Transmission Lines and Their Performance: Course: ELEC ENG 3110 Electric Power Systems ELEC ENG 7074 Power Systems PG

11 August 2022 9:03 am
C:\David\PowerSystemsCourse\2022\EPS\Notes\F06_TransmissionLinePerformance_Ver03.fm
Course:
ELEC ENG 3110 Electric Power Systems
ELEC ENG 7074 Power Systems PG
(Semester 2, 2022)
Transmission Lines and their Performance

Lecturer and Co-ordinator: David Vowles
david.vowles@adelaide.edu.au
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Overhead Transmission Lines1
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Components:
• Transmission towers
• Wide variety of structures
• Often two parallel 3-phase circuits on a sin-
gle tower (double-circuit transmission line)
• Insulators. Ceramic suspension insulators for
high voltage lines.
• Mechanically support conductors
• Must withstand both normal and surge volt-
ages to ground.
• Subject to atmospheric contamination that
reduces insulation properties (e.g. salt near
Bundled sea, dust inland)
Phase
Insulators Conductors • Phase conductors.
• Usually Aluminium Conductor with Steel
Reinforcing (ACSR)
• Typically two or four conductors in a bundle
per phase for voltages > 220 kV
Figure 1: Example of a flat profile tower for a 275– • Reduce corona discharge
330 kV (l-l) single-circuit transmission line.
• Ground wires
• Strung above phase conductors and bonded to
tower to shield phase circuits from lightning.
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• Parallel ground return path for unbalanced

1. This section is based on a set of Power System Notes by M.J. Gibbard fault currents.
Transmission Tower Profiles1
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Ground 50 m
Wires
30 m
Circuit #1 & #2
Double Single Super ‘Stobie-pole’

Circuit Circuit Structures
Steel Lattice Structures
275 kV 132 kV
66 kV
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1. ElectraNet image (https://www.electranet.com.au/our-approach/safety/transmission-lines/)

Overhead Transmission Line, 765 kV, Quebec Canada
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Four conductor bundles
• 765 kV, single-circuit

• Four conductor bundles per
phase
• Two ground wires
• To insulator strings per phase in
V-configuration for mechanical
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strength & stability.

Suspension Insulators
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Connection to tower
Cross-section of a single suspension type insulator (above)

• Porcelain skirt and petticoats provide elongated insulation path
• Mechanical strength relies on cement bonding between porce-
lain and iron cap (above) and steel pin below.
Insulator ‘string’ (right)
• Voltage evenly distributed between the tower (earth) and phase
conductor across each insulator disk.
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image above: https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/wp-content/uploads/fig-1-cross-section-of-a-standard-ball-and-socket-insulator.gif

image right: https://dc.edu.au/wp-content/uploads/metal-supporting-towers.png
Conductor Transposition
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In an equilateral configuration of phase conductors, the inductance and shunt capacitance per
phase is the same for all phases.
In a flat configuration, transposition of the conductors is required in order that self and mutual in-
ductances per phase are the same. Typically, transpositions occur at 1/3 and 2/3 of the line length.
Figure 2: Transposition of phase conductors.
Transposition results in a ‘balanced’ transmission line.

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Series-inductance and shunt-capacitance per-unit length
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Consider an equilateral spacing of conductors (or an Likewise it can be shown that the capacitance per
equivalent equilateral distribution) as shown below. phase to a hypothetical neutral point is:
2
C = --------------- F/m (2)
ln  ----
D
 R
where  is the permittivity of the dielectric medium
(i.e. air for an overhead line, for which
1 –9
   0 = ---------  10 F/m).
36
For a non-equilateral configuration, D becomes the

Figure 3: Equilaterally disposed phase conductors. GMD (Geometric Mean Distance) between phases,
and R is the GMR (Geometric Mean Radius) for a
It can be shown that the series inductance per-phase stranded conductor or for a bundle of phase conduc-
given by: tors.
L =  2  10  ln  ---- H/m
–7 D
(1)
 R
where D and R are the (equivalent) equilateral spac-
ing between phases and the (equivalent) conductor
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radius respectively. It is assumed that D » R .

Series-inductance and shunt-capacitance per-unit length
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For example, for the conductor configuration R = r  db (4)

shown below, the equivalent equilateral spac-
ing is the GMD:
D = 3 d ab  d cb  d ca (3)
Figure 5: Twin conductor arrangement
In addition to the series inductance and shunt capac-

itance a transmission line is characterised by its:
Figure 4: Arbitrary configuration of conductors
• Series resistance (R, ohm / m) due to conductor resis-
tivity which must account for stranding and skin effect.
The GMD is the nth root of the products of all n dis-
• Shunt conductance (G, mho / m) representing losses
tances between conductors in the phase bundle and
due to very small leakage currents over the surface of
all conductors in the other phases. insulator strings and the corona effect. Such losses are
very small and G is usually neglected.
For a twin-conductor phase bundle, the equivalent ra-
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dius of a single solid conductor is the GMR,

Transmission Line Equations1
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The per-unit length parameters (R, L, G, C) of a transmission line / cable (TL) are (uniformly) distributed along
its length. If the line is uniformly transposed the TL equations which describe the variation of the voltage and
current phasors along the length of the line can be developed on a per-phase basis.
Distributed circuit representation of TL

• z = R + jL series impedance per-
Î  x + x  unit length / phase
S Î Î  x  Î R R
S
zx • y = G + jC shunt admittance
per-unit length / phase
V̂ S V̂  x  yx V̂  x + x  V̂ R
• Distance, x , measured from sending
end (S) toward receiving end (R)
x x + x l • The line length is l
• V̂  x  and Î  x  are respectively the voltage- and current-phasors at an arbitrary position along the line.
• V̂ S = V̂  0  and Î S = Î  0  are respectively the voltage- and current-phasors at the sending end of the line.
• V̂ R = V̂  l  and Î R = Î  l  are the corresponding phasors at the receiving end.

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1. This section draws on material in:

P. Kundur, “Power System Stability & Control”, (c) 1994, McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Derivation of distributed TL equations
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The voltage phasor at position x + x : The sending end voltage ( V̂ S = V̂  0  ) and current
V̂  x + x  = V̂  x  –  zx Î  x + x  ( Î S = Î  0  ) are given boundary conditions. From (5)
Rearranging and letting x  0 yields: and (6) it follows that the boundary values of the de-
dV̂  x  rivatives of these quantities are:
-------------- = – zÎ  x  (5)
dx dVˆS dIˆS
--------- = – zI S and ------- = – yVˆS
ˆ (8)
dx dx
Similarly, the current phasor at position x + x :
Î  x + x  = Î  x  –  yx V̂  x  Equation (7) is now solved using the Laplace Trans-
Rearranging and letting x  0 yields: form (LT). Forming the LT of (7) gives:
dV̂  x 
dÎ  x  s V̂  s  –  --------------
2
------------ = – yV̂  x  (6) – sV̂  0  –  yz V̂  s  = 0
dx  dx  x = 0
Substitute boundary conditions and rearrange:
Eliminate Î  x  in (5) by differentiating and substitut- sV̂ S – zÎ S
V̂  s  = ---------------------
2
- (9)
dÎ  x  s – yz
ing for ------------ from (6) to give:
dx 2
Factorize the characteristic equation s – yz = 0 :
2
d V̂  x  Î  x 
 d------------ 2
 s – yz  =  s –    s +  
---------------
- = – z =  yz V̂  x  (7)
2  dx 
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dx in which  = yz is the propagation constant. (10)

Derivation of distributed TL equations (Cont)
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Express (9) as a sum of partial fractions: x – x

V̂  x  = A 1 e + A 2 e
sV̂ S – zÎ S A1 A2
V̂  s  = ---------------------
- = --------------
- + ---------------
- (11) V̂ S – Z C Î S x V̂ S + Z C Î S –x
2
s – yz  s –    s +   =  ----------------------- e +  ----------------------- e
 2   2 
(14)
x – x x – x
A 1 and A 2 are obtained by multiplying out and e +e e –e
= V̂ S  ---------------------- – Z C Î S  ----------------------
equating coefficients as follows.  2   2 
sV̂ S – zÎ S =  A 1 + A 2 s +  A 1 – A 2  = V̂ S cosh  x  – Z C Î S sinh  x 
 A 1 + A 2  = V̂ S and  A 2 – A 1  = zÎ S yielding Substitute V̂  x  from (14) into (5) for Î  x  :
A 2 = V̂ S – A 1   V S – 2A 1  = zÎ S from which 1 dV̂  x   x – x
Î  x  = – --- -------------- = – -  A 1 e – A 2 e 
z dx z
V̂ S – Z C Î S V̂ S + Z C Î S
A 1 = ----------------------- , A 2 = ----------------------- where (12)  yz y 1
2 2 Recognize that - = --------- = -- = ------ and substitut-
z z z ZC
z ing for A 1 and A 2 in the preceding equation yields:
ZC = -- is the characteristic impedance. (13)
y
  Î S – V̂ S  Z C  x  Î S + V̂ S  Z C –x
Î  x  = -------------------------------- e + --------------------------- e
The voltage phasor, as a function of distance from the  2   2 
sending end, is obtained by forming the inverse LT of (15)
V̂ S
(11) and substituting the coefficients in (12) to give: = Î S cosh  x  –  ------ sinh  x 
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 Z C
Propagation constant and characteristic impedance
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The propagation and characteristic impedances are

 =  + j  j LC  1 – j -----------
R
expressed in terms of the TL distributed parameters  2L
and approximations of these parameters are made as- if R « L (17)
suming (i) the shunt conductance, G, is negligible; R
  ------------------    LC
and (ii) the series resistance (R) is much less than the 2 LC
series inductance ( L ).
Characteristic Impedance
Propagation Constant
z R + jL
ZC =
-- = ---------------------
 = yz =  G + jC   R + jL  y G + jC
Again neglecting G we have
2
=  RG –  LC  + j  GL + RC 
---- 1 – j  -------
L R
The shunt conductance is neglected (i.e. G = 0 ) so, ZC = (18)
C  L
 =  + j = j LC 1 – j  -------
R
(16)
 L In the case of HV transmission lines in which
R « L the following approximation is applicable:
In the case of HV transmission lines usually R « L
Z C = R C + jX C  ----  1 – j -----------
L R
at power system frequency (i.e. 50 Hz) so the follow- C 2L
ing simplification is appropriate for such lines. (It if R « L (19)
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X C  –  -------------------
should not be used for distribution lines for which the L R
R C  ----
X/R ratio is near unity or even less than one.) C  2 LC
Surge Impedance Loading
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For HV transmission lines G is negligible and V̂ S

R « L . Consequently when analysing light- Î R = V̂ R  Z C = Î S cosh  l  –  ------ sinh  l  and from (15)
 Z C
ening and switching surges it is common to
assume the TL is lossless (i.e. R = G = 0). The V̂ R = V̂ S cosh  l  – Z C Î S sinh  l 
characteristic impedance is then referred to as
the surge-impedance: From these two equations we have:
Surge impedance: Z C Î S cosh  l  – V̂ S sinh  l  = V̂ S cosh  l  – Z C Î S sinh  l 
L which, when rearranged yields:
Z0 = ---- if (R = G = 0) (20)
C
 V̂ S – Z C Î S   cosh  l  – sinh  l   = 0
The surge impedance has the dimensions of
pure resistance. – l
 V̂ S – Z C Î S e = 0
The power delivered when the line is termi-

This equation can only be satisfied for arbitrary length l if
nated by its surge impedance is referred to as
the surge impedance load (SIL): V̂ S = Z C Î S , Î S = V̂ S  Z C
Surge Impedance Load: Substituting these values for V̂ S and Î S into the voltage (14)
2
V0 (kV, l-l) and current (15) equations yields:
SIL = --------------------------- MW (21) – x
Z 0 (  V̂  x  = V̂ S  cosh  x  – sinh  x   = V̂ S e
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– x
If a loss-less TL is terminated by its SIL the Î  x  = Î S  cosh  x  – sinh  x   = Î S e
receiving end current is, from (14)
Surge Impedance Loading (Cont)
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For a lossless line the propagation constant is: flat. The SIL is the optimum loading of a TL for volt-
 = j = j LC ,  =  LC (22) age and reactive power control. When evaluating TL
performance the SIL is a convenient base quantity.
When substituted in the preceding equations the volt-
age and current phasors are obtained as: Transmission line wave length
V̂  x  = V̂ S e
– jx
, For a loss-less TL the voltage and current wave
lengths at fundamental-frequency (i.e. 50 Hz) are:
– jx – jx
Î  x  = Î S e =  V̂ S  Z C e (23) 2 2 1
 = ------ = ---------------- = ---------------- (24)
  LC f 0 LC
It is concluded from the preceding equations that in a
loss-less TL terminated by its SIL:
For HV transmission lines,
• Voltage and current phasors have constant amplitude
along the line;
–3 –9 –6 –1
• Voltage and current phasors are in phase throughout LC   1  10    11  10  = 3.32  10 km
the length of the line
Thus the TL wave length for a 50 Hz system is of the
• Phase difference between sending and receiving end
order of:
voltage is l
1
 = ---------------------------------------
–6
- = 6025 km
At natural load (i.e. SIL) the reactive power produced 50  3.32  10
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by the line capacitance is equal to that consumed by

the line inductance. Voltage and current profiles are A quarter wave length is about 1,500 km.
Summary of the distributed TL equations
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Î  x + x 
S Î Î  x  Î R R
S
zx
V̂ S V̂  x  yx V̂  x + x  V̂ R
x x + x l
 V̂ S – Z C Î S x  V̂ S + Z C Î S – x
V̂  x  = ----------------------- e + ----------------------- e
 2   2  (25)
= V̂ S cosh  x  – Z C Î S sinh  x 
  Î S – V̂ S  Z C  x  Î S + V̂ S  Z C – x
Î  x  = -------------------------------- e + --------------------------- e
 2   2 
(26)
V̂ S
= Î S cosh  x  –  ------ sinh  x 
 Z C
If G is neglected then the propagation constant  and characteristic impedance Z C are respectively:
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 =  + j = j LC 1 – j  ------- ---- 1 – j  -------

R L R
ZC = (27)
 L C  L
Table 1: Example overhead transmission line parameters (rated frequency 50 Hz)
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Nominal voltage (kV, rms, l-l)

Parameter
132 275 330 500
R ph / km 0.112 0.040 0.037 0.028
L x 10-3 H / ph / km 1.241 1.015 0.973 0.862
C x 10-9 F / ph / km 8.16 11.62 11.98 13.79
 x 10-5 Np / km 14.21 6.754 6.480 5.592
 x 10-3 rad / km 1.010 1.081 1.075 1.085
XL = L ph / km 0.390 0.319 0.306 0.271
BC = C x 10-6S ph / km 2.564 3.651 3.764 4.332
ZC  390 296 285 250
SIL MW (3 ph) 45 255 382 1000
QC MVAr (3 ph) / km 0.045 0.276 0.410 1.083
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Transmission Cables
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From the point of view of analysis, 3-phase un- 3. The costs of high voltage cable and its
derground transmission lines can be treated in installation are high. Lengths of under-
the same way as overhead lines. They differ in ground high voltage cable are thus short,
two major ways: and confined mainly to inner city areas,
river crossings, etc.
1. The capacitance is much higher than over-
head lines, e.g. the line-charging currents
for 275 kV overhead line and underground
cable are of the order of 0.55 A/km and 16
A/km, respectively. The high value of the
latter may require special equipment to
absorb the line-charging reactive power
(MVAr) at light load.
2. The resistance per kilometre for under-
ground cables must be much lower than
for overhead lines having the same current
rating. This is due to problems of dissipat-
ing the I2R losses underground.
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Travelling Wave Interpretation of the Transmission Line Voltage
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From (25) the TL voltage phasor has the form: This means that the peak of v B  x t  moves in the di-
x – x
V̂  x  = V̂ B e + V̂ F e (28) rection of the source (i.e. decreasing x) as time ad-
j B j F vances. Thus, v B  x t  is a ‘backward’ travelling
where V̂ B = V B e , V̂ F = V F e and  =  + j .
wave.
Thus,
x j  x +  B  – x – j  x –  F 
V̂  x  =  V B e e +  V F e e Let us similarly consider the second term in (29):
– x
The voltage at location x and time t is thus: v F  x t  = 2  VF e  cos  t – x +  F  .
x – x
v  x t  = 2  V B e  cos  t + x +  B  +  Neglecting the attenuation, e , the peak value of
(29)
– x this component, x pF , occurs at:
2  VF e  cos  t – x +  F 
t –  F
x pF = ------------------ (31)
Let us consider the first term in(29): 
v B  x t  =
x
2  V B e  cos  t + x +  B  which means that the peak of v F  x t  moves away
x
from the source (i.e. increasing x) as time advances.
Neglecting amplification ( e ), this component of Thus, v F  x t  is a ‘forward’ travelling wave.
the solution has its peak value at x pB when:
t + x pB +  B = 0 , or In (28):
x
–  t +  B 
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V̂ B e represents a backward travelling wave; &

x pB = -------------------------- (30)
 – x
V̂ F e represents a forward travelling wave
Travelling Wave Interpretation of the Transmission Line Voltage (Cont)
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Figure 6: Backward (top) and Forward (bottom) travelling wave components of the transmission line voltage;
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(solid t =  0 , dashed t =  0 + 30 , dotted t =  0 + 60 , unrealistic length for illustrative purposes)
Example: Voltage-Phasor Wave on open-circuit 275 kV TL
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Consider a 275 kV (rms, ph-ph) overhead transmis- The receiving end voltage is derived from (25) with
sion line with the parameters listed in Table 1. The x = l:
500 km line is open-circuit at the receiving end so
V̂ R = V̂  l  = V̂ S cosh  l  – Z C Î S sinh  l 
Î R = 0 . The sending end voltage is set to its rated
V̂ S
value of 275 kV (rms, ph-ph). = V̂ S cosh  l  – Z C  ------ tanh  l  sinh  l 
 Z C
V̂ S 2 2
V̂ S V̂ R = ---------------------  cosh  l  – sinh  l  
cosh  l 
V̂ S
0 x l = ---------------------
cosh  l 
The current phasor at the receiving end of the line is, The above expression for the sending-end current is
from (26) with x = l : substituted in (25) and (26) to obtain the voltage and
V̂ S current phasors at any point, x, along the line, as fol-
Î R = Î  l  = Î S cosh  l  –  ------ sinh  l  = 0 lows:
 Z C
from which the sending end current is derived as:
V̂ S sinh  l  V̂ S
Î S =  ------  --------------------- =  ------ tanh  l 
 Z C  cosh  l   Z C
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Example: Voltage-Phasor Wave on open-circuit 275 kV TL (Cont)
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The voltage and current phasors at any point, x, along the line, are as follows:
1 – tanh  l  1 + tanh  l 
V̂  x  = V̂ S  ----------------------------- e + V̂ S  ------------------------------ e
x – x
2 2
V̂ 1 – tanh  l  V̂ 1 + tanh  l 
Î  x  = – -----S-  ----------------------------- e + -----S-  ------------------------------ e
x – x
ZC 2 ZC 2
The figure shows the magnitude and 0.62
phase of the voltage-phasors represent-
ing the backward (red) and forward 0.6
(blue) components of the voltage. Note
0.58
that:
• the backward phasor increases in magni- 0.56
tude and advances in phase as the dis- 0 100 200 300 400 500
tance, x, from the sending end increases.
• the forward phasor decreases in magni- 50
tude and is retarded in phase as the dis-
tance, x, from the sending end increases.
0
-50
21 of 29
0 100 200 300 400 500

11 August 2022 9:03 am
Voltage magnitude (pu)

1.2
Voltage Phasor Distribution
1.15
• The voltage magnitude increases sub-
stantially by 16% to 1.16 pu over the 1.1
500 km line length. The phase change,
in contrast, is negligible over the line 1.05
length.
1
• Voltage rise at the receiving end is due 0 100 200 300 400 500
to the flow of line charging (capacitive) x (km)
current through the line inductance.
0
Voltage phase (deg.)

• This phenomenon is referred to as the
Ferranti Effect
-0.5
• Long HV lines often equipped with
reactors (inductance) to limit voltage
-1
rise.
• Deviation of phase from zero is due to
-1.5
line resistance. 0 100 200 300 400 500
22 of 29
x (km)
11 August 2022 9:03 am
Current magnitude (pu)

0.8
0.6
Current Phasor Distribution 0.4

• As the distance, I, from the receiving
0.2
end of the line increases the magnitude
of the current-phasor increases approxi- 0
mately linearly due to the charging of 0 100 200 300 400 500
the line capacitance. x (km)
• The phase of the current-phasor wave is 89.2
Current phase (deg.)

+90 deg. is consistent with the capaci-
tive nature of the open-circuit TL. (i.e. 89.1
current leads voltage by 90 deg).
89
• The slight deviation of the phase from
90 deg is due to the line resistance. 88.9
88.8
0 100 200 300 400 500
23 of 29
x (km)
Equivalent pi-circuit model of a TL
11 August 2022 9:03 am
The complete distributed parameter rep- V̂ R = V̂ S cosh  l  – Z C Î S sinh  l 

resentation of a transmission line connected to
a.c. sources was provided earlier.  V̂ S  (32)
Î R = Î S cosh  l  –  ------- sinh  l 
 Z C
However, when analysing the performance of
an interconnected power system we are con-
cerned with the behaviour of a transmission The above terminal relationships can be repre-
line at its terminals rather then at intermediate sented by a lumped parameter pi-circuit as
points along its length. Thus, it is convenient to shown below.
represent the behaviour of a transmission line Zp
Î S Î R
as seen at its terminals only.
S R
The voltage- and current-phasors at the receiv- Yp Yp
V̂ S ------ ------ V̂ R
ing terminal (R) are expressed in terms of the 2 2
corresponding quantities at the sending end by
setting x = l in equations (25) & (26).
24 of 29
Equivalent pi-circuit model of a TL (Cont)
11 August 2022 9:03 am
The objective now is to determine the relationship Comparing the receiving end voltage equation of the
between the lumped parameters: transmission line in (32) with corresponding equa-
tion for the pi-circuit (33) we can equate coefficients
• Z p , the series impedance; and
of Î R to obtain:
• Y p , the shunt admittance Z p = Z C sinh  l  (35)
and the transmission line characteristic parameters
Z C ,  and l .
Comparing the coefficients of V̂ R in the respective
equations gives:
Applying KCL to the sending end node of the pi-cir-
Yp Zp
cuit we obtain: 1 + ----------- = cosh  l 
Yp Zp 2
V̂ R =  1 + ----------- V̂ S – Z p Î S (33) from which Z p can be eliminated using (35) to yield:
 2 
Similarly apply KCL to the receiving end node: Y p 1 cosh  l  – 1
 ----- = ------  ------------------------------
V̂ S Y p Z p V̂ R  2 Z C  sinh  l  
Î R = ------ –  1 + ----------- ------
Zp  2  Zp Exploit the relationship between hyperbolic func-
V̂ R is eliminated from the preceding equation by sub- cosh  x  – 1
tions, tanh  --- = ---------------------------- , to give:
x
stitution from equation (33) to give:  2 sinh  x 
Yp Zp Yp Y l
25 of 29
1
Î R =  1 + ----------- Î S –  ----- V̂ S (34) ----- = ------ tanh  ----
p
(36)
 2   2  2 ZC  2
Nominal pi-Equivalent Circuit
11 August 2022 9:03 am
The lumped parameter pi-equivalent circuit with Z p  l 

3
sinh  l  = l + ----------- + h.o.t.
and  Y p  2  in equations (35) and (36) provides an 6
(37)
exact representation of the transmission line at its ter- l l  l 
3
minals. The conditions along the length of the line tanh  ---- =  ---- – ----------- + h.o.t.
 2  2 24
can not be obtained from the equivalent circuit.
If the first order approximations are employed the pi-
Seek simplifications of the equivalent circuit param-
circuit parameters become:
eters in situations where the line is relatively short.
Z p = Z C sinh  l    Z C  l
Below (17) & (18) are employed, namely,  = yz = zl =  R + jL l
z  y , together with the definitions of Y 1 l 1 
and Z C = ----- = ------ tanh  ----  ---  ------ l
p
 2 ZC  2  2  Z C
z = R + jL and y = G + jC with the assump-
tion that G is negligible and is therefore set to zero. C BC
---- = j  -------- l = j  ------ l
yl
2  2   2
If the line length is such that l « 1 then the hyper- Thus, if l « 1 , the following pi-equivalent circuit
bolic functions in the expressions of the equivalent parameters apply:
pi-circuit parameters in equations (35) and (36) can
Yp BC
be simplified by approximating their values by the Z p =  R + jL l ,  ----- = j  ------ l (38)
 2  2
26 of 29
first (i.e. linear) term in their Taylor Series expan-

sions, namely,
Nominal pi-Equivalent Circuit (Cont)
11 August 2022 9:03 am
Now determine an upper-limit on the line-length for 5

which the approximate pi-circuit parameters in (38) yield
accurate results. 4
• For this purpose we assume the line is lossless so that
3
l = jl = j2  --- .
l
Relative error (%)

  2
• Figure shows the relative error in the linear approximations
1
of sinh  l  and tanh  l  2  as a function of l   .
• To limit the approximation error to less than one percent the 0
line length should be no more than 4% the wavelength.
-1
• For an overhead transmission line this corresponds to a line
length of l  12000  f km (i.e. l  240 km for a 50 Hz -2
system).
• For an underground cable the wavelength is dependent on -3
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
the permittivity of the dielectric material. Typically the
wavelength in a cable will range from about 15 to 30% of
that of an overhead line. Thus, for cables nominal pi-equiv-
Figure 7: Relative errors in the linear approxima-
alent parameter approx. valid for length from about
tions of the hyperbolic functions.
1800  f to 3600  f km (i.e. 36 to 72 km for a 50 Hz sys-
27 of 29
tem).
Short lines
11 August 2022 9:03 am
For overhead lines shorter than about 25 km (on 50 & 60 Hz systems) the shunt capacitance is very
small and can be neglected without significant loss of accuracy. Such short lines are represented
by their total series impedance:
Z p = zl =  R + jL l
28 of 29
Summary of lumped parameter transmission line equivalent circuits
11 August 2022 9:03 am
Transmission line distributed parameters: R (ohm / km), L (H / km) , C (F/km), (assume G = 0)

Frequency:  = 2f (rad/s) z = R + jL = R + jX L (/km) , y = jC = jB C (mho/km)
Length: l km, Propagation constant:  = yz , Characteristic Impedance: Z C = z  y (ohm)
Applicable
Model Zp Yp  2
Length (km)
Î S Zp Î R R pi-equivalent All Z C sinh  l  1 l
S (Long line) ------ tanh  ----
ZC  2
Yp Yp nominal pi- < 240 (line)  R + jL l BC
V̂ S ------ ------ V̂ R equivalent < 36 - 72 (cable) j  ------ l
2 2  2
(Medium line)
series equivalent < 25 (line)  R + jL l 0
(Short line) cable N/A.
29 of 29

Transmission Lines and Their Performance: Course: ELEC ENG 3110 Electric Power Systems ELEC ENG 7074 Power Systems PG

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Transmission Lines and Their Performance: Course: ELEC ENG 3110 Electric Power Systems ELEC ENG 7074 Power Systems PG

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11 August 2022 9:03 am

Transmission Lines and their Performance

• Parallel ground return path for unbalanced

Double Single Super ‘Stobie-pole’

1. ElectraNet image (https://www.electranet.com.au/our-approach/safety/transmission-lines/)

Four conductor bundles

• 765 kV, single-circuit

strength & stability.

Cross-section of a single suspension type insulator (above)

image above: https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/wp-content/uploads/fig-1-cross-section-of-a-standard-ball-and-socket-insulator.gif

Figure 2: Transposition of phase conductors.

Transposition results in a ‘balanced’ transmission line.

For a non-equilateral configuration, D becomes the

radius respectively. It is assumed that D » R .

For example, for the conductor configuration R = r  db (4)

Figure 5: Twin conductor arrangement

In addition to the series inductance and shunt capac-

dius of a single solid conductor is the GMR,

Distributed circuit representation of TL

• V̂ R = V̂  l  and Î R = Î  l  are the corresponding phasors at the receiving end.

1. This section draws on material in:

dx in which  = yz is the propagation constant. (10)

Express (9) as a sum of partial fractions: x – x

The propagation and characteristic impedances are

For HV transmission lines G is negligible and V̂ S

The power delivered when the line is termi-

by the line capacitance is equal to that consumed by

 =  + j = j LC 1 – j  ------- ---- 1 – j  -------

Nominal voltage (kV, rms, l-l)

V̂ B e represents a backward travelling wave; &

0 100 200 300 400 500

Voltage magnitude (pu)

Voltage phase (deg.)

Current magnitude (pu)

Current Phasor Distribution 0.4

Current phase (deg.)

The complete distributed parameter rep- V̂ R = V̂ S cosh  l  – Z C Î S sinh  l 

The lumped parameter pi-equivalent circuit with Z p  l 

first (i.e. linear) term in their Taylor Series expan-

Now determine an upper-limit on the line-length for 5

Relative error (%)

Transmission line distributed parameters: R (ohm / km), L (H / km) , C (F/km), (assume G = 0)

Length: l km, Propagation constant:  = yz , Characteristic Impedance: Z C = z  y (ohm)

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