2021

Fine Print
Educational/ Training Material
Issued as a service to the industry
for Free Distribution

Lines or pipes are the arteries of a plant

Line Sizing

Course Goals
Understand
• Fluid flow

• Line sizing criteria

• Requirements of special lines

• Network sizing and special programs

• Cooling water and Fire water systems

• Line sizing Excel workbook

• Automate the task, by linking simulation outputs

• Understand piping engineering guidelines

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Overview
• Pipes transfer fluids to different units/
equipment

• Fluids:
• Liquid
• Vapour
• Two phase
• Slurry
• Fluids may flow under pressure or gravity

Overview

Fluid Flow

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Bernoulli’s Theorem
Conservation of energy Viscosity:
• Total energy at any point is Internal resistance to deformation
same: or shear. Resistance to flow when
Elevation + Pressure + acted upon by an external force
Velocity Head
E2
• Decreases with temperature for
most liquids. Increases for gases
• E1 = E2 = Z + P + VH
• Pressure has almost no effect
on viscosity of liquids or of near
perfect gases
• Viscosity of saturated or slightly
E1 superheated vapor changes
with pressure
• Fluid properties that affect • Highly viscous fluids behave
flow: differently
• Viscosity µ
• Density, ρ

Reynolds Number, Re = DVρ/μ

• Laminar Flow: At low velocities, fluid moves
in reasonably straight lines. Maximum
velocity at center. Zero at pipe wall. Re <
2,100

• Turbulent Flow: At higher velocities, fluid

particles show random motions transverse to
flow direction. Boundary layer at pipe wall is
laminar. Velocity profile is nearly straight
across the pipe. Re > 4,000

• Turbulent flow is further categorized into

partially or fully developed turbulence

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Pressure Drop, ΔP
• Flow results in friction and friction loss. ΔP
• Darcy-Weisbach equation for turbulent flow
• Poiseuille’s laminar flow

• Liquid: Valid for both laminar and turbulent flow.

Changes in elevation, velocity, or density accounted
by Bernoulli’s theorem.
• Gases: As density is affected by pressure, take short
line segments, such that density is essentially
constant
20% margin is taken on calculated ∆P to take care of uncertainties in the empirical correlations

Friction Factor, f
• Friction factor, f = fraction of
velocity head lost over a distance
of L/D
• Pipe roughness impact: None in laminar flow. Increases ‘f’ in
turbulent
• Colebrook Friction Factor
• Based on relative roughness, ε/D, ratio of wall roughness to
diameter Velocity Head
• ∆P = 4f(L/D)V2/2gc
• L= Length V = Velocity D = diameter, ID or equivalent

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Friction Factor, f
• Friction over Valves and Fittings
• ∆P accounted by “equivalent
lengths” of the fitting
• L/D or K factor correction for actual ID or NRe is usually
ignored
• Moody friction factor is used by Civil engineers
• 4 times higher than Fanning friction factor used in
Process calculations
• It does not mean ∆P calculated by Civil Engineers is 4
times higher!

Fittings take bulk of ∆P. Eyeballed lengths in operating plants

OK as long as all fittings are counted

Overview

Line Sizing

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General Guidelines
• Sizing based on economics
• Pipe Dia Ø Vs ∆P
• Smaller pipe. Low cost. Hi Capex/ Opex
• Bigger pumps, compressors, motor, power
• Min and max velocity limits based on
• Sediments deposit and erosion. Vibration and noise
• Static electricity generation. Noise. Momentum ρV²
• Minimum 2” to avoid small bore pipe rupture. Smaller
pipes need additional supports on sleepers/ pipe rack
Optimum size Vs Special Requirements
1. In lines injected with corrosion inhibitors, maintain recommended
velocity
2. Low velocity and pressure drop in pump suction and PSV inlet piping
3. To avoid vortex in vessel liquid outlet lines – h > 2 VH or V < √gh

General Guidelines
First pass line size based on: A B
• Applicable criteria for liquid, gas and 2-
phase
• ∆P-pipe between A and B + ∆P equipment
+ ∆P control valves
Vs given in PFD / taken in Simulation H&MB
Critical Lines
• Heater Transfer Line
• After equipment location/ plot plan • Pump Suction
finalized, revisit line size for critical lines • Tower Draw Off
based on run lengths + bends and fittings • Reboiler Circuits
• Gravity Flow
• Liquid - Vapor
• Network such as Cooling Water, Fire • Slurry
Water and Flare Headers may require fine • Tower, Overhead
tuning • Inlet / Outlet
Manifold

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Typical ∆P, bar

Heat Exchangers - Liquid = 0.5 - 0.7
Heat Exchangers - LP Gas = 0.1 - 0.3
Heat Exchangers - HP Gas = 0.3 - 0.7
Caution: Actual numbers may vary
Fired Heaters - Liquid = 0.5 - 12
Filters = 0.3

Reactors = 0.5
Separators = 0.1

Control Valves = 0.5 - 3 (Hi= turndown but more HP)

For better control, usual to take 30-50% of frictional loss of the
system, to accommodate flow variations

Pressure Drop thru fittings

• Vessel entry ΔP = 1 velocity Equivalent Length, L/d
head. Exit 0.5 VH loss
• Reduced Bore Ball / Plug 45
• Passage thru bends, • Full Bore Ball/ Gate 13
contraction, expansion and • Globe / Ball Check valve 340
valves internal passages all • Swing Check valve 135
cause head loss • Butterfly 20
• T Side outlet ╦ 65
• T Straight ╟ / 90° bends ╝ 20
• All accounted for in terms of • Strainer - Y/ Bucket 250
Equivalent Length • Nozzle - suction 32

• Total Length = Piping Length

+ Fittings Equivalent Length
Fittings take bulk of ∆P. Eyeballed lengths in operating plants
OK as long as all fittings are counted

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Special Requirements

• Avoid bends close to control valve / pump outlet/

steam injection points
• Leads to high erosion, rupture and plant fire

Special Requirements
Slam Pressure
Pressure 

Main Valve
Closed
Check Valve
Time  Slam

• Liquid lines with check valve or quick closing valve OR

poorly sized condensate lines may lead to water
hammer and pipe rupture
• Check valve slam: To prevent, it must close fast before
appreciable reverse flow develops or slowly once
reverse-flow develops
• Shutdown valve in long liquid lines should close slowly

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Liquid Lines High velocity sonic flow may

lead to pipe failure and fire

• Liquid lines: Sized on velocity

• Special: NH3, C2=, NaOH, H2SO4, sea water
• Saturated liquid: Hi velocity  flashing/ cavitation
• Gas: High ∆P  Choked/ Sonic flow. Sized in
segments
• Sized to limit ∆P (Compression expensive than pumping!)
• When high ∆P available, velocity and line size based on
noise limits in continuous service and 50-70% sonic velocity
in intermittent service
• Use inlet or outlet density if ∆P is <10% of Pin or Pout;
average density if ∆P is 10-40%
• Two-phase lines - based on Erosion Velocity

Special Lines
• Simplified, such as Hazen and Williams for water
• Manning equation for gravity flow lines
• Recip pumps: Max instantaneous or pulsating flow
• Steam trap discharge:
• Bucket: High instantaneous rate when they discharge. Not
all traps open at the same time
• Modulating float or thermostatic: Discharge continuously.
Use a LCV with a boot as appropriate ▼10m
• Rules of Thumb Discharge Overboard:
If pipe runs liquid full,
• Pump suction: 1 or 2 sizes larger than vacuum d/s valve may
pump inlet. Header for n+1 pumps cause flashing, vibration
to start standby pump and pipe failure. Common
issue
• Tank outflow: 1 or 2 sizes larger than inlet Use gutter or self-venting
sizing methods

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Centrifugal Pump Flow

Pump Flow is decided by system resistance or backpressure on pump

• Pump Head and System Resistance decide

Flow. Not pump’s Rated Flow!!!
• That is why a discharge control valve is
provided! Head

Head 
• Desired = 10. By Resistance = 12 m³/h. Pinch Control
Valve ∆P
outlet valve or control valve
• Steep Head: Small flow changes cause large Hi Static Head
pressure changes
• Drooping Head: 2 possible, oscillating flow. Lo Static Head; Hi Friction
Flow 
Can hunt between 2 flows for the same
resistance. Issue in parallel pumping. Min Normal Head
Flat
flow reqd to stay on right side Drooping Head
Head

Head 
• Flat curve good in FW system to maintain
steady system pressure
• Capacity control tricky with discharge throttling
Min Flow
Flow 

Liquid Network

• Instead a single line, we

may have to size a group
of network lines
• Example: From suction
to discharge header of a
pump, to calculate the
pump head, horse power
and NPSH requirements
Destination
Source
Source Destination

Town water and cooling water supply provide interesting network analysis

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Water Supply Network

Town Drinking Water Supply

Flow decided by resistance.

Pinch lower level users to get
Coolers water to higher level users

Cooling Tower
& Pumps
Cooling water or hot water/ hot oil
are classical examples of networks Resistance in series R = R1 + R2
Resistance in parallel 1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2
Total R, then flow = Head/ R

Head

Head 
Resistance

Flow 

Gas Transmission Lines

Special equations are used to size pipelines

• AGA: (a) partially and (b) fully turbulent flow - 2 different

transmission factors
• Weymouth: Friction Factor as a function of diameter. Good for
short pipelines as in gathering systems. Good results when
compressibility is taken. Not valid in partially developed
turbulence
• Panhandle A: for partially developed
Panhandle B: for fully turbulent flows

Steady-state, isothermal gas flow:

• Q = 38.77 (Ts/Ps) E √ff [(P1^2−P2^2)/S Lm TavZav]^0.5 d^2.5
• Different equations based on empirical data, give different
solutions to transmission factor “ff” . To match measured
against calculated, tweak ‘E’
• For low pressure lines, use Oliphant or Spitzglass Formula

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Comparison of Gas Transmission Factors

Results differ widely. Go by what is an accepted practice in your plant

Two Phase Lines - Flow Regimes

Baker, Gregory-Aziz-Mandhane, Taitel-Duckler maps

• Two phase lines: Difficult to design

and operate
• Flow regimes and terrain profile
influence ∆P, slug size & liquid hold-up
• Flow regimes: Empirical methods: Lockhart-
• Affect separation - a finely dispersed Martinelli, Duckler for ∆P.
.Flanigan for elevation correction.
vapour will go thru fractionation Eaton for liquid hold-up
column, without condensation & heat exchange
• Affected by pipe inclination. 0.1-1.0° inclination can affect
• Horizontal flow regime maps must not be used for vertical
flow, and vice versa
• Fluid pressure, pipe diameter and surface tension also affect
Correlations are usually developed based on air-water system in pipes <1”

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Flow regimes - horizontal and vertical

• Dispersed: Liquid as spray in gas
• Annular: Liquid along the wall
• Bubble: Gas bubbles along liquid
Dispersed • Stratified: Liquid along pipe bottom
and
separated
• Wave: Stratified with wavy
interface
• Slug: Periodic gas pockets at a
much higher velocity than liquid
• Plug: Plugs of liquid and gas
alternate
Dispersed
bubble
aerated
turbulent
slug flow
annular
mist

Terrain Impact - Onshore / Subsea

Liquid Slugs
• Wave formation at G/L interface in stratified flow.
• When liquid waves grow large and fill the pipe cross section, slug
forms
• Slugs due to terrain
• Liquid collects at low points and blocks gas flow. Gas pressure
rises and blows the accumulated liquid as a slug
• Slugs due to changes in flow rate, start-up or ramp-up
• As flow increases, liquid inventory in the pipeline decreases, and
the excess liquid forms a slug or series of slugs. During pigging
liquid inventory of pipeline is swept ahead of the pig
Several methods are available to predict random and pigging slugs
1. Greskovich - Shrier and Brill methods for calculating wave induced slugs
2. Schmidt for terrain generated slugs
3. Cunliffe for inlet flow rate generated slugs and
4. McDonald and Baker method for analyzing pigging dynamics

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Questions
1. With head or supply pressure 2. A centrifugal pump designed
remaining same, what is the for 500 m³/h x 10 bar, will
impact on flow when you always deliver it
double the pipe size
1. True
1. Will double 2. False
2. Will quadruple
3. Will increase by √2 3. A reciprocating pump
4. Will quadruple*√2 designed for 50 m³/h x 10 bar,
will always deliver it

1. True
2. False

Excel for sizing

• You can use Excel to size • Let us look at:
• Lines • A typical Excel sheet
• Pumps and • An automated Excel
• Distribution network sheet
• Excel allows you to • Liquid or vapor or two
• Study different sizes phase sizing
• Take output to a Line List • Longer gas and 2PF lines
and require segmented calcs
• Interact with the Project • Usual to check impact of
Database
one size larger and one
• Link Simulation output to such smaller
Excel. Automate the task
• Liquid 1-5 m/s. Hi velocity with bigger dia
• Gas ΔP 5-50 kPa/100m. 20 m/s noise. High with higher pressure
• Two Phase - Erosion Velocity. V = 120-200/ρmix^0.5
• Continuous or intermittent

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Overview

Engineering
Guidelines

Standard Pipes Min pipe size = 2” to avoid

broken pipes on impact

• Pipes come in standard diameters

Small bore pipes – safety
and wall thickness engineer’s nightmare

• Smaller diameter pipes can hold more internal

pressure. Generally flanges limit the allowable
pressure
• Allowable Working Pressures
• ASTM A106, grade B seamless pipe to ANSI B31.3-2002 -
Corro allow = 0.05” at 200°F. 150# Flange 260 psig
• 2” Standard Schedule 40 1,469 psig
8” 1,098
24” Sc 20 282

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Pipes - Design Pressure and Temperature

• Decide design pressure
and temperature. Decide
flange rating based on
material. 150 ~ 1500#
• Decide on steam/
electrical tracing and hot /
cold/ noise insulation
requirements
• Design T: based on
tracing, blackbody temp,
MDMT
• Design P: Some opt for full
rating, i.e. instead of 12 go
to 17 barg
ANSI Piping Class
• Design P: Vapor pressure
of LPG etc. at max site
temperature, pump shut-
off head, upstream PSV
set point and full/ half
vacuum as applicable
• Lines are hydrotested,
except large low pressure
lines that are
pneumatically tested.
• Molten K and Na lines are
not hydrotested to avoid
explosion on contact with
water in isolated pockets

Piping
• Check in P&ID slope and no pocket requirements
• Symmetrical piping where equal flow required
• Liquid lines with slurry, sand or polymer solution
• Ensure LR bends, flushing points and cleaning access
• Review piping 3D Model:
• Access to valves, instruments and sample points
• All PSV, thermosyphon and pump suction lines should be short
• Piping will locate Control Valves and PSVs based on maintenance
access ignoring slope or inlet ∆P requirements
• Owner/ operator 3 review is a MUST. Perceptions differ!!

• Flow direction to be maintained in globe, check valves and

flow orifices/ turbine meters
• Spec blinds should be in horizontal runs
The task is not over after finding the diameter

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Piping
• Mark gravity flow lines, lines that should slope or
should not have pockets, clearly
• Tap off from top
• Min length for meter runs and vessel inlet
• 2” pressure equalization valves across SDV >4” to
avoid opening valves against high ∆P, that could
result in high velocity and seat cutting/ damage
• Check high point vents and low point drains
• Eccentric reducers - flat on top in pump suction
• Avoid stagnant pockets that could corrode
• Avoid PG/TG protrusions while walking up the ladder
• Avoid piping blocking manholes

Piping Specs Min pipe size = 2” to avoid

broken pipes on impact Piping Specs

Companies have their own Piping Spec, standardizing

MOC and features. Usually piping class, like A1A decides:
• Material of construction
• Piping type - seamless, ERW, forged or cast
• Pipe schedule (wall thickness) / ANSI Rating
• Plant piping is usually welded to minimize leaks
• Bends and reducers are usually welded
• Flanged (bolted) connections are used to take out a
component that may require servicing e.g. relief valve,
control valve

Pipe Fittings

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Piping Slip-on

Piping class also decides: Weld Neck

• Flange type - slip on, weld neck

• Facing - Flat FF, Raised Face RF, Ring Type Joint RTJ
• Pipe schedule (wall thickness) / ANSI Rating
• Corrosion allowance
• Type of valves - ball, gate, globe Raised Face

• Specs for gaskets, bolts etc

• Construction requirement like,
stress relieving, radiography, RTJ
dye penetration, hardness test
for welding etc
Pipe Fittings

Insulation Insulation pays back in 3 months

• Heat or cold loss - to conserve energy

• Personnel protection - to avoid injury on
accidental contact
• Noise or vibration reduction, in high
velocity/ compressor piping
• Insulated pipes are covered with vapor barriers and
metal casing as required
• Foot traffic usually damages yard piping insulation

What type of insulation?

Insulation comes in preformed
shapes, mattress or loose.

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Heat tracing
Steam or electrical resistance or
self-limiting electrical tracing
1. To maintain temperature - avoids congealing
or wax deposition
2. In intermittent operation lines
3. To avoid cooling and condensation as in fuel gas
and gas to glycol dehydration
Steam Tracing – Number of ½” tracers:
• General: 1 for 2”-4”; 2 for 6”-20”. Solidification 25°-65°C: 1
for 2”-3”; 2 for 4”-8”. Solidification 65°-150°C: 2 for 2”; 3
for 4”-8”; 6 for 10”-12”; 8 for 14”-18”.
• Max run length is 50m for ½”. 1” steam header for 3-5
tracers; 2” for 16-30. Condensate header is of same size.
• Steam Vs Electrical: Capex: 0.3-0.6 : 1; Opex: 2-20 : 1

Steam tracing requires steam supply and condensate collection headers

Heat tracing

Steam tracing requires steam supply and condensate collection headers

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Heat tracing
• Electrical resistance heaters
can heat fluids during start-
up
• Self-regulating tapes
maintain required
temperature during
shutdown/ normal
operation. But they can’t
heat fluids during start-up

Electrical tracing is relatively simple

Valves
Gate: Service decides type of valve
• Rising stem in non-corrosive; • Shut-off: Ball, Gate, Plug,
non rising steam in water Butterfly and diaphragm
service • Throttling: Angle, globe,
• Solid Vs split wedge. Split needle
can take care of thermal • Check: Swing, lift, piston
contraction on cooling and foot
• Low pressure drop when full • Multiport
open
• Not quick acting
• Takes more space
• Not good in slurry service
• Install horizontally to avoid
gate falling in closed position
Valves help regulate or isolate fluid flow

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Valves
Ball or Plug Globe
• Ball valves widely used in • Good for throttling
upstream industry; gate in
d/s Butterfly
• Quick closing • Less weight and less space
• Limited to <250° C. Thermal • Good in low ∆P service; as
contraction/ expansion control valve in large size
• Equal change in flow for
Angle equal change in valve
• In high ∆P service position
• Diaphragm
• Made of elastomer
• Good for slurry, viscous and
corrosive services
Valves help regulate or isolate fluid flow

Check valves
Lift or Piston: Similar to globe. Good for
high velocity (gas) flow. Hi ΔP
• Includes ball, silent and nozzle
• Silent & Nozzle: Spring loaded. Quick
closure. Good in high head liquid
service. Non-slamming
• Ball: Simple and compact. Roll and self-
cleaning. Slams. Low head water or gas
service

Swing or Hinge: Full unrestricted flow. NoWithout check

good in pulsating flow valves, utility
• Wafer: Similar to butterfly. Good for connections may
pulsating flow. No chattering lead to backflow,
rupture and fatal
Slamming: More to less. Based on travel or
incidents
closure time. Ball  Swing  Disk  Nozzle

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Remote Operated Valves

• ROVs isolate an equipment or section of a plant remotely
• Operated by a motor (MOV) or electrical solenoid (SOV) or
air / hydraulic actuators
• ROVs help quick isolation, shutdown and blowdown
bringing the plant to a safe state
• ROVs can be automated to close on high level or
pressure
• ROVs are for
Quick opening and closing; Battery limit
• Emergency shutdown.
• For large valves - 10” (150~300#),
6” (600~1500#)

Spectacle blinds Note: All valves, including

check valves leak in service.

• For positive isolation, usually for entry into

confined spaces and in hazardous services
• Spades in small bore pipes (<2”) that can be
pushed apart and a spade inserted
• Fig 8 or spectacle blinds in bigger pipes
• A ring spacer or drop-out spool pieces for
large pipes, that would be blind flanged
• Ham(m)er blinds allow swinging a spectacle
blind with minimum effort
• Blinds are life savers. All valves leak
and the leak can injure with the energy
associated with it or kill if hazardous.
With a proper blind, Bhopal disaster would not have happened

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Line List
• After sizing process lines, a Line List is prepared by
Process and updated by Piping
• Piping MTO; Stress Analysis; Fabrication;
Construction; Plant Operation

Size Spec Insul Service From To Phase Velocity Density Operating Design P&T Testing P&ID
No P&T Medium No

Piping - SDVs
• Provide SDVs on either end of hydrocarbon piping
across bridges to minimize inventory loss

• Provide 2” pressure equalization valves across SDV

>6” to avoid opening valves against high ∆P, that
could result in high velocity and seat cutting/ damage
• Gas rush can result in LT issues due to chilling and vibration
Caution: Pressurize slowly watching for external
issues icing/ cold. Wait for downstream piping to warm up
• A few use diesel to pressurize downstream piping
• A few add a manual valve upstream of SDV and equalize
across it

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Piping - Check Valves 150# 300#

? 150# 300#
• Avoid orphan check valves, checks without d/s block valves.
Check valve maintenance requires d/s isolation or shutdown

• Dissimilar or double or any number of check valves in series is

not a LP/HP protection. Checks reduce bulk backflow but leak
and equalize pressure across. With incompressible liquids, all it
takes is a few drops. Regardless tightness specified, foulants -
sand, coke, mill scale etc. may not allow proper check valve
seating. Even with 0.1% leak, pressure is equalized over time
with upstream LP system. Upstream LP system requires relief
protection

• API 521 abandoned 2 dissimilar checks in series. “Complete

check valve failure is assumed for all check valves in series that
are not inspected and maintained and for a single check valve
regardless if it is inspected and maintained”. Take spec break
correctly

Piping - Choked Flow

Sonic velocity flow occurs at-the-throat
• When outlet pressure Po is <≈ 0.5*inlet pressure, Pi
• (1) Further reduction in Po doesn’t increase mass flow. But
mass flow increases proportionally with Pi. See API 520 PSV
formula, W α APi
• (2) While throat velocity remains constant at sonic velocity,
increasing Pi increases throat pressure, Pt and throat density,
ρt. Wrong to say at sonic velocity, flow cannot increase
further. Mass flow increases with Pi
• (3) Sonic velocity is at the throat and not in outlet piping.
Velocity in downstream piping is decided by piping ID and Po

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Piping - Choked Flow

Orifice/ Control Valves
• Flow α sqrt(Pi-Po)
• For choked flow, backpressure felt is not Po but throat
pressure, Pt
• Instrument Engineers use Pi-Pt in critical flow calculations,
call it as critical drop, erroneously concluding that a RO/CV
can drop Pi only to half of it downstream
• This confusion is enhanced by vendors. Only in RO or Control
Valve sizing. Not in PSV sizing as API 520 has 2 separate
formulae for critical and sub-critical flows
• Next time you hear critical drop story, please point out - if you
open LPG cylinder at 14 bar or N2 cylinder at 200 bar,
atmospheric pressure doesn’t become 7 or 100 bar

Piping - Choked Flow

Upstream can NOT decide d/s pressure. Decided by datum pressure further
down
• In a river flowing from Town A to Town B, Town A is at a higher elevation. Its water
level is decided by flow and level in Town B. There is a level continuity. In a water fall,
upstream level does NOT decide d/s level for any flow. Downstream level has no
influence on flow

If velocity in a 6” is 70% sonic, in a 4” velocity will NOT be 70*(6/4)^2 = 160%

sonic. Pressure in 4” will go up to increase density and maintain sonic velocity

PSV backpressure = flare tip ΔP + header ΔP + tail pipe ΔP or choked pressure

at tail pipe / header junction. Keep velocity < 50-70% Mach to avoid vibration
and noise. You can’t avoid sonic velocity at PSV nozzle or tail pipe exit or HP
flare tip. Sonic tip increases backpressure in upstream header, reduces volume
flow and velocity; allows smaller headers and laterals
• API and industry practice was governed by refineries by Crude column top at 0.5 bar.
API 521 past editions used to mention flare tip velocity to 20% sonic and never talked
about sonic flares

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Piping
Multiple ROs reduce noise/ vibration
• Wrong to assume a single RO drops pressure only by half and you
need multiple ROs to reduce further
• A single RO can take any pressure drop, say from 64 bar to 1 bar.
You don’t need multiple ROs to drop to 32, 16, 8, 4 and 2 in steps
• A single PSV for SP = 100 bar. You don’t use multiple PSVs in series

LO/LC Valves: PSV/ RD/ BDV valves are LO/LC

• Sometimes a start-up HP line, say fuel gas sourced from a pipeline,
can cause overpressure during normal operation if kept "LC", due to
leaks. Preferred option is drop-out spool piece or swing elbow for
positive isolation
• Some use excessive "LC" and "LO" valves that are not safety-
critical. Could be NC or NO or CSO or CSC
• Do not count on pressure protection by LO/LC. All valves leak

THANK YOU