TYPES OF CLAIM: FACTS, VALUE &
What are the
POLICY
I. CLAIM OF FACT
- Asserts that a condition has existed, exists,
or will exist.
- To support a claim of fact, use factual
evidence that is sufficient, reliable, and
appropriate
A claim that a certain condition existed in the past,
exists in the present or will exist in the future. This
claim must be supported by facts.
EX:
● (PAST): Prayer in public schools has created
much debate in the field of education.
● (PRESENT): Students who listen to rap
music are more likely to commit violent acts.
● (FUTURE): Global warming will impact future
generations and eventually ruin the
environment.
A claim of fact posits whether something is true or
untrue, but there must always be the potential for
controversy, conflict and conversion.
Claims of fact must be specific as to time, place,
people involved, and situation
. there is a better solution than the one you have
II. CLAIM OF VALUE
- Makes a judgment by expressing approval or
disapproval, attempting to prove that some
action, belief or condition is right or wrong,
good or bad, beautiful or ugly, worthwhile or
undesirable.
- Value claims about morality express
judgments about the rightness or wrongness
of conduct or belief
EX:
● Cheating in sports is wrong.
● Illegal immigrants are ruining the American
economy.
● Cheating men are undesirable to women.
Claims of value involve judgments, appraisals, and
evaluations.
Everyone has a bias of sorts, often embedded in
social, religious, and/or cultural values.
EX:
● When you “fight” with friends and colleagues
over intellectual issues, you are usually
debating claims of value.
competing values around this topic? Is it
good or bad in whose eyes?
III. CLAIM OF POLICY
- Propose and promote policies and solutions
based on changing an existing policy that is
either inadequate for dealing with a bad
situation or conducive to its perpetuation
Argues that certain conditions should not exist. They
promote courses of action for problems that need a
solution
They almost always include the keywords “should,”
“ought to,” or “must”
EX:
● A dress code should be introduced for all
public high school students.
● Texting while driving should be an offense
punishable by jail time.
Claims of policy typically provide a solution or
another series of questions in response to the claims
of fact. Are often procedural, organized plans.
COUNTERCLAIMS OF POLICY posits that the
problem exists, it’s good to solve it a certain way, but
proposed.
In medicine, claims of policy debate the best
treatment for a certain condition.
EX:
● Johnny has a bad back, caused by a
herniated disc. It is imperative that he fix this
problem because he is a fitness instructor.
But there are three competing claims of
policy for his treatment: back surgery,
chiropractic treatment, or
massage/exercise/postural retraining.
Dr.Keefer posits that the third claim of policy
is the best way to solve the initial claim of
fact.
ADVERB OF AFFIRMATION & NEGATION
ADVERB OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION
- Is a word which declares that something is
true or some equivalent expression or
negative statement, judgment or a logical
proposition.
EX:
II. ADVERBS OF NEGATION
- Are completely opposite from affirmation.
- They show that the speaker doesn’t believe
there is any chance things will go the way
they say.
- It means that the action is certain to fail or go
directly opposite to what the speaker
expects.

● ‘I will never do that’.

I. ADVERBS OF AFFIRMATION
- Add more information and describe the verb In the sentence ‘never’ negates the sentence by
in more detail. telling that the speaker is not going to do the
- They are called adverbs of affirmation particular task. ‘Never’ is therefore an Adverb of
because they tell about a level of certainty Negation.
the speaker has.
- These adverbs show that the speaker is
absolutely sure something will go the way LIST OF NEGATION WORDS:
they say it will.
● Nothing, nowhere,
EX: ● not at all,
● never, no, not
● I will definitely do that’.
● or words ending n’t such as haven't,hasn’t
Word ‘definitely’ affirms the listener that the speaker etc.
is going to do the task which is being talked about. ● contradictorily,
‘Definitely’ is therefore an Adverb of Affirmation ● almost, invalidly,
● rarely, scarcely
LIST OF AFFIRMATIVE WORDS:
● Absolutely, affirmatively, assertedly, EX:
● avowedly, clearly, truly,
● definitely, doubtlessly, exactly, ● There’s no chance they’re going to win
● alright, obviously, positively, tonight. Especially not since they lost their
● really, sure, surely, undoubtedly, start player.
● yes, certainly, by all means, verily etc. ● She has never been to Las Vegas, so I’m
certain she hasn’t gotten married behind his
back.
EX: ● I don’t see any way this project could hope to
be profitable.
● They are definitely going to win. I’m certain
of it, so I placed a $1000 bet.
● We certainly don’t steal from our customers!
It must have been a computer error.
● Given the circumstances, I surely won’t allow
you to go out.
● It’s truly a staggering innovation that will
change the world.
● We are obviously going to make a lot of
money with this investment.
 TECHNICAL & OPERATIONAL
DEFINITION
I. TECHNICAL DEFINITION
- Describe and define new products and
services
- Introduce new information to reader in clear
and effective ways
- Allow experts and specialists to
communicate with a more generalized
audience
Name - objects, - events, - processes, - phenomena
Used in complex ways. May include brief explanatory
information with supporting graphics.
TECHNICAL DEFINITION ARE USED TO:
Name a new development or a new technology in a
technical field.
EX:
● A Protected Membrane Roof (PMR) system
using styrofoam insulation shields and
protects a roof’s waterproof membrane
unlike a traditional roof system that does not
cover the membrane
To help specialists communicate with less
knowledgeable readers.
EX:
● A manual explaining how to tune up a car
includes definitions of parts and tools.
By specialists when communicating with readers who
have a high level of technical expertise to: Clarify the
context & Reduce ambiguity
II. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
- refers to a detailed explanation of the
technical terms and measurements used
during data collection.
- This is done to standardize the data.
Whenever data is being collected, it is necessary to
clearly define how to collect the data.
Data that is not defined runs the risk of being
inconsistent and might not give the same results
when the study is replicated.
- An operational definition, when applied to
data collection, is a clear, concise detailed
definition of a measure.
- The need for operational definitions is
fundamental when collecting all types of
data.
It is particularly important when a decision is being
made about whether something is correct or
incorrect, or when a visual check is being made
where there is room for confusion.
EX:
● Data collected will be erroneous if those
completing the checks have different views
of what constitutes a fault at the end of a
glass panel production line. Defective glass
panels may be passed and good glass
panels may be rejected. Similarly, when
invoices are being checked for errors, the
data collection will be meaningless if the
definition of an error has not been specified.
III. EXPLANATORY DEFINITIONS
- To explain a concept, thing, or idea to
readers
OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS - to enable
audiences to engage in an activity or operation
DELIBERATIVE DEFINITIONS - to clarify the
meanings of terms, ideas, and concepts
IV. SHORT DEFINITIONS
- Are typically only a sentence or two to
provide meaning for the reader
- Are usually categorical, placing the term in a
category of similar terms
- May provide descriptions of use or other
distinguishing characteristics of the term
 V. PARENTHETICAL DEFINITIONS most likely introduced on chickpea seed
- Are typically only a sentence or two to imported from outside the region.
provide meaning for the reader
- Are usually categorical, placing the term in a
category of similar terms
- May provide descriptions of use or other
distinguishing characteristics of the term

EX:
● Although blight resistance has been
identified in both Kabuli (large, white seeded)
and Desi (small, dark seeded) chickpeas,
ARGUMENTATIVE SPEECH
resistance is usually associated with small
seed size.
● Winter dormancy in black bears (Ursus
americanus) is likely an adaptation to HOOK
predictable seasonal food shortages. n The
- At the beginning of your speech, your goal is
required gravel equivalent (GE) for the
to hook your audience.
estimated traffic loading and sub grade
- How will you grab their attention?
conditions is 575 millimeters. Our
- You could share a thought-provoking
recommendations are to provide a minimum
question, a surprising fact, an interesting
GE of 660 millimeters becaus
quote, or a fascinating story.
- Think of something that will introduce the
topic while drawing your audience in for
VI. EXTENDED DEFINITIONS more.
- May use the different kinds of definitions
outlined earlier, like descriptions or visuals
- Exist in lengthier texts where audiences
need detailed information
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
- Before discussing your argument, it can be
helpful to provide background information on
VII. SENTENCE DEFINITION the topic
- Is there anything that would be helpful for
FORMULA : TERM + CLASS/CATEOGRY + your audience to know to better understand
FEATURES/DETAILS the argument?
EX: - Provide the context, so they can better
understand what you’re describing to them.
● Aschoyta rabiei (TERM) is a fungus
(CLASS/CATEGORY) that causes severe
chickpea blight. (DETAILS)
THESIS STATEMENT
- Is a clear, focused sentence that asserts
SENTENCE DEFINITION IN PARAGRAPH: your position. It should be arguable
EX: - Its also helpful to outline your mai points in
your thesis statement. That way, the
● In 1983, Aschoyta rabiei, a fungus that audience will know what to expect in your
causes severe chickpea blight, was speech, so they can better follow along with
discovered near Pullman, Washington. your ideas.
Because this fungus has a very limited
capacity to survive on other hosts, it was
SUPPORT PARTS OF ARGUMENT
- Plan to have about three or more body
paragraphs to provide evidence for your The purpose of an argument, whether it's in a
point of view. paper or a speech, is to CONVINCE OR PERSUADE

Some of the evidence that you can use to support

your argument includes:
CLAIMS
- Making a claim is just a fancy way of saying
● STATISTICS that you're stating your main point.
● EXPERT TESTIMONIES - Claims are not just opinions.
● ANECDOTAL STORIES - A claim tells what you think is true about a
● FINDINGS FROM STUDIES topic based on your knowledge and your
● HISTORICAL EXAMPLES research.

Plan to have about three or more body paragraphs

to provide evidence for your point of view. Some of
the evidence that you can use to support your COUNTERCLAIMS
argument includes:
- Is just the opposite of a claim.
- Are also provable and supportable by
reasons and evidence.

REFUTATION OF OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS

REASON
- Since your thesis should be arguable, there
are going to be other viewpoints on the topic. - Tells why
- Think about the possible objections that - Makes someone care and tells the
people would have to your argument. importance of the claim and the argument.
- Then, find ways to reject the viewpoints.
- Help your audience understand why your
point of view is the one that they should side
with moving forward.

CONCLUDING YOUR ARGUMENTATIVE

SPEECH
- In your conclusion, restate your thesis and
main points.
- Also, your conclusion structure should leave
your audience with something to consider,
and tell them what they should do after
listening to your ideas.

EX:

● if you’re arguing against a particular law,

maybe you want people to get out and vote
against it. Let them know that this is what
they should do.