Electric Circuits

Lecture Notes
By
Mohamed-Yahia Dabbagh

Winter 2021

Note: All rights for these lecture notes are reserved by the author. The lecture notes are
intended for the exclusive use and learning purposes by teaching assistants and students who are
enrolled in the course ECE 140 at the University of Waterloo. Distribution of these lecture notes
in any form is not allowed.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh
Chapter 5
Operational Amplifiers

5.1 The Operational Amplifier

The operational amplifier, or op-amp, is an electronic circuit that is widely used in
many practical electronic systems such as TVs, stereos, phones, control systems,
medical equipment, etc.

The main operations of the op-amp are: amplification, addition, subtraction,

differentiation, integration, filtering, and many more, including nonlinear
operations.

The op-amp is a complicated circuit that includes transistors, resistors, and

capacitors. However, as a building block, it can be modeled by very simple models
that enable us to analyze its circuits using the circuit analysis techniques we learned
so far in this course.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-1

Symbol of the Op-Amp:

Positive DC Power Supply (V+)

Noninverting
input +
Output
−
Inverting input
-
Negative DC Power Supply (V )

Terminal Voltages and Currents:

𝑉+

𝑖𝑝 𝑖𝑐
+ 𝑖𝑜 +
+
+ 𝑣 𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑑
− − +
+ −
𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑒
𝑣𝑝 𝑉−
𝑣𝑜
𝑣𝑛 −
𝑉𝐸𝐸
− − + −

Differential input voltage: 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-2

Voltage Transfer Characteristics

The output voltage 𝑣𝑜 of the op-amp is a function of the differential input voltage
𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛 , as follows:

−𝑉𝐸𝐸 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑑 < −𝑉𝐸𝐸

𝑣𝑜 = { 𝐴𝑣𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − 𝑉𝐸𝐸 ≤ 𝐴𝑣𝑑 ≤ +𝑉𝐶𝐶 (𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟)
+𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐴𝑣𝑑 > +𝑉𝐶𝐶

Where 𝐴 = open-circuit voltage gain (a large constant).

Typical values: 𝐴 = 105 − 108

Typical plot of 𝑣𝑜 versus 𝑣𝑑 , with 𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 10 𝑉:

𝑣𝑜
Positive Saturation
+𝑉𝐶𝐶 10 𝑉
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝐴 = 105
−0.1 𝑚𝑉 0.1 𝑚𝑉
𝑣𝑑
𝑉𝐶𝐶 𝑉𝐶𝐶
(− ) ( )
𝐴 𝐴

−𝑉𝐸𝐸 −10 𝑉
Negative Saturation

Linear Region

For a typical value 𝐴 = 105 and 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 10 𝑉, we have:

𝑉𝐶𝐶 10 𝑉
= = 10−4 𝑉 = 0.1 𝑚𝑉
𝐴 105

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-3

Therefore, to operate the op-amp in the linear region, the input voltage difference
𝑣𝑑 must satisfy:
|𝑣𝑑 | ≤ 0.1 𝑚𝑉 (very small value relative to 𝑣𝑜 )

This implies:
𝑣𝑝 ≃ 𝑣𝑛 (Condition for linear region)

5.2 Non-Ideal Linear Model of the Op-Amp:

When 𝑣𝑑 = 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛 is very small (𝑣𝑝 ≅ 𝑣𝑛 ) in the linear region, the op-amp can
be modeled by the following simple linear circuit:

𝑣𝑝 𝑅𝑜
𝑣𝑜
+
𝑣𝑑 𝑅𝑖
+
− 𝐴 𝑣𝑑
−
𝑣𝑛

Where
𝑅𝑖 = Input Resistance (Typical values 105 to 1012 Ω) (Very large)

𝑅𝑜 = Output Resistance (Typical values 50 to 250 Ω) (Very small)

𝐴 = Open-Circuit Voltage Gain (Typical values 105 to 108 ) (Very large)

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-4

The parameters 𝑅𝑖 , 𝑅𝑜 , and 𝐴 change widely from sample to sample, with change
in temperature, and with aging. Therefore, feedback voltage from the output 𝑣𝑜 to
the inverting input 𝑣𝑛 (negative feedback) is used for the following reasons:

(1) To make the op-amp circuit invariant to parameter variations in 𝑅𝑖 , 𝑅𝑜 ,

and 𝐴, as we will see later.

(2) To restrict its operation in the linear region.

(3) To make the circuit more stable.

The linear model can be used to analyze any op-amp circuit, provided it is operating
in the linear region.

Example (Inverting Amplifier)

Using the linear model:
𝑣𝑜
(a) Find the voltage gain 𝐺𝑣 =
𝑣𝑠

(b) Compute 𝑣𝑜 for 𝑣𝑠 = 1 𝑉 and 0.5 𝑉

𝑅2 𝑅1 = 1 𝑘Ω
𝑅2 = 5 𝑘Ω
𝑅1 𝑅𝐿 = 1 𝑘Ω
−
𝑅𝑖 = 108 Ω
+ +
𝑣𝑠 +
− 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝑜 = 50 Ω
𝑅𝐿
− 𝐴 = 105

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-5

Solution:
(a) Replace the op-amp with its linear model to get the following equivalent circuit:

𝑅2

𝑅1 𝑣𝑛
𝑅𝑜 +
+
𝑅𝑖 − 𝑅𝐿
+ 𝐴(𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛 ) 𝑣𝑜
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑝
−
−

We have from the circuit 𝑣𝑝 = 0. Using node-voltage analysis:

𝑣𝑛 −𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑛 −𝑣𝑝 𝑣𝑛 −𝑣𝑜
KCL at 𝑣𝑛 : + + =0 (1)
𝑅1 𝑅𝑖 𝑅2

𝑣𝑜 −𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑜 −𝐴(𝑣𝑝 −𝑣𝑛 ) 𝑣𝑜

KCL at 𝑣𝑜 : + + =0 (2)
𝑅2 𝑅𝑜 𝑅𝐿

Solving (1) and (2) and arranging gives the voltage gain:

𝑅2
𝑣𝑜 −
𝑅1
𝐺𝑣 = = (3)
𝑣𝑠 1 1 1 1 1 1
(𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 ) (𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 )
1 2 𝑖 2 𝑜 𝐿
1+ 𝐴 1
(𝑅 𝑅 − 2 )
2 𝑜 𝑅2

Substituting the values gives:

𝑣𝑜
𝐺𝑣 = ≃ −4.99968 ≈ −5
𝑣𝑠

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-6

Remark: Since A is very large, ideally 𝐴 →∞, then from equation (3):

𝑣𝑜 𝑅2 5 𝑘Ω
lim ( ) = − =− = −5
𝐴→∞ 𝑣𝑠 𝑅1 1 𝑘Ω

This expression is independent of 𝑅𝑖 , 𝑅𝑜 , and 𝐴. We will derive this expression

more easily by using the concept of the ideal op-amp.

(b) For 𝑣𝑠 = 1 𝑉:

𝑣𝑜 = 𝐺𝑣 × 𝑣𝑠 = −4.99968(1 𝑉) = −4.99968 𝑉 ≈ −5 𝑉

For 𝑣𝑠 = −0.5 𝑉:

𝑣𝑜 = 𝐺𝑣 × 𝑣𝑠 = −4.99968(−0.5 𝑉) = 2.49984 𝑉 ≈ 2.5 𝑉

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-7

5.3 Ideal Op-Amp model
A simple model that makes the analysis of op-amp circuits easy, quick, and with
very good approximation.

Derivation of the Model:

𝑖𝑝
(1) Input resistance 𝑅𝑖 is very large: 𝑣𝑝 +
𝑣𝑜
Ideally 𝑅𝑖 →∞ (open circuit) 𝑣𝑛 −
𝑖𝑛
⟹ 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑖𝑛 = 0 (1)

(Input looks like an open circuit)

(2) The voltage gain 𝐴 is very large:

Ideally 𝐴 →∞, and since 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐴(𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛 ) must be finite, then we must

have 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑣𝑛 = 0.

⟹ 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑛 (2)

(Input looks like a short circuit)

The conditions (1) and (2) represent the assumptions for the ideal op-amp.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-8

Example (Inverting Amplifier)
Assume ideal op-amp.
𝑅2 𝑅1 = 1 𝑘Ω
𝑅2 = 5 𝑘Ω
𝑖𝑠 𝑅1 𝑣𝑛 𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝐿 = 2 𝑘Ω
−

+ 𝑣𝑝 +
𝑣𝑠 +
− 𝑖𝑝 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
−

𝑣𝑜
Voltage Gain ( 𝐺𝑣 = ):
𝑣𝑠

By circuit connection: 𝑣𝑝 = 0

By ideal op-amp: 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑝 ⟹ 𝑣𝑛 = 0

KCL at 𝑣𝑛 (summing Point):

𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑣𝑛
+ − 𝑖𝑛 = 0 (𝑣𝑛 = 0 , 𝑖𝑛 = 0)
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑜 𝑅2
⟹ + =0 ⟹ 𝑣𝑜 = − 𝑣
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅1 𝑠

𝑣𝑜 𝑅2 5
⟹ 𝐺𝑣 = =− = − = −5
𝑣𝑠 𝑅1 1

𝑣𝑠
Input Resistance (Impedance) ( 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = )
𝑖𝑠

KVL at input: +𝑣𝑠 − 𝑅1 𝑖𝑠 − 𝑣𝑛 = 0 (𝑣𝑛 = 0)

𝑣𝑠
⟹ 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑅1 𝑖𝑠 ⟹ 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = = 𝑅1 = 1 𝑘Ω
𝑖𝑠

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-9

Output Resistance (𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 )
𝑅2
Since 𝑣𝑜 = − 𝑣 regardless of 𝑅𝐿 , then: 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0
𝑅1 𝑠

i.e. 𝑅𝐿 sees a perfect controlled voltage source

+
𝑅2 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑜 = − 𝑣
𝑅1 𝑠 − −

Remark: Ideally, 𝑅𝐿 has no effect on 𝐺𝑣 , 𝑅𝑖𝑛 , and 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 . Therefore, we say 𝑅𝐿 is

isolated from 𝑣𝑠 .

Remark: Avoid writing KCL at the reference node in op-amp circuits. If you do,
you get 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖𝐿 , which is wrong since DC supplies (𝑉𝐶𝐶 and 𝑉𝐸𝐸 ) are also connected
to the reference, even though they are not shown in the circuit diagrams.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-10

Example (Continued)
In the last example (inverting amplifier), if 𝑉𝐶𝐶 = 𝑉𝐸𝐸 = 10 𝑉, find the output
voltage 𝑣𝑜 for 𝑣𝑠 = 3 𝑉.

Solution:
𝑅2 5
From last example: 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐺𝑣 𝑣𝑠 = − 𝑣𝑠 = − (3 𝑉) = −15 𝑉
𝑅1 1

However, this result contradicts with the characteristics of the op-amp:

−𝑉𝐸𝐸 ≤ 𝑣𝑜 ≤ +𝑉𝐶𝐶 ⟹ −10 ≤ 𝑣𝑜 ≤ +10

Therefore, the output saturates at: 𝑣𝑜 = −10 𝑉

𝑅2 = 5 𝑘

+𝑉𝐶𝐶
𝑅1 = 1 𝑘
−
+ +
𝑣𝑠 +
− 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿 = 1 𝑘
−𝑉𝐸𝐸 −

Remark: It is easy to show that above op-amp circuit operates in the linear region
(i.e. no saturation) for the range of 𝑣𝑠 :

−2 𝑉 ≤ 𝑣𝑠 ≤ +2 𝑉

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-11

Example (Non-inverting Amplifier)
Assuming ideal op-amp, find:
𝑣𝑜
(a) The voltage gain 𝐺𝑣 = .
𝑣𝑠

(b) The voltage 𝑣𝑜 and the current 𝑖𝑜 for 𝑣𝑠 = 0.5 𝑉.

(c) The power supplied by the source 𝑣𝑠 and the power absorbed by the load 𝑅𝐿
for 𝑣𝑠 = 0.5 𝑉.
𝑣𝑠
(d) The input resistance 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = seen by the source 𝑣𝑠 and the output resistance
𝑖𝑠

𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 seen by the load 𝑅𝐿 .

𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑝 𝑖𝑝 𝑅𝑠 = 1.8 𝑘Ω
+ 𝑖𝑜 𝑖𝐿
𝑅1 = 2 𝑘Ω
𝑅𝑠 − + 𝑅2 = 18 𝑘Ω
𝑣𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑖
𝑅𝐿 = 5 𝑘Ω
+ 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑠 𝑖 𝑅2
−
𝑅1 −

Solution:

(a) By ideal op-amp: 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑝 and 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑖𝑝 = 0

⟹ 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑠 − 𝑅𝑠 𝑖𝑝 = 𝑣𝑠
𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑛 −𝑣𝑜
KCL at 𝑣𝑛 : + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2

1 1 𝑣
⟹ (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑅𝑜
1 2 2

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-12

 𝑣𝑜 𝑅2
⟹ 𝐺𝑣 = =1+ (Independent of 𝑅𝐿 )
𝑣𝑠 𝑅1

18
Substituting values: 𝐺𝑣 = 1 + = 10
2

(b) 𝑣𝑜 = 𝐺𝑣 𝑣𝑠 = 10(0.5 𝑉) = 5 𝑉
𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜 𝑣𝑜 −𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑠
𝑖𝑜 = 𝑖𝐿 + 𝑖 = + ( = = )
𝑅𝐿 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1

5 5
= + = 1.0 + 0.25 = 1.25 𝑚𝐴
5 2+18

(c) 𝑝𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 × 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑣𝑠 × 𝑖𝑝 = 0 𝑊 (since 𝑖𝑝 = 0)

𝑣𝑜 2 (5 𝑉)2
𝑝𝐿 = = = 5.0 𝑚𝑊
𝑅𝐿 5𝑘

(d) Since 𝑖𝑠 = 𝑖𝑝 = 0, then:

𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑠
Input Resistance: 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = = → ∞ (very large)
𝑖𝑠 0

Output Resistance: 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑅𝑡 = 0 (since 𝑣𝑜 is independent of 𝑅𝐿 )

Remark: +
For 𝑅1 = ∞ and 𝑅2 = 0, we +
−
get the unity-gain buffer, +
where 𝐺𝑣 = 1 ⟹ 𝑣𝑜 = 𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑠
and 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = ∞. This buffer is
used in many systems where a −
source needs to be isolated
from the effect and change of the load.

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-13

Example (Adder-Inverter or Summing Amplifier)
Find the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 , assuming ideal op-amp.

𝑅𝑓
𝑅1

𝑣𝑛
𝑅2 −
𝑣1 +
+
− 𝑣𝑝 +
𝑣2 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
−
−

Solution:

𝑣𝑝 = 0 ⟹ 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑝 = 0

KCL at 𝑣𝑛 :
𝑣1 − 𝑣𝑛 𝑣2 − 𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑣𝑛
+ + =0 (𝑣𝑛 = 0)
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑓

𝑅𝑓 𝑅𝑓
⟹ 𝑣𝑜 = − ( 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 )
𝑅1 𝑅2

Remark: This last relation can be extended to any number of input sources.

Remark: If 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅, then:

𝑅𝑓
𝑣𝑜 = − (𝑣 + 𝑣2 )
𝑅 1

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-14

Example (Difference Amplifier)
Find the output voltage 𝑣𝑜 , assuming ideal op-amp.

𝑅2

𝑅1 𝑣𝑛 𝑖𝑛
−
𝑣𝑝 𝑖𝑝 +
+
𝑣1 + 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
− 𝑅3
𝑣2 + 𝑅4 −
−

Solution:
𝑣1 −𝑣𝑛 𝑣𝑜 −𝑣𝑛
KCL at 𝑣𝑛 : + − 𝑖𝑛 = 0 (𝑖𝑛 = 0)
𝑅1 𝑅2

𝑅2 𝑅
⟹ 𝑣𝑜 = ( + 1) 𝑣𝑛 − ( 2)𝑣1 (1)
𝑅1 𝑅1

Since 𝑖𝑝 = 0 (ideal op-amp), then (𝑣2 , 𝑅3 and 𝑅4 ) form a voltage divider:

𝑅4 1
⟹ 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣2 = 𝑅 𝑣2
𝑅3 +𝑅4 ( 3 +1)
𝑅4

Substitute 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑣𝑝 in (1):

𝑅 𝑅
(𝑅2 + 1) 𝑅 𝑅 (𝑅1 + 1)
2 2
𝑣𝑜 = 1 𝑣2 − ( ) 𝑣1 = [ 2 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ]
𝑅3 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅3
(𝑅 + 1) 1 1 (𝑅 + 1)
4 4

𝑅1 𝑅3
Under the condition = :
𝑅2 𝑅4

𝑅2
⟹ 𝑣𝑜 = (𝑣 − 𝑣1 )
𝑅1 2

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-15

Example (Cascaded Op-Amp Circuit)
𝑣𝑜
Find the voltage gain = , assuming ideal op-amp.
𝑣𝑠

𝑅2

𝑅1
− 𝑣𝑜1
+
+ +
+ −
− 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑠
−
𝑅4
𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 2 𝑘Ω 𝑅3
𝑅2 = 𝑅4 = 20 𝑘Ω

Solution:
The circuit is a cascade of an inverting amplifier and a non-inverting amplifier.

For first op-amp (inverting):

𝑅2
𝑣𝑜1 = − 𝑣 (1)
𝑅1 𝑠

For second op-amp (non-inverting):

𝑅4
𝑣𝑜 = (1 + )𝑣 (2)
𝑅3 𝑜1
𝑅4 𝑅
Substitute (1) in (2): ⟹ 𝑣𝑜 = (1 + )(− 2)𝑣𝑠
𝑅3 𝑅1

𝑣𝑜 𝑅2 𝑅4
⟹ 𝐺= = − (1 + )
𝑣𝑠 𝑅1 𝑅3

⟹ 𝐺 = −10(1 + 10) = −110

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-16

Remark: If a feedback resistor 𝑅𝑓 is connected as shown in the figure below, the
product of the gains of the cascaded op-amp circuits is no longer valid.

𝑅2 𝑅𝑓

𝑅1 𝑣𝑛1
− 𝑣𝑜1
+
+ +
+ −
− 𝑣𝑜 𝑅𝐿
𝑣𝑠 𝑣𝑛2
−
𝑅4
𝑅1 = 𝑅3 = 2 𝑘Ω 𝑅3
𝑅2 = 𝑅4 = 20 𝑘Ω

In this case, we still have 𝑣𝑛1 = 0 and 𝑣𝑜1 = 𝑣𝑛2 . The second op-amp circuit still
𝑅4
has the non-inverting relation 𝑣𝑜 = (1 + ) 𝑣𝑜1 , which can be rewritten as:
𝑅3

1
𝑣𝑜1 = 𝑣𝑜 (1)
𝑅
(1 + 𝑅4 )
3

𝑣𝑠 − 𝑣𝑛1 𝑣𝑜1 − 𝑣𝑛1 𝑣𝑜 − 𝑣𝑛1

KCL at 𝑣𝑛1 : + + =0
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑓

Setting 𝑣𝑛1 = 0 and substituting 𝑣𝑜1 from (1), then solving for 𝑣𝑜 and dividing by
𝑣𝑠 gives:
𝑅 𝑅
𝑣𝑜 − 2 (1 + 4 )
𝑅1 𝑅3
𝐺= =
𝑣𝑠 1 + 𝑅2 (1 + 𝑅4 )
𝑅𝑓 𝑅3

© M.-Y. Dabbagh 5-17