacent
raladmi
nist
rat
ionasHai
l
e
Sel
l
assi
e IUni
ver
sit
yfur
thercr
eat
ed t
he oppor
tuni
tyf
orcohesi
on and pol
i
tical
r
adi
cal
i
sm. The st
udent
s made t
hei
r chal
l
enge t
hrough or
gani
zi
ng publ
i
c
demonst
rat
ions,par
ti
cul
arl
yinf
avorofl
andr
efor
m.Thewor
seni
ngcondi
ti
onsoft
he
peasant
ryandt
hehar
dli
feoft
heur
banmassespr
ovi
dedt
heobj
ect
ivebasi
sforst
udent
r
adi
cal
i
sm.I
nthecour
seoft
ime,Uni
ver
sit
yst
udentpol
i
ticalr
adi
cal
i
sm spr
eadi
ntot
he
hi
gh school
s.I
thappened t
hrough t
he i
nst
rument
ali
tyoft
he Et
hiopi
an Uni
ver
sit
y
St
udentSer
vice(
EUSS)
,i.
e.seni
orcl
assesi
ntheUni
ver
sit
yusedt
ogi
veaoney
ear
t
eachi
ngser
vicei
nhi
ghschool
sbef
oregr
aduat
ion.Thepr
ogr
amme,whi
chst
art
edi
n
1965,pr
ovi
dedamedi
um f
orcl
osercommuni
cat
ionbet
weenUni
ver
sit
yst
udent
sand
hi
ghschool
sinpar
ti
cul
ar.These“
teacher
s”enl
i
ght
enedt
hest
udent
sandi
ncr
eased
t
hei
rpol
i
ticalawar
eness.Par
ti
cul
arl
ytheymadet
hem awar
eoft
hebackwar
dnessof
t
hei
rcount
ryasar
esul
toft
her
eact
ionar
ynat
ureoft
her
egi
me.
I
n1965,t
heUni
ver
sit
yst
udent
sst
agedademonst
rat
ioni
nfr
ontoft
hePar
li
ament
shout
ingt
her
evol
uti
onar
ysl
ogan“
Landt
otheTi
l
ler
,”whi
l
ethedeput
ieswer
edebat
ing
t
her
egul
ati
onsoft
enancy
.Thef
actt
hatt
hedemonst
rat
ionwasst
agedi
nfr
ontoft
he
Par
li
amentwassomet
hingnewandsi
gni
fi
canti
nthehi
stor
yofmoder
nEt
hiopi
a.Thi
s
wasanewappr
oachi
nwhi
cht
hest
udent
srecogni
zedt
hePar
li
ament(
ast
hepeopl
e’
s
r
epr
esent
ati
ve)nott
heEmper
or,
ashol
deroft
hecount
ry’
ssov
erei
gnt
y.I
nthef
oll
owi
ng
y
ear
s,demonst
rat
ionsbecameannual
event
s.
I
n1967,t
hest
udentnewspaper“
NewsandVi
ews”wasr
epl
acedby“
Str
uggl
e”.Att
he
samet
ime,st
udentact
ivi
stsmanagedt
ouni
tet
hev
ari
ouscol
l
egeuni
onsi
nAddi
s
Ababa i
nto one or
gani
zat
ion cal
l
ed t
he Uni
ver
sit
ySt
udentUni
on ofAddi
s Ababa
(
USUAA)
.Itwasdonewi
tht
hev
iew ofcr
eat
ingonemout
h-pi
ecef
ort
heUni
ver
sit
y
st
udent
sofAddi
sAbaba.Thus,t
hest
udentnewspaper“
Str
uggl
e”becamet
heor
ganof
spr
eadi
ngnew pol
i
ticali
deasamongt
hest
udent
sandt
hepubl
i
catl
arge.Ther
ewas
al
soast
rongst
andagai
nstt
heUSA,whi
chwasgi
vi
ngmassi
vemi
l
itar
ysuppor
ttot
he
r
eact
ionar
yimper
ial
regi
met
hatwasseenasanobst
acl
etot
hecount
ry’
sdev
elopment
.
I
ntheNov
ember1969i
ssueof“
Str
uggl
e”,anar
ti
clewaspubl
i
shedont
henat
ional
i
ties
pr
obl
em i
nEt
hiopi
a.Thewr
it
erwasonoft
hest
udentact
ivi
stcal
l
edWal
eli
gnMakonnen
whof
ir
mlysuppor
tedcul
tur
alandl
i
ngui
sti
cindependenceoft
henat
ional
i
ties.Thi
s
became a chal
l
enge t
othe gov
ernmentwhose et
hni
c pol
i
cywas r
epr
essi
ve.The
Et
hiopi
anpr
essandr
adi
oinf
ormedt
hepubl
i
cthatt
hest
udent
shadt
ost
opsuch
act
ivat
ies,whi
cht
hei
rfami
l
iesshoul
dal
sof
orbi
d.Thegov
ernmentsaw t
heUni
ver
sit
y
st
udent
sasapot
ent
ialdangert
oit
spower
.Inl
ateDecember
,1969,
thepr
esi
dentoft
he
USUAA,Ti
l
ahunGi
zaw waski
l
ledbygov
ernmentagent
s.Thi
swast
hebegi
nni
ngof
br
utalmeasur
esagai
nstt
hest
udent
s.Thenextday
,agat
her
ing oft
housandsof
st
udent
smour
ningt
hedeat
hoft
hest
udentl
eaderwasf
ir
edonandsomel
ostt
hei
rli
ves.
TheUni
ver
sit
ywascl
osed,butwasr
eopenedagai
naf
tert
hreeweeks.Butal
lthi
sdi
d
notst
opt
hemov
ement
.Thr
oughi
l
legalpamphl
ets,t
hest
udent
scont
inuet
hei
rpr
otest
agai
nstt
her
egi
me.
TheEt
hiopi
anst
udentmov
ementhadal
soanext
ernalwi
ng.Thewor
ld-
widest
udent
mov
ement
,ant
i-
imper
ial
i
standant
i-
ri
ghtwi
ngaut
hor
it
ari
anr
egi
mes,
hadbeenf
lar
ingup
i
nthe1960s,i
nspi
redbyMar
xistt
heor
y.Theser
evol
uti
onar
yideaswer
etr
ansmi
tt
edt
o
Et
hiopi
anst
udent
sathomet
hroughEt
hiopi
anst
udent
sabr
oadi
nEur
opeandt
heUSA.
Thei
rjour
nal
s“Tat
ek”(
Gir
dyour
sel
f)and“
Chal
l
enge”wer
ebr
oughti
ntoEt
hiopi
aandput
i
ntoci
rcul
ati
onsecr
etl
y.Theygav
edi
rect
iont
otheEt
hiopi
anst
udentmov
ementi
n
gener
al.
Ont
heev
entoft
her
evol
uti
on,t
heEt
hiopi
anst
udent
sathomegotanot
heroppor
tuni
ty
t
oexposet
her
eact
ionar
ynat
ureoft
her
egi
me.Dur
ingt
heper
iodunderdi
scussi
ont
he
count
rysuf
fer
edf
rom t
hef
ami
net
hathi
thar
dWol
l
oandTi
gray
.Peopl
edi
einl
arge
number
s.Ot
her
slef
tthei
rhomesf
ort
heur
banar
eas.Despi
tet
hesuf
fer
ingoft
he
peopl
e,t
hegov
ernmentwashi
dingt
hef
ami
nef
rom t
her
estoft
hewor
ld.Thest
udent
s
wi
thsomeoft
hei
rinst
ruct
orsr
esi
stedt
hegov
ernment
’spol
i
cyofhi
dingt
hef
ami
neof
1972-
74.Bysodoi
ngt
heyexposedt
hef
ami
ne,whi
chshowedt
hemor
alandpol
i
tical
l
owl
i
nessoft
her
egi
met
othepubl
i
candaccel
erat
eit
sdownf
all
.Itshoul
dbeunder
li
ned
al
sot
hatt
hef
ami
newasbot
har
esul
toft
heabsenceofr
ainsandman-
madecondi
ti
ons.
Thest
udent
swer
enotor
gani
zedasapol
i
ticalpar
tyt
ocauset
hef
inaldownf
alloft
he
monar
chyandt
opl
ayav
iabl
erol
eint
het
ransf
erofpoweri
n1974.Asar
esul
tthemor
e
or
gani
zedmi
l
itar
yfor
cepl
ayedt
hekeyr
olei
ntheov
ert
hrow oft
hef
eudalpowerand
t
ookov
ergov
ernmentpower
.Howev
ert
hest
udentmov
ement
,atf
ir
stgav
edi
rect
ion
andgui
dancet
othenewr
egi
mei
n1974.Thest
udent
s’sl
ogansofl
andr
efor
m,t
her
ight
ofnat
ional
i
tiesandpol
i
ticall
i
ber
ti
eswer
etakenawaybyt
heDer
gasameanst
o
consol
i
dat
eit
spol
i
tical
posi
ti
on.
Et
hio-
Somal
iConf
li
ct
Oni
ndependence,Br
it
ishandI
tal
i
anSomal
i
landwer
euni
tedandemer
gedi
ndependent
ast
heRepubl
i
cofSomal
i
aon1June1960.ThenewRepubl
i
cwasambi
ti
oust
obui
l
d
“
Great
erSomal
i
a”andadopt
edaf
lagwi
thaf
ive-
poi
ntedst
arsy
mbol
i
zingt
hef
ive
t
err
it
ori
eswhi
chGr
eat
erSomal
i
awant
edt
opossess.Accor
dingt
othi
sdesi
gn,
Somal
i
a
was t
o compr
ise f
ormerI
tal
i
an Somal
i
land,Br
it
ish Somal
i
land,Fr
ench Somal
i
land
(
Dji
bout
i)
,theOgadeni
nEt
hiopi
aandt
heNor
ther
nFr
ont
ierDi
str
ict(
N.F.
D)i
nKeny
a.I
t
r
emai
nedadut
yfort
heRepubl
i
ctoobt
aint
he“
lost
”par
tsandbr
ingt
oget
heral
lfi
ve
Somal
iter
ri
tor
ieswi
thi
nasi
ngl
eSomal
ist
ate.
Wi
tht
hisobj
ect
ivei
nmi
nd,Somal
i
arej
ect
edal
ltr
eat
iesconcer
ningt
heboundar
ies
bet
weenSomal
i
aandEt
hiopi
a.I
trej
ect
edt
reat
iessi
gnedbef
oreSomal
i
aemer
gedasan
i
ndependentst
ate.TheConst
it
uti
onoft
heSomal
iRepubl
i
cal
socont
ainedpr
ovi
sionst
o
pr
omot
etheai
m ofGr
aterSomal
i
a.TheSomal
ipol
i
tici
ansusedal
lmeanst
ogai
n
i
nter
nat
ional
suppor
tfort
hei
rpol
i
cyofGr
eat
erSomal
i
a.
Att
heendof1963t
heBr
it
ishgov
ernmentsoughtt
ouni
tet
heNor
ther
nFr
ont
ierDi
str
ict
ofKeny
awi
thSomal
i
a.Thi
sideawasnotaccept
edbyt
heKeny
anl
eader
s,andwas
abandoned.Af
ter
war
ds,t
heSomal
iRepubl
i
cbr
okeof
fdi
plomat
icr
elat
ionswi
thBr
it
ain
andKeny
a.Thi
sincr
easedcooper
ati
onbet
weenKeny
aandEt
hiopi
a.Bot
hagr
eedt
oa
mut
ualdef
encepact
.Fol
l
owi
ngt
his,
theSomal
il
eader
sbeganaser
iesofcl
ashesal
ong
t
he1600km Et
hio-
Somal
ibor
derasear
lyas1964.Asamat
teroff
act
,theyknewt
hat
t
heycoul
dnotdef
eatEt
hiopi
abuthopedt
oint
ernat
ional
i
zet
heboundar
yissueandgai
n
sy
mpat
hyf
ort
hecauseofGr
eat
erSomal
i
a.Theyal
sohopedt
ore-
dir
ectt
hei
nter
-cl
an
conf
li
ctsi
nSomal
i
atowar
dst
hei
ssueofnat
ionaluni
ty.Butt
heconf
li
ctendedwhen
Somal
i
aandEt
hiopi
aissuedadecl
arat
ioni
nKhar
toum announci
ngt
heendoft
he
f
ight
ing.
Subsequent
lyt
heSomal
ileader
sappeal
edt
otheUNSecur
it
yCounci
l
,butdi
dnotgai
n
anyposi
ti
ver
esponset
othei
rdr
eam of“
Great
erSomal
i
a”.AtSomal
i
a’sr
equest
,sev
eral
meet
ingsoft
heOAUwer
ehel
d.Fi
nal
l
y,i
twasdeci
dedt
hatt
heOAUshoul
dasser
ta
pr
inci
pleaboutAf
ri
canbor
der
s.Thef
ir
stOAU summi
t,hel
dinCai
roi
nJul
y1964,
passedt
heCai
roDecl
arat
iononAf
ri
canbor
der
s,whi
chsai
dthat“
Allmemberst
ates
pl
edget
hemsel
vest
orespectt
hebor
der
sexi
sti
ngont
hei
rachi
evementofnat
ional
i
ndependence”
.Somal
il
eader
sout
ri
ght
lyr
eject
edt
her
esol
uti
on.
WhenSomal
il
eader
sfoundt
hatt
heAf
ri
canf
orum di
dnotser
vet
hei
rcause,
theyshi
ft
ed
t
otheMusl
i
m wor
ld,par
ti
cul
arl
yAr
abf
orums.I
nnumer
ousI
slami
cconf
erences,t
he
Somal
ileader
ssucceededi
nhav
ingsev
eralant
i-
Ethi
opi
anr
esol
uti
onspassed,
pressi
ng
t
heEt
hio-
Isr
ael
iconnect
iont
ost
rengt
henAr
abopposi
ti
onagai
nstEt
hiopi
a.
I
nJul
y1967,agov
ernmentchanget
ookpl
acei
ntheSomal
iRepubl
i
c,andt
hef
ormer
Pr
emi
erAl
iSher
mar
kebecamePr
esi
dentand t
henor
ther
npol
i
tici
an,I
brahi
m Egal
becamePr
imeMi
nist
er.I
brahi
m Egal
’
sgov
ernmentmadeadét
ent
ewi
thEt
hiopi
aand
Keny
a.I
trev
iveddi
plomat
icr
elat
ions.Andt
hedr
eam f
orGr
eat
erSomal
i
awasl
eftasi
de
f
ort
hemoment
.Howev
er,
thepr
ospectoft
hisdet
ent
ebecamedi
m whenGener
alSi
yad
Bar
rret
ookov
erpol
i
ticalcont
rolt
hr hecoupd’
ought etatof21Oct
ober1969.Si
yad
Bar
rer
evi
vedt
hepol
i
cyofuni
fyi
ngal
lSomal
i–cl
aimedt
err
it
ori
es.I
fthi
scoul
dnotbe
achi
eved,he pr
ocl
aimed suppor
tfort
he r
ightofsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion f
orSomal
i
s
wher
evert
heywer
e.Thent
hepol
i
cyof“
Great
erSomal
i
a”waschangedt
o“West
ern
Somal
i
a”.Thatwasdonet
oful
fi
lthepol
i
cyofexpansi
ont
hroughr
ebel
sineast
ern
Et
hiopi
a.Somal
i
a'si
rr
edent
ism l
edt
oawarofaggr
essi
onagai
nstEt
hiopi
a,asweshal
l
seef
art
heri
ntheuni
t.
Popul
arRev
olut
ionandt
heFal
loft
heMonar
chy
Causes
Si
nce t
he at
t ed coup d'
empt etatof1960 Hai
l
e Sel
l
assi
e'
s gov
ernmenthad been
conf
ront
ed wi
th mount
ing opposi
ti
on.The l
eadi
ng f
orces i
nthe opposi
ti
on wer
e
st
udent
sandi
ntel
l
ect
ual
s.Theyaccusedt
hegov
ernmentoff
ail
uret
oint
roducer
efor
ms
t
oachi
eveeconomi
c,pol
i
ticalandsoci
alpr
ogr
ess.I
ntheopeni
ngy
ear
soft
he1970s,
t
heeconomi
c,pol
i
tical
andsoci
alpr
obl
emsoft
hecount
rywer
est
il
lawai
ti
ngsol
uti
ons.
I
nFebr
uar
y1974,al
mostt
woy
ear
saf
tert
hecel
ebr
ati
onoft
heEmper
ors80th bi
' rt
hday
,
apopul
arr
evol
tagai
nstt
her
egi
mebr
okeout
.Ther
ewer
esev
erali
mmedi
atecausesf
or
t
heout
breakoft
her
evol
t.Butt
hemosti
mpor
tantwast
hef
ami
neofWol
l
o.Thr
oughout
1973andear
ly1974t
heWol
l
ofami
necl
aimedt
hel
i
vesoft
housandsofpeasant
s,whi
l
e
f
orci
ngot
her
stoabandont
hei
rbi
rt
hpl
ace.Al
thought
hegov
ernmentt
ri
edt
ohi
det
he
f
ami
ne,f
orei
gnr
epor
tsexposedi
t.Upont
heexposur
eoft
hehor
ror
soft
hef
ami
ne,
i
ntel
l
ect
ual
sandot
herenl
i
ght
enedEt
hiopi
ansbi
tt
erl
yat
tackedt
her
egi
mef
ori
gnor
ing
t
hesuf
fer
ingoft
hepeopl
e.Thus,publ
i
chat
redagai
nstt
her
egi
megr
ew st
rongand
br
okeouti
ntoopenr
evol
tinFebr
uar
y1974.
Begi
nni
ngoft
heRev
olut
ion
Thef
ir
str
evol
t,l
eadi
ngupt
othepopul
armassupr
isi
ngofFebr
uar
y,t
ookpl
acei
nthe
ar
myf
ormer
lyani
nst
rumentoft
her
egi
me.I
nJanuar
y1974sol
dier
sst
ati
onedi
nthe
t
ownofNegel
eBor
enamut
ini
edagai
nstt
hebadcondi
ti
onsoft
hei
rli
fe.Bef
oret
he
gov
ernmentcoul
dpaci
fyt
hesol
dier
s,unr
estspr
eadt
othecapi
talt
hef
oll
owi
ngmont
h.
Theunr
estwasi
gni
tedbyt
her
isei
npet
rol
eum pr
ice.Ther
isei
npet
rol
eum pr
ice
act
ual
l
yresul
tedf
rom t
heAr
ab-
Isr
ael
iWarof1973.Howev
er,opposi
ngt
hepr
icer
ise,
t
axidr
ivesi
nthecapi
talwentonst
ri
kei
nFebr
uar
y1974.Theydemandedf
airchar
ges
f
ort
axij
our
ney
spr
opor
ti
onalt
othei
ncr
easedpr
iceofpet
rol
eum.Att
hesamet
ime,
t
her
ewasacount
rywi
dest
ri
keoft
eacher
swhoopposed'
'
thei
mpl
ement
ati
onoft
he
educat
ionalr
efor
m pr
ogr
am knownast
heEducat
ionalSect
orRev
iew'
'
.Uni
ver
sit
yand
hi
ghschool
student
sor
gani
zedv
iol
entdemonst
rat
ions.
Thesi
tuat
ion becamecr
it
icalwhen sol
dier
sin di
ff
erentar
mydi
vi
sionsj
oined t
he
popul
arunr
est
.Inl
ateFebr
uar
y,sol
dier
soft
heSecondDi
vi
sioni
nAsmar
a,t
heFour
th
Di
vi
si
on i
nAddi
sAbabaandt
heAi
rFor
cei
nDebr
eZei
tmut
ini
ed.Caughtami
dthe
mount
ingunr
est
,TheAkl
i
luHabt
a-Wol
dcabi
netwasunabl
etopaci
fyt
hesi
tuat
ion.
Akl
i
lu,whohadbeenaPr
imeMi
nst
ersi
nce1961r
esi
gnedon28Febr
uar
y1974.
The
Emper
orappoi
ntedLi
jEndal
kachewMekonnent
orepl
aceAkl
i
luasPr
imeMi
nist
er.The
newpr
imemi
nist
erpr
omi
sedt
oini
ti
ater
efor
ms,'
'
incl
udi
ngconst
it
uti
onalr
efor
m.'
'Asa
si
gnoft
hisgoodwi
l
l,hepr
esent
edf
ort
heemper
or'
sappr
ovalacabi
netconsi
sti
ngof
educat
edandpr
ogr
essi
vemi
nist
ers.Al
ongwi
tht
his,
thegov
ernmental
sot
ri
edt
ocheck
'
'
thepopul
arunr
estbywi
thdr
awi
ngt
heSect
orRev
iew,r
educi
ngt
hepr
iceofpet
rol
eum
andi
ncr
easi
ngt
hesal
ari
esofsol
dier
s.'
'
Despi
tet
heseconcessi
onsf
rom t
hegov
ernment
,unr
estcont
inued.St
udent
swer
ethe
l
eadi
ngagi
tat
orsagai
nstt
her
egi
me.Theycont
inuedt
ochal
l
enget
hegov
ernmentand
al
soagi
tat
edot
her
stoj
oint
hem i
nthest
ruggl
eagai
nstt
her
egi
me.Aswasdi
scussed
abov
e,sol
dier
swer
eact
ivepar
ti
cipant
sint
hest
ruggl
e.Al
readyi
nFebr
uar
y,t
heyhadset
upacommi
tt
eeknownast
heCoor
dinat
ingCommi
tt
eeoft
heAr
medFor
ces,
thePol
i
ce
andt
heTer
ri
tor
ialAr
my.Commi
tt
ee,st
art
edt
otakei
tsowni
ndependentmeasur
es.I
n
l
ateApr
il
,fori
nst
ance,t
heCommi
tt
eear
rest
edAkl
i
luandmanyot
hergov
ernment
of
fi
cial
sandhi
gh-r
anki
ngmi
l
itar
yof
fi
cer
s.
I
nJunet
heCommi
tt
eemadeacal
ltomi
l
itar
yuni
tst
hroughoutt
hecount
ryt
osendt
hei
r
r
epr
esent
ati
vesexcl
udi
ngof
fi
cer
sabov
ether
ankofmaj
or-
tot
hecapi
tal
.Upont
he
ar
ri
valoft
hedel
egat
es,
ameet
ingwashel
don28June1974att
heheadquar
ter
soft
he
Four
thDi
vi
si
on.Thi
swast
hef
ir
stmeet
ingoft
heDer
g(t
heCommi
tt
ee)
.Maj
orMengi
stu
Hai
l
eMar
iam,adel
egat
eoft
heThi
rdAr
myDi
vi
si
oni
nHar
arge,becamet
heFi
rstVi
ce-
Char
imanoft
heDer
g.Maj
orAt
naf
uAbat
e,al
readyact
ivei
ntheCommi
tt
eeanda
del
egat
eoft
heFour
thAr
myDi
vi
sion,
becamet
heSecondVi
ce-
Char
iman.
Theconsol
i
dat
i heDer
onoft g mar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngofdualpoweri
nthecount
ry.Thi
s
heDer
wasbecauset gexer
cisedi
tsownpowerpar
all
elt
oEndal
kachew'
sgov
ernment
.
Thest
ateofdualpowerdi
dnotl
astl
ong.I
tcamet
oanendon1August
, heDer
whent g
i
mpr
isonedEngal
kachewandr
epl
acedhi
m asPr
imeMi erbyLi
nst jMi
kael
Imi
ru.
Fal
loft
heMonar
chy
Wi
tht
her
emov
alofEndal
kachewandhi
sgov
ernment
,theDer
gbecamet
heonl
ypower
i
n t
hecount
ry.Sof heDer
art ghadar
rest
edmanyoft
hepr
omi
nentf
igur
esoft
he
r
egi
me.Now,t
heEmper
orbecamet
hei
rtar .TheDer
get gcar
ri
edoutapr
opaganda
campai
gnt
odi
scr
edi
ttheEmper
orunt
ilhewasar
rest
edanddeposedon12Sept
ember
1974.
TheMi
li
tar
yDi
ctat
orshi
p(1974-91)
Consol
idat
ionofMi
li
tar
yDi
ctat
orshi
pandMeasur
esTaken
Hav
ingputt
oanendt
hemonar
chy
,theDer
gpr
ocl
aimedi
tsel
fthepr
ovi
sionalMi
l
itar
y
Admi
nist
rat
iveCounci
l(PMAC)andassumedf
ullpower
.Bot
hbef
oreandaf
ter12
Sept heDer
ember 1974,t gtooksev
eralmeasur
es.Amongt
hese,someoft
hemaj
or
oneswer
ethef
oll
owi
ng.
- I
mpr
isonmentoft
opmi
l
itar
yandci
vi
li
anof
fi
cial
soft
heHai
l
eSel
assi
eregi
me.
- Banni
ngofal
lant
i-gov
ernmentst
ri
kesanddemonst
rat
ions.
- Repr
essi
onofal
lfor
msofpr
otest
.
- Execut
ionof52r
enownof
fi
cial
sandf
unct
ionar
iesoft
heol
dregi
me,aswel
las
Gener
alAmanMi
kael
Andom,
theDer
g'sChai
rmani
nNov
ember1974.
- Conductoft
heDev
elopmentThr
oughcooper
ati
oncampai heZemechat
gnort o
spr
eadl
i
ter
acyandor
gani
zet
hepeasant
rybegi
nni
ngf
rom 1974.
- Pr
ocl
amat
ionof"Et
hiopi
anSoci
ali
sm"andadopt
ionoft
heof
fi
cialnameoft
he
pr
ovi
sional
Gov
ernmentofSoci
ali
stEt
hiopi
a.
- Nat
ional
i
zat
ionofbanks,i
nsur
ance,i
ndust
ri
alandcommer
cialcompani
es,as
wel
lasal
lrur
alandur
banl
andi
n1975.
- El
i
minat
ionofoponent
stot
heper
sonaldi
ctat
orshi
pofMengi
stuHai
l
eMar
iam
wascompl
etedbet
ween1977and1978.
Whenal
lpol
i
ticalor
gani
zat
ionsi
nthecapi
talcol
l
abor
atedwi
t he Der
ht g,onl
ythe
Et
hiopi
anPeopl
e'
sRev
olut
ionar
yPar
ty(
EPRP)cont
inuedi
nit
sopposi
ti
ont
omi
l
itar
yrul
e,
t
husbecomi
ngi
tst
arget
.Incooper
ati
onwi
th t
heAl
l
-Et
hiopi
anSoci
ali
stMov
ement
Mei
( son)
,theDer
gbeganwhati
tcal
l
edt
he'
'
RedTer
ror
''agai
nstt
heEPRP,whose
count
er-
att
ackswer
edesi
gnat
ed'
'
Whi
teTer
ror
''
.Howev
er,bef
or heDer
et gcoul
dtot
all
y
el
i
minat
etheEPRPf
rom t
het
owns,
itf
acedachal
l
engeofadi
ff
erentki
nd.Thi
swast
he
i
nvasi
onofSomal
i
a.
Thei
nvasi
onofSomal
i
at heDer
ookt g bysur
pri
se.Et
hiopi
a'
smi
l
itar
ymachi
newasnot
i
nacondi
ti
ont
ost
andl
argescal
efor
eigni
nvasi
on.Ther
egul
arar
mywhi
chnumber
ed
nomor
ethan50,
000t
roopswaspoor
lyar
med.TheUSA hadbeent
hesuppl
i
erof
Et
hiopi
a'
smi
l
itar
yar
mament
s.Buti
thadwi
thdr
awnt
hissuppor
t,wheni
tsr
elat
ionswi
th
Et
hiopi
abecomest
rai
nedf
oll
owi
ngmi
l
itar
yrul
e.Ev
ent
hought
heUSAhadpr
omi
sedt
o
t
heEmper
ori
n1973t
osuppl
ya100mi
l
li
onUSdol
l
arar
mament
,incl
udi
ng f
ight
erand
bomberai
rpl
anes,t
hedel
i
ver
ywashel
dback.I
ncont
rast
,Somal
i
aunder
tookmi
l
itar
y
pr
epar
ati
ons l
ong bef
orei
tst
art
ed t
he i
nvasi
on.The mai
n suppl
i
erofSomal
i
a's
ar
mament
swast
heSov
ietUni
on.

Af
terl
ong pr
epar
ati
ons,Si
yad Bar
re,t
he t
hen l
eaderofSomal
i
a,awai
ted f
oran
oppor
tunet
imet
obegi
nthei
nvasi
onofEt
hiopi
a.Whent
hepopul
arr
evol
uti
onof1974
br
okeout
,Si
yadBar
rewasconv
incedt
hatt
het
imehadcomet
ost
artanat
tackagai
nst
Et
hiopi
a.Theat
tackbegani
n1977.ByAugust1977,t
heSomal
iregul
arar
mywasi
n
cont
rolofl
argepar
tsofeast
ernEt
hiopi
a.TheSomal
iinv
asi
onuni
tedal
lEt
hiopi
anst
o
t
hedef
enseoft
hei
rcount
ry.Consequent
ly heDer
,t g,whi
chnowassumedt
her
oleofa
pat
ri
oti
cleader
,successf
ull
yor
gani
zedt
het
rai
ningofa300,
000peasantmi
l
iti
afor
ce
andhast
il
ysenti
ttor
einf
orcet
her
egul
arar
my.I
nthe meant
ime,changesi
nthe
i
nter
nat
ional
all
i
ancesy
stem f
avour
edEt
hiopi
a.Al
readyhav
ingadopt
edMar
xist
-Leni
nist
i
deol
ogy
,Mengi
stuhur
ri
edt
omakenew r
elat
ionswi
tht
heSov
ietUni
on.Endi
ngt
hei
r
r
elat
ionswi
thSomal
i
a,t
heSov
iet
sst
art
edt
oar
m Et
hiopi
a.I
naddi
ti
on,
theSov
ietal
l
ies,
CubaandSout
hYemen,sentt
hei
rsol
dier
stof
ightont
hesi
deofEt
hiopi
a.Thus,wi
th
t
heassi
stanceoft
heCubanandSout
hYemenisol
dier
sandSov
ietmi
l
itar
yof
fi
cer
s,t
he
Et
hiopi
anar
myst
art
edacount
er-
att
ack,whi
chsoonpushedbackt
heSomal
iinv
ader
s.
ByMar
ch1978,al
lSomal
iregul
arf
orceshadbeendr
ivenoutf
rom t
het
err
it
oryof
Et
hiopi
a.Theef
fi
ci
entEt
hiopi
anAi
rFor
ceandt
heher
oicef
for
tsoft
hepeasantmi
l
iti
a
wer
ever
yimpor
tanti
nthedeci
siv
evi
ctor
ywhi
chEt
hiopi
agai
nedov
ert
heSomal
i
aggr
essor
s.
Af
terv
ict
oryov
erSomal
i
a,t
hree maj
ori
ssues t
ook t
he at
tent
ion oft
he mi
l
itar
y
gov
ernment
.Thef
ir
stwast
het
otalel
i
minat
ionoft
heEPRP,f
rom t
het
owns,whi
chi
t
succeededi
ntheuseof“
RedTer
ror
”inanor
gani
zedmannert
hroughwhati
tcal
l
edt
he
'
'
Discl
osur
eCampai
gn'
'
.Asar
esul
toff
earandmer
cil
esst
ort
ure,manypeopl
ewer
e
f
orcedt
oconf
esst
hingst
heyr
eal
l
ydi
dnotknow orhadnotdone.I
nthepr
ocess,
t
housandsofi
nnocentpeopl
ebecamev
ict
imsoft
he“
Red Ter
ror
”.Butt
heEPRP
cont
inuedi
tsst
ruggl
ebymov
ingt
othenor
ther
npar
toft
hecount
ryt
ounder
takear
ural
guer
ri
ll
aresi
st n1977Mei
ance.I sonwasi
dent
if
i heDer
edast gopponentandbecamea
t
ar ori
getf tat
tack.

Thesecondi
ssuewhi
cht
ookat
tent
i heDer
onoft gwast
het
askofpar
tyf
ormat
ion.The
Der
ghadpl
annedf
oracommuni
stpar
tyf
ormat
ionbymer
gingpol
i
ticalor
gani
zat
ion
t
hatsuppor
tedi
t.Buti
tchangedt
hest
rat
egyofpar
tyf
ormat
ioni
n1979f
rom uni
tyof
di
ff
erentpol
i
ticalor
gani
zat
ions t
orecr
uit
mentofi
ndi
vi
dual
sloy
alt
othe mi
l
itar
y
gov
ernment
.Usi
ngt
hatst
rat
egyapar
tyknownast
heWor
ker
sPar
tyofEt
hiopi
a(WPE)
,
andMengi
stubecamei
tsSecr
etar
y-Gener
ali
nSept
ember1984.Thi
sev
entmar
kedt
he
peakoft
hemi
l
itar
ydi
ctat
orshi
p.Asweshal
lseebel
ow,
ital
somar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngof
t
heoccur
renceofev
ent
swhi
chhast
enedt
hedownf
all
oft
hemi
l
itar
ydi
ctat
orshi
p.

Thet
hir
dissuewast
hesuppr
essi
onofopposi
ti
ongr
oupsandf
reedom f
ight
erswhi
ch
hadt
hei
rbasesi
nthenor
ther
npar
tofEt
hiopi
a.Thesewer
etheEt
hiopi
anDemocr
ati
c
Uni
on(
EDU)
,theEr
it
reanPeopl
e'
sLi
ber
ati
onFr
ont(
EPLF)andt
heTi
grayPeopl
e'
s
Li
ber
ati
onFr
ont(
TPLF)
.TheEDUemer
gedonl
yaf
tert
hedownf
alloft
heol
dregi
me.I
ts
eaderwas Ras MengeshaSey
l oum,agr
andsonofEmper
orYohnnesI
V who was
mar
ri
edt
othegr
anddaught
erofHai
l
eSel
l
assi
eI.Member
soft
heEDUwer
emai
nly
nor
ther
nar
ist
ocr
atsandhi
ghr
anki
ngmi
l
itar
yof
fi
cer
soft
heol
dregi
me.EDUwast
hus
f
ight
ingt
orest
oret
hef
eudalmonar
chy
.Ther
ewassomef
ight
ingbet
weent
heEDUand
heDer
t g.TheEDUal
sof
oughtagai
nstt
heTPLFi
nTi
gray
,wher
ebot
hhadt
hei
rbases.I
n
t
hisf
ight
ingt
heEDUmetacr
ushi
ngdef
eatandwast
otal
l
ydr
ivenoutofTi
gray
.InMay
1976,
theDer
gissuedani
nepoi
ntpr
ogr
am f
ort
hesol
uti
onoft
heEr
it
reanpr
obl
em.But
t
her
ewasnoagr
eementandt
henegot
iat
ionsbr
okedown.I
nthef
oll
owi
ngy
ear
,when
t
hei
nvasi
onf
rom Somal
i
adi
ver
t heDer
edt g'sat
tent
ion,t
heEPLFgr
eat
lyexpandedi
ts
cont
rolov
erEr
it
rea.I
tenci
rcl
edAsmar
aandputMassawaundersi
ege.Byt
heendof
1977, y5percentofEr
onl it
rear
emai
nedundert
hecont
r ofDer
ol g.
Thesi
tuat
ionwasr
ever
sedi
mmedi
atel
yaf
terv
ict
oryov
erSomal
i
a.Wi
thf
ullconf
idence,
i
ntheDer
gst
art
edamassi
veat
tackagai
nstEPLF.Thepr
essur
eofmassi
veat
tacks
f
orcedt
heEPLFt
oev
acuat
emanyoft
het
err
it
ori
esi
thel
d.I
nspi
teoft
hi heDer
s,t gdi
d
notsucceedi
nexpel
l
ingt
heEPLFf
rom i
tsst
rongbaseatNakf
a,i
nnor
ther
nEr
it
rea.
TheDer
` gmadeanot
herat
temptatel
i
minat
ingt
heEPLFi
n1982.Thi
sti
me,at
tacks
agai
nstt
heEPLFwer
ecar
ri
edoutundert
heso-
cal
l
ed“
RedSt
arCampai
gn”
,whi
chagai
n
f
ail
edt
oel
i
minat
etheEPLF.

Anot
herpol
i
ticalf
orcef
ight
i heDer
ngt gint
henor
thwast
heTPLF.I
twasf
oundedbya
smal
lgr
oupofuni
ver
sit
yst
udent
swhof
ledt
oTi
grayi
n1975.Theybegant
hei
rst
ruggl
e
i
nDedebi
t,apl
acel
ocat
edi
nthel
owl
andsofAdi
yaboi
nwest
ernTi
gray
.Ini
ti
all
y,t
he
TPLF obt
ainedsomesuppor
tfr
om t
heEPLF,mai
nlyi
nmi
l
itar
ytr
aini
ngandsuppl
yof
somer
if
les.I
nthef
ir
stphaseofi
tsst
ruggl
e,t
heTPLFwasengagedi
nabl
oodywar
wi
tht
heEDU.Hav
ingdef
eat
edandexpel
l
edt
heEDUf
rom Ti
gray
,theTPLFgr
adual
l
y
expandedi
tscont
rolov
erTi
gray
.Ital
sof
oughtagai
nstEPRPanddr
ovei
tawayf
rom
Ti
gray
.Oneofi
tsear
li
estengagement
swi
t heDer
ht gar
mywasagai
nstt
hef
orces
di
spat
ched undert
he so-
cal
l
ed Raza Campai
gn.I
nthi
s engagement
,the TPLF
heDer
ambushedt gfor
ceandf
orcedi
ttosur
render
.Int
hef
oll
owi
ngy
ear
s,t
heTPLF
consol
i
dat
edi
tspowerandexpandedi
tsmi
l
itar
yresour
cest
obecomet
hel
eadi
ngf
orce
i
nthest
ruggl
eagai
nstmi
l
itar
yrul
e.
By1982t
heTPLFwasi
ncommandofaconsi
der
abl
efor
cewi
thamaj
orpar
tofTi
gray
underi
tscont
rol
.Att
hist
ime,
theEPLFwasi
nacr
it
icalcondi
ti
onduet
otheat
tackst
he
Der
glaunchedundert
heRedSt
arCampai
gn.I
nfact
,theEPLFwassav
edf
rom t
otal
dest
ruct
ionbyt
hef
orceofTPLFwhomadear
emar
kabl
emar
chal
ongdi
ff
icul
tter
rai
nto
Sahel
andassi
stedt
heEPLFi
npushi heDer
ngbackt gar
my.
Thef
ail
ureoft
heRedSt
arCampai
gnwasat
urni
ngpoi
nti
nthest
ruggl
ebet
weent
he
Der
gandt
henor
ther
ninsur
gent
s.I heDer
n1984t gcel
ebr
atedt
hei
naugur
ati
onoft
he
Wor
ker
sPar
tyofEt
hiopi he10th anni
aandt ver
sar
yoft
hemi
l
itar
ygov
ernment
.The
anni
ver
sar
ycoi
nci
dedwi
thasev
eref
ami
net
hathi
tEt
hiopi
aasawhol
e.I
nor
dert
o
makepol
i
ticalpr
ofi
toutoft
hef
ami heDer
ne,t gbeganmassi
ver
eset
tl
ement
soft
he
peasant
s ofTi
gray and Wol
l
o,t
he ar
eas mostaf
fect
ed by t
he f
ami
ne,t
othe
sout
hwest
ern par
ts of Et
hiopi
a.Par
t of t
he i
ntent
ion behi
nd t
he r
eset
tl
ement
pr
ogr
ammewast
hei
sol
ati
onoft
hef
reedom f
ight
ersf
rom t
her
uralpopul
ati
oni
nthe
nor
th.Al
ongwi
tht
her
eset
tl
ementpr
ogr
am wasv
il
lagi
zai
on(
concent
rat
ionofpeasant
s
i
nlar
gev
il
lages)whi
chal
soi
ntendedt
oti
ght
encont
rolov
ert
her
uralpopul
ati
on.Bot
h
pr
ogr
amsl
edt
owi
despr
eadpeasantopposi
ti
onagai
nstt
hemi
l
itar
ygov
ernment
.Thi
s
cr
eat
edf
avour
abl
econdi
ti
onsf
ort
her
iseandgr
owt
hofsev
eralmov
ement
sfi
ght
ingf
or
nat
ionalsel
f-
det
ermi
nat
ion.Among t
hese mov
ement
s,some oft
hem al
ready i
n
exi
stence,wer
etheOr
omoLi
ber
ati
onFr
ont(
OLF)
,theSi
damaLi
ber
ati
onFr
ont(
SLM)
,
t
he Or
omo I
slami
c Fr
ont(
OLF)
,the Af
arLi
ber
ati
on Fr
ont(
ALF)
,the Beni
shangul
Li
ber
ati
on Mov
ement(
BLF)and t
he Gambel
l
a Li
ber
ati
on Fr
ont(
GLF)
. Peasant
opposi
ti
ont
otheDer
g'spol
i
ciesabov
eal
lbenef
it
edt
heTPLF.TheFr
ontwonpopul
ar
suppor
twhi
chst
rengt
henedi
tspower
.
I
naser
iesofmi
l
itar
yvi
ctor
ies,
theFr
ontexpandedt
het
err
it
oryunderi
tscont
rol
.Among
t
hemi
l
itar
yvi
ctor
ies,onepar
ti
cul
arl
ywasv
eryi
mpor
tant
.InFebr
uar
y1989,t
heTPLF
f
ight
ersscor
edar
emar
kabl
evi
ctor heDer
yont gar
myatEndaSel
l
assi
e,west
ernTi
gray
.
Tensoft
housandsoft
hesol
dier heDer
soft gar
mywer
ecapt
ured. Manyoft
hei
r
commander
swer
eei
therki
l
ledi
nact
ionorcapt
ured.Thev
ict
oryal
sohel
pedt
heTPLF
t
ocapt
urear
ti
ll
erypi
ecesandt
anks.
Thev
ict
oryofEndaSel
l
assi
ehadt
woconsequences.Fi
rst
ly,i
tledt
othewi
thdr
awalof
Der
gtr
oopsf
rom t
hewhol
eofTi
gray
.Thi
senabl
edt
heTPLFt
oext
endt
hescopeoft
his
st
ruggl
ebey
ondTi
gar
y.Secondl
y,t
hev
ict
orywasacr
ushi
ngbl
owt
othef
ight
ingmor
ale
heDer
oft gar
my.Mor
eov
er,
thev
ict
oryhadanot
heri
mmedi
ateconsequence.Thi
swas
t
heat
temptofhi
ghr
anki
ngmi
l
itar
yof
fi
cer
stoel
i
minat
eMengi
stuf
rom power
.On16
May1989,t
heof
fi
cer agedacoupi
sst nAddi
sAbaba.Howev
er hecoupwashast
,t il
y
begant
otaket
heoppor
tuni
tyofMengi
stu'
sabsencef
rom t
hecapi
tal
,forhewasona
st
atev
isi
ttoEastGer .Thecoup f
many ail
ed.Asi
twas,wi
thi
nhour
sofi
tsf
ail
ure,
Mengi
stuf
lew backt
oAddi
sAbabat
otakehi
srev
enge.Thenf
oll
owedwi
despr
ead
ar
rest
sandal
lsuspect
edof
fi
cer
swer
eei
therexecut
edorsent
encedt
oser
vel
ong
t
ermsi
npr
ison.Asar
esul
t,t
hear
myl
osti
tsbestof
fi
cer
s.Themer
cil
esspuni
shment
al
sodemor
ali heDer
zedt gof
fi
cer
sandt
otal
l
yki
l
ledt
hef
ight
ingmor
aleoft
her
ankand
f
il
e.Hencef
orwar
d,t
heof
fi
cer
sfoughtwi
thl
essandl
essconv
ict
ion,
whi
l
ether
ankand
f
il
edeser
tedandsur
render
edi
nthousands.
I
n addi
ti
on t
oint
ernalpr
obl
ems,t
hings wentagai
nstt
he mi
l
itar
y gov
ernmenti
n
i
nter
nat
ionalpol
i
tics.Thi
swast
hecol
l
apseoft
heSov
ietUni
onandt
hecommuni
st
r
egi
mesi
nEast
ernEur
ope.Asar
esul
t,t
hemi
l
itar
ygov
ernmentnotonl
ylosti
tschi
ef
ext
ernalsuppor
t,butal
sof
acedopencr
it
ici
sm ofi
tsr
igi
dit
iesf
rom Sov
ietj
our
nal
i
sts
andacademi
ci
ans.Thehal
f-
hear
tedpr
ocl
amat
ionofami
xedeconomyi
nMar
ch1990
wast
ool
atet
ochanget
hesi
tuat
ionf
ort
hebet
ter
.Theday
soft
hemi
l
itar
ydi
ctat
orshi
p
wer
enear
ingt
hei
rend.Hast
eni
ngt
hedownf
alloft
hemi
l
itar
ydi
ctat
orshi
pwer
eact
ions
t
akenbyt
heTPLF,
whi
chwi
l
lbet
reat
edbel
ow.
Fal
loft
heMi
li
tar
yDi
ctat
orshi
p
I
mmedi
atel
yaf
tercont
rol
l
ingt
hewhol
eofTi
gray
,theTPLFchangedt
hest
rat
egyofi
ts
st
ruggl
etol
i
ber
ateTi
grayt
oli
ber
ati
ngt
hewhol
ecount
ryf
rom t
her
uleoft
hemi
l
itar
y
di
ctat
orshi
pandest
abl
i
shademocr
ati
csy
stem i
nEt
hiopi
a.Tot
hisend,
theTPLFmade
t
henecessar
yor
gani
zat
ionalchangebyf
ormi
ngabr
oadf
rontknownast
heEt
hiopi
an
Peopl
e'
sRev
olut
ionar
yDemocr
ati
cFr
ont(
EPRDF)i
near
ly1990.
I
n addi
ti
on t
otheTPLF,t
heEPRDF i
ncl
uded such or
gani
zat
ionsast
heEt
hiopi
an
Peopl
es'
Democr
ati
cMov
ementnowcal
l
edt
heAmhar
aPeopl
e'
sDemocr
ati
cMov
ement
(
APDM)andt
heOr
omoPeopl
e'
sDemocr
ati
cOr
gani
zat
ion(
OPDO)
.Int
hecampai
gnsof
1990and1991,t
hecoal
i
tionf
orcesoft
heEPRDFdr
ov heDer
et gar
myoutofGondar
,
Goj
j
am,Wol
l
oandShoaandmov
edt
othecapi
talf
rom t
henor
ther
nandwest
ern
di
rect
ions.On21May1991,Mengi
stuf
ledt
oHar
are,t
hecapi
talofZi
mbabwe.Thi
s
mar
kedt
het
otalcol
l
apseoft
her
esi
st heDer
anceoft g.I
nthenor
th,t
heEPLFf
orces
cont
rol
l
ed Asmar
a and Assab and announced t
he f
ormat
ion oft
he Pr
ovi
sional
Gov
ernmentofEr
it
rea.On28May1991t
heEPRDFf
orcesent
eredAddi
sAbabawi
thno
r
esi
stanceandbr
oughtt
oanendt
oMengi
stu’
smi
l
itar
ydi
ctat
orshi
p.
Thedownf
alloft
hemi
l
itar
ydi
ctat
orshi
pmar
kedt
hebegi
nni
ngofanewchapt
eri
nthe
hi
stor
yofEt
hiopi
a.Thepr
ocessofbui
l
dingademocr
ati
csy
stem i
nthecount
rywas
soon under
taken.Fol
l
owi
ng i
ts ent
ryi
nto Addi
s Ababa,t
he EPRDF est
abl
i
shed a
Pr
ovi
sionalGov
ernmentunderMel
esZenawiasAct
ingHeadofSt
ate.On26Junet
he
Pr
ovi
sionalGov
ernmentannouncedt
hataNat
ionalConf
erence,
tosetupaTr
ansi
ti
onal
Gov
ernment
,woul
dmeeton1Jul
y.Accor
dingl
y,al
lpol
i
ticalf
orcesi
nthecount
rywer
e
i
nvi
tedt
oat
tendt
heconf
erence.Thenf
oll
owedaf
ive-
dayconf
erencei
nAddi
sAbaba,
at
tendedbysev
eralpol
i
ticalor
gani
zat
ions.Theconf
erenceconcl
udedi
tssessi
onsby
est
abl
i
shi
ngt
heTr
ansi
ti
onalGov
ernmentofEt
hiopi
a(TGE)andt
heChar
tert
hatwoul
d
ser
vedur
ingt
het
ransi
ti
onalper
iod.Thei
mpor
tanceoft
heChar
terwast
hatf
ort
hef
ir
st
t
imei
nthehi
stor
yofEt
hiopi
a,i
tgav
eri
ght
stot
henat
ionsandnat
ional
i
tiesoft
he
count
ryt
otheuset
hei
rlanguagesi
nconduct
ingeducat
ionanadmi
nist
rat
ion.The
Char
teral
l
owednat
ionsandnat
ional
i
tiest
ouseanddev
elopt
hei
rrespect
ivecul
tur
es.
Dur
ingt
hef
ir
stt
woy
ear
s,t
heTGEwaspr
eoccupi
edwi
tht
het
asksofr
est
ori
ngpeace
andsecur
it
yint
hecount
ry,r
ehabi
l
itat
ionoft
hedemobi
l
izedsol
dier
sandf
ormi
ngl
ocal
gov
ernment
.The l
att
erwas achi
eved i
n 1993,when l
ocaladmi
nist
rat
ion wer
e
est
abl
i
shedt
hroughoutt
hecount
ry.I
nApr
iloft
hesamey
ear
,ref
erendum whi
chv
ited
Er
it
reanf
ori
ndependencewasconduct
ed.I
nMay
,1993Er
it
reabecameasepar
ate
i
ndependentst
ate.I
n1993,anew Const
it
uti
onwasdr
awnup.Theconst
it
uti
onwas
appr
ovedbyaConst
it
uentAssembl
yinDecember1994.Af
teranat
ionwi
deel
ect
iont
he
Feder
alDemocr
ati
cRepubl
i
cofEt
hiopi
a(FDRE)i
nAugust1995.
Rev
iewQuest
ions
Chooset
hebestanswer
sfr
om t
hef
oll
owi
ngal
ter
nat
ives.
1.Whi
choneoft
hef
orceofopposi
ti
ont
otheaut
ocr
ati
cst
ateofEt
hiopi
alaunched
i
tsst
ruggl
eatbot
hthenat
ional
andi
nter
nat
ional
arena?
A.Woy
anepeasantr
ebel
l
ionof194t C.Goj
j
am peasantr
ebel
l
ion
B.TheEt
hiopi
anst
udent
smov
ement D.Taxi
-dr
iver
smov
ement
2.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwasnotr
efor
m under
takenbyDer
g
A.Nat
ional
i
zat
ionofur
banl
andandext
rahouseunderpr
oduct
ionest
abl
i
shed
 ur
bandwel
l
ersAssoci
ati
on
B.Cent
ral
i
zedeconomyoft
hecount
ryundert
hecommandoft
hegov
ernment
C.Launched a pr
ogr
am dev
elopment t
hrough cooper
ati
on campai
gn f
or
economi
cdev
elopmentand l
i
ter
acycampai
gnf
or el
i
minat
ingi
l
li
ter
acyi
n
t
hatf
armer
stor
eadandwr
it
e
D.Nat
ional
i
zed I
ndust
ri
es,
rur
all
andandr
edi
str
ibut
edf
orl
andl
esspeasant
sas
wel
lasgov
`tcont
rol
l
edent
erpr
ise

3.Yekat
it66pol
i
ticalschoolwasest
abl
i
shedbyDer
gast
rai
ningcent
erbecauseof
al
loft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easonsexcept
A.Tor
eal
i
zeobj
ect
iveofdi
ssemi
nat
ingMar
xism Leni
nism
B.Toendgr
eat
erobj
ect
iveofPOMOA
C.Tor
epl
aceAut
ocr
acywi
thPMAC
D.Todi
str
ibut
eMar
xist–Leni
nism i
nmassest
rai
ningt
obecar
ri
edout
4.Whowast
hel
astpr
imemi
nst
erofaut
ocr
ati
cgov
` he1stchai
tandt rmanofDer
g
Respect
ivel
y
A.Hai
l
eSel
asei
,Mengi
stu/Mar
iam
B.Akl
i
luHabeWol
d,Tef
ari
Bant
i
C.Li
jEndal
kachewMekonen,
Ati
naf
uAbat
a
D.Li
jMi
kael
Imi
ru,
AmanMi
chael
Andom
5.Whi
ch of t
he f
oll
owi
ng opposi
ti
ons agai
nstEmper
orHai
l
e Sel
asi
e Iand
demandi
ngobj
ect
ive(
goal
)waswr
ongl
yrel
ated?
A.Taxi
-dr
iver
sofi
ncr
easeoft
ranspor
tat
ionf
ee
B.Teacher
sassoci
ati
onf
ori
ncr
ementofsal
aryandpensi
onage
C.Et
hiopi
anwor
ker
sfori
mpr
ovementl
i
ttl
epayandl
ongwor
kingt
ime
D.Musl
i
msf
orsecul
ari
sm andr
eli
gioust
oler
ance
6.Whi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngwasnott
rueaboutEr
it
reanpr
obl
em
A.I
n 1952,Er
it
rea f
eder
ated wi
th Et
hiopi
a whi
ch means aut
ocr
ati
c gov
`t
cont
ort
edal
laf
fai
rs
 B.Bi
gfour
snamel
yBr
it
ain,USAandUSSRappeal
edt
hecoseofEr
it
reat
oUN
i
n1948
C.UN sent5per
sonsf
rom Bur
ma,Paki
stan, Sout
hAf
ri
ca,Nor
way and
Guat
emal
atohearv
oices
D.Musl
i
m domi
nat
ed ELF(
Jabaha)andEPLF(
Shaby
a)mar
kedi
ndependence
ofEr
it
reaatt
hei
rfoundat
ions

7.PeasantRebel
l
ionofBal
eandGoj
j
am wer
edi
ff
erenti
nthat
A.For
merSuppor
tedbyf
orei
gnSomal
i
a,t
hel
att
ersuppor
tedbyBr
it
ishgov
`t
B.Thef
ormercausedbymal
admi
nist
rat
ion,r
eli
giousandet
hni
cdomi
nat
ions,
t
hel
att
ercausedbyi
ntr
oduct
ionofnew Agr
icul
tur
alorl
andt
axsy
stem
C.Thef
ormerl
edbyJegamakel
l
o,t
hel
att
erbyWaquGut
u
D.Thef
ormerbegan1st atEl
kre,t
hel
att
er beganatwabiandmot
a(Dega
Damot
)
8.1960,
Coupd`
etathadal
loft
hef
oll
owi
nghi
stor
ical
trut
hexcept
A.I
tOr
gani
zedbyI
mper
ial
bodyguar
dandpol
i
cef
orce
B.Megi
stuNewayor
gani
zerofcoupwasUSA educat
ed,
gov
ernorofJi
j
igaand
Wol
ait
a,hangedpubl
i
clyatA.
A
C.I
tassumedt
omadeRasI
mir
u asheadofst
ateandpr
inceAsf
awosen as
pr
imemi
nst
er
D.I
tbecameabor
ti
vebecausei
tlackedcoor
dinat
ion
9.I
nor
dert
openet
rat
eAf
ri
caEur
opeansusedwhi
choft
hef
oll
owi
ngr
easonas
pr
et s1sthal
exti fof19thc?
A.Forsear
chi
ngRawmat
eri
alsf
ort
hei
rIndust
ri
es
B.Forsci
ent
if
ici
nvest
igat
ion,
Rel
i
giousmi
ssi
onandf
orgeogr
aphi
cal
expedi
ti
on
C.Formar
ketsear
chf
orf
urt
herpr
ofi
t
D.St
ragi
cposi
ti
onofcont
inentf
orMedi
ter
raneansea
 10.
TheEt
hiopi
anTeacher
s’Associ
ati
onopposedt
heEducat
ionSect
orr
evi
ew of
1971-
1972becausei
t
A.I
ntr
oducedashi
ftsy
stem t
oschool
s
B.Di
scr
imi
nat
edagai
nstst
udent
sfr
om poorf
ami
l
ies
C.I
ncr
easedt
henumberofhi
ghschool
student
s
D.Pr
oposedar
educt
ioni
nthesal
aryoft
eacher
s
11.
On Januar
y31,1942 t
he f
ir
stAngl
o-Et
hiopi
an Agr
eementwas si
gned.Thi
s
agr
eement
A.Recogni
zedEt
hiopi
aassov
erei
gnst
atebuti
tal
l
owedt
heBr
it
ishohav
efi
nal
aut
hor
it
yov
erEt
hiopi
a’
s
B.Br
it
ishr
ecogni
zedt
heOgadenandt
her
eser
vedar
eaasi
ntegr
alpar
tsof
Et
hiopi
a.
C.Al
l
owedemper
orHai
l
eSel
assi
etor
ecr
uitnon-
Bri
ti
shf
orei
gnper
sonnel
D.
Recogni
zedDj
i
bout
iasanout
letofEt
hiopi
a
Modal i
tyofDeli
very
Thiscourserequi
resanact i
veparti
cipat
ionofstudent
s.Subj
ectt
eacher
swi l
lal
sohel
p
studentslear
nthemselves.Teacherswil
l al
sodependonlect
uri
ngtocovercorear
easof
knowledge.
Assessment
Therewi l
lbeonestandardexam.Ther eshouldalsobequi
zzes
Ref
erences
1.BahruZewde,AShortHistor yofEthi
opiaandt heHorn(1998)
2.TadesseTamirat
,ChurchandSt at
einEthiopia(1972)
3.SergewHablesel
assie,
Anci entandMedi evalHist
oryofEthi
opi
a
4.MohammedHasen, TheOr omoofEt hiopia(1994)
5.Phil
ipCur
ti
n,Afri
canHistoryf r
om theEarli
esttothePresent
6.HeaterD,
OurWor ldToday( 1995).
7. books:
Text Grade9-
12Hi
stor
yst
udentt
extbook.