Electric Circuits

Lecture Notes
By

Mohamed-Yahia Dabbagh

Winter 2021

Note: All rights for these lecture notes are reserved by the author. The lecture notes are intended
for the exclusive use and learning purposes by teaching assistants and students who are enrolled
in the course ECE 140 at the University of Waterloo. Distribution of these lecture notes in any
form is not allowed.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh
Chapter 4
Circuit Theorems

4.1 Linearity and Superposition

Linearity Property
The electric circuits that we consider in this course are an implementation of a class
of systems called “Linear Systems”. This is because the elements of our circuits are
described by linear relations. For example, Ohm’s law that describes the resistor
𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖 is a linear relation.

In general, a system is an entity (hardware or software) that is characterized by one

or more inputs (also called excitations or causes), one or more outputs (also called
effects or responses), and a description of the relation or relations between the inputs
and outputs. The figure below is a block diagram representation of a single-input
single-output (SISO) system, where 𝑥 is the input and 𝑦 is the output.

𝑥 𝑦
System

A system is called a linear system if it satisfies the two properties of homogeneity

(also called scaling) property and additivity property.

Homogeneity property requires that if the input is multiplied by a constant, then the
output must be multiplied by the same constant. This means if the input 𝑥1 = 𝑐𝑥,
where 𝑐 is a constant, is applied at the input of a linear system, then the output must
be 𝑦1 = 𝑐𝑦.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-1

Additivity property requires that if 𝑦1 is the output due to the input 𝑥1 and 𝑦2 is the
output due to the input 𝑥2 , then the output due to the input 𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 must be 𝑦 =
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 . This can be extended to any number of inputs.

In term of electric circuits, the input is an independent voltage or current source and
the output is a voltage or current somewhere in the circuit. For example, assume a
linear circuit with a single independent voltage source 𝑣𝑠 (input) and the output is
the voltage 𝑣, as shown below.

Linear Circuit
+
𝑥 = 𝑣𝑠 + with no
independent 𝑦=𝑣
−
sources −

Since the circuit is linear, the output voltage must be related to the input by:

𝑣 = 𝑐𝑣𝑠

where 𝑐 is a constant that is determined by the linear circuit elements. This also
applies when the output is a current or when the input is an independent current
source and the output is a voltage or current. The following example uses this
property to solve a circuit with one independent source.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-2

Example
In the circuit shown below, find the actual voltage 𝑣0 by assuming 𝑣0 = 1 𝑉 and
using the linearity property.

15 Ω

+
𝑖𝑠 = 4 𝐴 10 Ω 25 Ω 𝑣0
(𝑡) −

Solution:

Assume 𝑣0 = 1 𝑉 and compute other assumed currents and voltages as shown

below.

15 Ω 𝑖0
(𝑡)
+ 𝑖 +
𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑠 10(𝑡)
Ω 25 Ω 𝑣0 = 1 𝑉
(𝑡) −
−

𝑣0 1 40 𝑣𝑠 4
𝑖0 = = ⟹ 𝑣𝑠 = (15 + 25)𝑖0 = ⟹ 𝑖= =
25 25 25 10 25

4 1 1
⟹ 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖 + 𝑖0 = + = 𝐴
25 25 5

The linearity constant of multiplication is:

actual 𝑖𝑠 4
𝑐= = = 20
assumed 𝑖𝑠 1/5

⟹ actual 𝑣0 = 𝑐 × (assumed 𝑣0 ) ⟹ 𝑣0 = 20 × 1 = 20 𝑉

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-3

Remark: Linearity does not apply to the computation of power since it is a non-
𝑣2
linear function of current or voltage, = 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑅𝑖 2 = .
𝑅

Remark: A circuit becomes non-linear if it has at least one non-linear element. For
example, an element with the relation 𝑣 = 𝛼𝑖 2 or 𝑖 = 𝑒 𝛽𝑣 is a non-linear element.

Principle of Superposition

For linear circuits with two or more independent current or voltage sources, linearity
is applied through the following principle of superposition:

“The current or voltage in a linear circuit can be computed as the algebraic sum of
the individual contributions of each independent source acting alone.”

How to deactivate independent sources:

(1) Voltage source 𝑣𝑠 = 0 ⟹ short circuit

(2) Current source 𝑖𝑠 = 0 ⟹ open circuit

Remark: Dependent sources are not deactivated since they are not considered as
inputs to the circuit system. Dependent sources contribute to the constant coefficient
of linearity, in a similar fashion to resistors.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-4

Example
Find the voltage 𝑣 using superposition.

𝑣𝑏
+ −
𝑖𝑎 = 2 𝑚𝐴
+ 𝑣𝑏 = 3 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑖𝑎 𝑅2
𝑣 𝑅1 = 3 𝑘Ω

− 𝑅2 = 6 𝑘Ω

Solution:

(1) Deactivate the voltage source and find 𝑣 ′ due to 𝑖𝑎 alone:

(short)
+
𝑅1 𝑖𝑎 𝑅2 𝑣′

𝑅1 𝑅2
By equivalent resistance and Ohm’s law: 𝑣 ′ = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑖𝑎 = 𝑖 =4𝑉
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑎

(2) Deactivate the current source and find 𝑣 ′′ due to 𝑣𝑏 alone:

𝑣𝑏
+ −
+
𝑅1
(open) 𝑣′′
𝑅2
−

𝑅2
By voltage division: 𝑣 ′′ = 𝑣𝑏 = 2 𝑉
𝑅1 +𝑅2

(3) Find total 𝑣 using superposition: 𝑣 = 𝑣 ′ + 𝑣 ′′ = 4 + 2 = 6 𝑉

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-5

Remark: Solving above circuit directly without superposition, for example by
using nodal or mesh analysis, gives the same result 𝑣 = 6 𝑉.

Example
Find the current 𝑖𝑥 using superposition.

𝑖𝑎 = 4 𝐴
𝑖𝑥 𝑅2
𝑣𝑏 = 8 𝑉
𝑖𝑎 + 𝑣𝑏
𝑅1 10𝑖𝑥 𝑅1 = 5 Ω
−
𝑅2 = 1 Ω

Solution:

(1) Find 𝑖𝑥′ due to 𝑖𝑎 alone:

𝑣1′

𝑖𝑥′ 𝑅2

𝑖𝑎 𝑅1 10𝑖𝑥′ (short)

𝑣1′
𝑖𝑥′ =
𝑅1

𝑣1′ 𝑣1′ 𝑣1′

KCL at 𝑣1′ : − 𝑖𝑎 + − 10 + =0
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2

9 1 𝑖𝑎
⟹ (− + ) 𝑣1′ = 𝑖𝑎 ⟹ 𝑣1′ = = −5 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅2 9 1
− +
𝑅1 𝑅2

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-6

 𝑣1′
⟹ 𝑖𝑥′ = = −1 𝐴
𝑅1

(2) Find 𝑖𝑥′′ due to 𝑣𝑏 alone:

𝑣1′′

𝑖𝑥′′ 𝑅2

10𝑖𝑥′′ +
(open) 𝑅1 𝑣𝑏
−
𝑣1′′
𝑖𝑥′′ =
𝑅1

𝑣1′′ 𝑣1′′ 𝑣1′′ − 𝑣𝑏

KCL at 𝑣1′′ : − 10 + =0
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅2

9 1 𝑣𝑏 𝑣𝑏
⟹ (− + ) 𝑣1′′ = ⟹ 𝑣1′′ = = −10 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2
−9 + 1
𝑅1

𝑣1′′
⟹ 𝑖𝑥′′ = = −2 𝐴
𝑅1

(3) Find total 𝑖𝑥 using superposition:

𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖𝑥′ + 𝑖𝑥′′ = −1 − 2 = −3 𝐴

Remark: For DC circuits, superposition is not always easier than other techniques.
In last example, using nodal analysis on the original circuit is much easier.

Remark: For AC circuits with independent sources that have different frequencies,
superposition must be used, as we will see later.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-7

4.2 Source Transformation
This is another technique to simplify circuits. It can be shown that a combination of
a voltage source in series with a resistance is equivalent to a combination of a current
source in parallel with a resistance, or vice versa, as shown below.

𝑅𝑠 𝑎 𝑖 𝑎 𝑖

+ +

𝑣𝑠
+
−
𝑣 𝐴 ≡ 𝑅𝑝
𝑣 𝐴
𝑖𝑝
− −

𝑏 𝑏

Given 𝑣𝑠 and 𝑅𝑠 , let us find 𝑖𝑝 and 𝑅𝑝 . From short circuit:

𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑅𝑠 𝑎 𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑎

+ +

𝑣𝑠
+
−
𝑣=0 ≡ 𝑖𝑝 𝑅𝑝
𝑣=0

− −

𝑏 𝑏
𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝑖𝑝
𝑅𝑠

𝑣𝑠
⟹ 𝑖𝑝 =
𝑅𝑠

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-8

From open circuit:

𝑖=0
𝑅𝑠 𝑖=0

+ +

𝑣𝑠
+
−
𝑣𝑜𝑐 ≡ 𝑅𝑝
𝑣𝑜𝑐
𝑖𝑝
− −

𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑅𝑝 𝑖𝑝

𝑣𝑠
⟹ 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑅𝑝 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑅𝑝
𝑅𝑠

⟹ 𝑅𝑝 = 𝑅𝑠

Remarks:

(1) Given 𝑖𝑝 and 𝑅𝑝 , we can find 𝑣𝑠 and 𝑅𝑠 easily:

𝑣𝑠 = 𝑅𝑝 𝑖𝑝 and 𝑅𝑠 = 𝑅𝑝

(2) Watch for the chosen direction of the current source with respect to the polarity
of the voltage source. The tip of the arrow of the current source must be
pointing to the terminal at which the voltage source has positive polarity.

(3) Source transformation can be applied to independent sources. However, the

control variable (voltage or current) must be kept visible in the circuit. See
examples in textbook.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-9

Example
Find 𝑖𝑜 using source transformation.

3𝑉 6Ω
+ −
𝑖𝑜
+ 12 𝑉
6Ω
2𝐴
2Ω −

Solution:

Transform the (2 𝐴, 6 Ω) and the (12 𝑉, 6 Ω):

3𝑉
+ −
𝑖𝑜
−
12 𝑉 + 2Ω 6Ω 2𝐴

6Ω

Combine the series voltage sources:

𝑖𝑜
−
⟹ 9𝑉 + 6Ω 2𝐴
2Ω
6Ω

Transform the (9 𝑉, 6 Ω):

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-10

 𝑖𝑜
3
⟹ 𝐴 6Ω 2Ω 6Ω 2𝐴
2

Combine the current sources and the two 6 Ω resistors:

𝑖𝑜 3 1
𝑖𝑎 = 2 − = 𝐴
2 2
⟹ 𝑖𝑎 𝑅𝑎 2Ω
𝑅𝑎 = 6 Ω||6 Ω = 3 Ω

By current division:

𝑅𝑎 1 3
𝑖𝑜 = 𝑖𝑎 = × = 0.3 𝐴
𝑅𝑎 + 2 2 3+2

Remark: Keep in mind, there is no transformation for a voltage source in parallel

with a resistor. In addition, there is no transformation for a current source in series
with a resistor.

Remark: Remember, a resistor in parallel with a voltage source has no effect on

the rest of the circuit. In addition, a resistor in series with a current source has no
effect on the rest of the circuit. This is illustrated in the next example.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-11

Example
Find the voltage 𝑣𝑜 using source transformation.

25 Ω 15 Ω

+
+ 200 Ω 𝑣𝑜
250 𝑉 100 Ω 20 Ω 8𝐴
−
−

Solution:

Notice that there is no source transformation for the 250 𝑉 voltage source in parallel
with the 200 Ω resistor. Similarly, there is no source transformation for the 8 𝐴
current source in series with the 15 Ω resistor. However, the 200 Ω resistor has no
effect on the rest of the circuit, including 𝑣𝑜 . Similarly, the 15 Ω resistor has no
effect on the rest of the circuit, including 𝑣𝑜 .

By replacing the 200 Ω resistor with an open circuit and replacing the 15 Ω resistor
with a short circuit, the voltage 𝑣0 can be computed from the following circuit:

25 Ω

+
+ 𝑣𝑜
250 𝑉 100 Ω 20 Ω 8𝐴
−
−

Using source transformation:

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-12

 +

10 𝐴 25 Ω 𝑣𝑜 100 Ω 20 Ω 8𝐴
−

+
⟹ 10 − 8 = 2 𝐴 25 Ω || 100 Ω || 20 Ω = 10 Ω
𝑣𝑜
−

⟹ 𝑣𝑜 = (10 Ω)(2 𝐴) = 20 𝑉

Remark: Source transformation does not work always. For example, the circuit
shown below cannot be solved using source transformation.

1𝐴

1Ω 1Ω

+
2𝑉 + 𝑣𝑥
1Ω 1Ω
−
−

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-13

4.3 Thevenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
Thevenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem are very important techniques in circuit
analysis and design. They help in simplifying any complicated linear circuit into a
simple equivalent circuit with only two elements.

Thevenin’s Theorem: “Any resistive linear circuit between two terminals is

equivalent to an independent voltage source in series with a resistance.”

𝑖 𝑅𝑡 𝑖 𝑎
𝑎

+ +
Linear
resistive
𝑣 Circuit ≡ 𝑣𝑡
+
−
𝑣 Circuit
𝐵
circuit 𝐵
A − −

𝑏 𝑏

Given circuit A, find 𝑣𝑡 and 𝑅𝑡 .

From open-circuit:

𝑖=0 𝑅𝑡 𝑖=0

+ +
+
A 𝑣𝑜𝑐 ≡ 𝑣𝑡
−
𝑣𝑜𝑐

− −

Since 𝑖 = 0, ⟹ 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐

𝑣𝑜𝑐 is computed from the given circuit A.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-14

From short-circuit:

𝑎 𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑅𝑡 𝑎 𝑖𝑠𝑐

+ +
+
A 𝑣=0 ≡ 𝑣𝑡
−
𝑣=0

− −

𝑏 𝑏

𝑣𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑐
Since 𝑣 = 0, ⟹ 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = =
𝑅𝑡 𝑅𝑡

𝑣𝑜𝑐
⟹ 𝑅𝑡 =
𝑖𝑠𝑐

𝑖𝑠𝑐 is computed from the given circuit A.

Remark: To insure above relations are positive, the polarity of the voltage source
𝑣𝑡 should correspond to the polarity of the chosen voltage 𝑣𝑜𝑐 . In addition, the
direction of the current 𝑖𝑠𝑐 must be from the positive (+) to the negative (-) of 𝑣𝑜𝑐
and through the short.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-15

Example
Find Thevenin equivalent circuit between the terminals a and b.

3𝑖𝑥

𝑖=0
2Ω 𝑣1
𝑎

+
+ 4𝐴 𝑖𝑥 8Ω
24 𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑐
−
−
𝑏

Solution:

Find 𝑣𝑜𝑐 using node-voltage analysis:

𝑣1
𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑣1 , 𝑖𝑥 =
8

KCL at 𝑣1 :

𝑣1 − 24
3𝑖𝑥 + + 4 + 𝑖𝑥 = 0
2
𝑣1 𝑣1
⟹ 4 + − 12 + 4 = 0
8 2

⟹ 𝑣1 = 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 8 𝑉

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-16

Find 𝑖𝑠𝑐 with short circuit:

3𝑖𝑥

2Ω 𝑖𝑠𝑐
(1)

𝑖 +
+ 𝑖𝑥
24 𝑉 4𝐴 𝑣=0
−
−

Since 𝑣 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖𝑥 = 0 and 3𝑖𝑥 = 0

KCL at node (1):

24
𝑖𝑠𝑐 = −3𝑖𝑥 + 𝑖 − 4 − 𝑖𝑥 = 𝑖 − 4 = −4=8𝐴
2

𝑣𝑜𝑐 8 𝑉
⟹ 𝑅𝑡 = = =1Ω
𝑖𝑠𝑐 8 𝐴

Thevenin equivalent circuit:

𝑅𝑡 = 1 Ω 𝑎

+
𝑣𝑡 = 8 𝑉
−

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-17

Norton’s Theorem: “Any resistive linear circuit between two terminals is
equivalent to a current source in parallel with a resistance.”

𝑖 𝑖
𝑎 𝑎

+ +
Linear
resistive
Circuit
𝑣 𝐵
≡ 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑛 𝑣 𝐵

A − −

𝑏 𝑏

From short-circuit:

𝑖𝑠𝑐 𝑖𝑠𝑐
𝑎 𝑎

𝑖1 +
+
A 𝑣=0 ≡ 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑛 𝑣=0

− −

𝑏 𝑏

𝑣 0
Since 𝑣 = 0 ⟹ 𝑖1 = = =0 and 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑖1
𝑅𝑛 𝑅𝑛

⟹ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐

The current 𝑖𝑠𝑐 is computed from the given circuit A.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-18

From open-circuit:

𝑖=0 𝑖=0
𝑎 𝑎

+ +
A
𝑣𝑜𝑐 ≡ 𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑐

− −

𝑏 𝑏

Since 𝑖 = 0 ⟹ 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑅𝑛 𝑖𝑛

𝑣𝑜𝑐
⟹ 𝑅𝑛 =
𝑖𝑠𝑐

Remark: Thevenin and Norton equivalents are the source transformation of each
other, where:
𝑣𝑜𝑐
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛 =
𝑖𝑠𝑐

𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑅𝑛 𝑖𝑛

𝑣𝑡
𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 =
𝑅𝑡

Remark: When the circuit has no independent sources, all currents and voltages
𝑣𝑜𝑐
are zero, including 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 0 and 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 0. In this case, the relation 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛 =
𝑖𝑠𝑐

can not be applied. This situation will be considered later.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-19

Example
Find Norton equivalent circuit between the terminals a and b.

𝑎 + 𝑣𝑜𝑐 − 𝑏

1 𝑘Ω

+ 𝑖𝑥
+
2𝑉
+ 𝑣1 1 𝑘Ω
1 𝑘Ω 𝑣2
− 2𝑖𝑥
− −

𝑖=0

Solution:

From open-circuit:

𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑣1 − 𝑣2
1
𝑣1 = (2 𝑉) =1𝑉 (by voltage division)
1+1

2𝑉
𝑣2 = (2𝑖𝑥 )(1 𝑘Ω) = 2 (1 𝑘) = 2 𝑉
1 𝑘+1 𝑘

⟹ 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 1 − 2 = −1 𝑉

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-20

From short-circuit:

𝑖𝑠𝑐
supernode

𝑎 𝑏
𝑖1
1 𝑘Ω 𝑣1

𝑖𝑥
+
2𝑉 1 𝑘Ω
− 1 𝑘Ω 2𝑖𝑥

𝑣1
Use node-analysis to find 𝑣1 first. Control current: 𝑖𝑥 =
1

𝑣1 −2 𝑣1
KCL at the supernode: + 𝑖𝑥 − 2𝑖𝑥 + =0
1 1

⟹ 𝑣1 = 2 𝑉

2−2 2
𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 𝑖1 − 𝑖𝑥 = − = −2 𝑚𝐴
1 1

𝑣𝑜𝑐 −1 𝑉
𝑅𝑛 = = = 0.5 𝑘Ω
𝑖𝑠𝑐 −2 𝑚𝐴

Norton equivalent circuit:

𝑎 𝑏
0.5 𝑘Ω

𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = −2 𝑚𝐴

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-21

Finding Thevenin/Norton Resistance Using Equivalent Resistance

This technique can be applied to circuits with independent sources only, i.e. no
dependent sources. We have from before:

𝑅𝑡
Circuit +
A ≡ −
𝑣𝑡 or 𝑅𝑛
𝑖𝑛

(Thevenin) (Norton)

By deactivating the sources:

𝑅𝑡
Circuit A
with
deactivated
← 𝑅𝑒𝑞 ≡ (short) ← 𝑅𝑒𝑞 or (open) 𝑅𝑛 ← 𝑅𝑒𝑞

sources

(Thevenin) (Norton)

For Thevenin:

(1) Find 𝑣𝑜𝑐 as usual ⟹ 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐

(2) Find the equivalent resistance 𝑅𝑒𝑞 ⟹ 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞

For Norton:

(1) Find 𝑖𝑠𝑐 as usual ⟹ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑠𝑐

(2) Find 𝑅𝑒𝑞 ⟹ 𝑅𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-22

 𝑣𝑜𝑐
Remark: Using 𝑅𝑒𝑞 to find 𝑅𝑡 or 𝑅𝑛 is easier than using 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛 = . But, the
𝑖𝑠𝑐

circuit must have independent sources only.

Example
Find Thevenin equivalent circuit between the terminals a and b.

1A

1Ω 𝑣2 𝑎
𝑣1

1Ω +
3𝑉 + 1Ω
1𝐴 𝑣𝑜𝑐
− 1A
−

Solution:

Find 𝑣𝑜𝑐 as usual. Using node-analysis:

𝑣1 −3 𝑣1 −𝑣2
KCL at node (1): −1−1+ =0
1 1

⟹ 2𝑣1 − 𝑣2 = 5 (1)

𝑣2 −𝑣1 𝑣2
KCL at node (2): +1+1+ =0
1 1

⟹ −𝑣1 + 2𝑣2 = −2 (2)

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-23

 8 1
Solving (1) and (2) gives: 𝑣1 = 𝑉, 𝑣2 = 𝑉
3 3
1
⟹ 𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣2 = 𝑉
3

Instead of computing 𝑖𝑠𝑐 , compute 𝑅𝑒𝑞 :

1Ω 1Ω
𝑎

1Ω ← 𝑅𝑒𝑞

(1+1)(1) 2
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = = Ω
1+1+1 3

2
⟹ 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = Ω
3

Thevenin equivalent:

𝑎
2
Ω
3
1 +
𝑉
3 −

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-24

Finding 𝑹𝒕 or 𝑹𝒏 Using a Test Source

This technique can be applied to any circuit with independent and/or dependent
sources.

(1) Deactivate all independent sources.

(2) Apply an external test voltage source 𝑣𝑠 or current source 𝑖𝑠 .

𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠
𝑎 𝑎

Circuit with +
deactivated +
−
≡ 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛
−
independent
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑠
sources
𝑏
𝑏

or

𝑎 𝑎

+ +

𝑣𝑠 ≡ 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛 𝑣𝑠

𝑖𝑠 − 𝑖𝑠
−

𝑏 𝑏

By finding the current 𝑖𝑠 with the voltage source or finding the voltage 𝑣𝑠 with the
current source, we can compute 𝑅𝑡 or 𝑅𝑛 by:

𝑣𝑠
𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛 =
𝑖𝑠

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-25

Remark: Test source method must be used for circuits with dependent sources
only. In this case: 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 0 and 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 0.
𝑣𝑜𝑐 0
Therefore, 𝑅𝑡 or 𝑅𝑛 cannot be computed from 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛 = = ?
𝑖𝑠𝑐 0

𝑎
𝑎

Circuit with
dependent ≡ 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑛
sources only

𝑏 𝑏

Example
Find Thevenin equivalent circuit between the terminals a and b?

𝑅1 = 1 𝑘Ω 𝑖𝑥 𝑅3 = 4 𝑘Ω

+ 𝑅2 = 2 𝑘Ω
5000𝑖𝑥
−

Solution:

No independent sources ⟹ 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 0 and 𝑖𝑠𝑐 = 0 (show this)

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-26

Apply external voltage source 𝑣𝑠 and compute 𝑖𝑠 .

𝑖𝑠
𝑣1

1 𝑘Ω 𝑖𝑥 4 𝑘Ω

+ 2 𝑘Ω +
𝑣𝑠
− −
5000𝑖𝑥

𝑣1 −5000𝑖𝑥 𝑣1 𝑣1 −𝑣𝑠
KCL at 𝑣1 : + + =0
1 2 4

𝑣1
Substitute. the control current: 𝑖𝑥 =
2×103

1 5 1 1 𝑣𝑠 3 𝑣𝑠
⟹ (1 − 2 + 2 + 4) 𝑣1 = ⟹ − 𝑣1 =
4 4 4

𝑣𝑠
⟹ 𝑣1 = −
3
𝑣
𝑣𝑠 −𝑣1 𝑣𝑠 −(− 𝑠 ) 𝑣𝑠
Compute 𝑖𝑠 : 𝑖𝑠 = = 3
=
𝑅3 4 3

𝑣𝑠
Compute 𝑅𝑡 : 𝑅𝑡 = = 3 𝑘Ω
𝑖𝑠

Remark: Notice that 𝑅𝑡 = 3 𝑘Ω is less than 𝑅3 = 4 𝑘Ω. This means the circuit to
the left of 𝑅3 is equivalent to a negative resistance of value −1 𝑘Ω.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-27

4.4 Maximum Power Transfer (Load Matching)
In many practical applications, a given linear circuit is required to transfer the
maximum power to a load resistance 𝑅𝐿 . For example, connecting a loudspeaker to
an amplifier.

Since any linear circuit can be replaced by its Thevenin equivalent, then:

𝑖𝐿 𝑖𝐿

𝑅𝑡 +
Linear +
circuit 𝑣𝐿
𝑅𝐿
≡ +
−
𝑣𝐿
𝑅𝐿
A 𝑣𝑡
− −

The power delivered by the circuit A (or absorbed by the load 𝑅𝐿 ) is:

𝑣𝑡 2 𝑣𝑡2 𝑅𝐿
𝑃𝐿 = 𝑖𝐿2 𝑅𝐿 =( ) 𝑅𝐿 =
𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝐿 )2

We want to find the value of 𝑅𝐿 such that 𝑃𝐿 is maximum.

To do this, differentiate 𝑃𝐿 with respect to 𝑅𝐿 and equate to zero:

𝑑𝑃𝐿 𝑣𝑡2 (𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝐿 )2 − 2(𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝐿 )𝑣𝑡2 𝑅𝐿

= =0
𝑑𝑅𝐿 (𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝐿 )4

Set the numerator to zero: 𝑣𝑡2 (𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝐿 )[(𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿 ] = 0

⟹ (𝑅𝑡 + 𝑅𝐿 ) − 2𝑅𝐿 = 0

⟹ 𝑅𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑅𝑡 (Condition for maximum power transfer)

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-28

And the maximum power is:

𝑣𝑡2 𝑣𝑡2
𝑃𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑅 =
2 𝐿
(2𝑅𝑡 ) 4𝑅𝑡

Remark: Above discussion also applies to Norton equivalent with:

𝑅𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑅𝑛

2
𝑅𝑡 𝑖𝑛
and 𝑃𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) =
4

Example
Find the resistance 𝑅𝐿 for maximum power transfer and the maximum power 𝑃𝐿
absorbed by 𝑅𝐿 ?

𝑅𝐿 𝑖𝑎 = 1 𝐴
𝑣𝑏 = 4 𝑉
𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4
𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 4 Ω
𝑅2 𝑣𝑏 +
𝑅2 = 𝑅4 = 2 Ω
−
𝑖𝑎

Solution:

Remove 𝑅𝐿 and find Thevenin equivalent:

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-29

 𝑎 + 𝑣𝑜𝑐 − 𝑏

𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑅4

𝑅2 + 𝑣𝑏
𝐼1 𝐼2 −
𝑖𝑎

Let us apply Mesh analysis.

From mesh (1): 𝐼1 = 𝑖𝑎 = 1 𝐴

KVL around mesh (2): 𝑅2 (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) + (𝑅3 + 𝑅4 )𝐼2 + 𝑣𝑏 = 0

⟹ (𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑅4 )𝐼2 = 𝑅2 𝐼1 − 𝑣𝑏

2×1−4 1
⟹ 𝐼2 = =− 𝐴
2+4+2 4

1
𝑣𝑡 = 𝑣𝑜𝑐 = 𝑅1 𝐼1 + 𝑅3 𝐼2 = 4 × 1 + 4 (− ) = 3 𝑉
4

Compute 𝑅𝑡 from 𝑅𝑒𝑞 :

𝑎 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝑏
↓

4Ω 4Ω 2Ω

2Ω

𝑅𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 = [(2 + 2)||4] + 4 = 2 + 4 = 6 Ω

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-30

Thevenin equivalent with the load: 𝑖𝐿

𝑎 𝑅𝐿 𝑏

𝑅𝑡 = 6 Ω

+ −
𝑣𝑡 = 3 𝑉

For maximum power:

𝑅𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑅𝑡 = 6 Ω

Under this condition, the maximum power can be found by:

𝑣𝑡 3 1
𝑖𝐿 = = = 𝐴
2𝑅𝐿 12 4

1 2 3
⟹ 𝑃𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = 𝑖𝐿2 𝑅𝐿 =( ) ×6= 𝑊
4 8

or from:
𝑣𝑡2 32 3
𝑃𝐿(𝑚𝑎𝑥) = = = 𝑊
4𝑅𝑡 4 × 6 8

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 4-31