4 FORCES, DENSITY &

PRESSURE
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4.1 Forces: Turning Effects & Equilibrium

4.1.1 Centre of Gravity

Centre of Gravity

 The centre of gravity of an object is the point at which the weight of the object may be considered
to act
 For example, for a person standing upright, their centre of gravity is roughly in the middle of the body
behind the navel, and for a sphere, it is at the centre
 For symmetrical objects with uniform density, the centre of gravity is located at the point of symmetry

The centre of gravity of a shape can be found by symmetry

Stability

 The position of the centre of gravity of an object affects its stability

 An object is stable when its centre of gravity lies above its base

The object on the right will topple, as its centre of mass is no longer over its base

 The wider base an object has, the lower its centre of gravity and it is more stable

 The narrower base an object has, the higher its centre of gravity and the object is more likely to
topple over if pushed

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The most stable objects have wide bases and low centres of mass

Centre of gravity v centre of mass

 In a uniform gravitational field, the centre of gravity is identical to the centre of mass
 The centre of mass does not depend on the gravitational field
 Since weight = mass ✕ acceleration due to gravity, the centre of gravity does depend on the
gravitational field
 When an object is in space, its centre of gravity will be more towards the object with larger
gravitational field for example, the Earth’s gravitational field on the Moon

The Earth’s stronger gravitational field pushes the Moons centre of gravity closer to Earth

 Exam Tip

Since the centre of gravity is a hypothetical point, it can lie inside or outside of a body. The centre of gravity
will constantly shift depending on the shape of a body. For example, a human body’s centre of gravity is lower
when learning forward than upright

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4.1.2 Moments
What is a Moment?

 A moment is the turning effect of a force

 Moments occur when forces cause objects to rotate about some pivot
 The moment of a force is given by

               Moment (N m) = Force (N) × perpendicular distance from the pivot (m)

 The SI unit for the moment is Newton metres (N m). This may also be Newton centimetres (N cm)
depending on the units given for the distance

The force might not always be perpendicular to the distance

 An example of moments in everyday life is opening a door

 The door handle is placed on the other side of the door to the hinge (the pivot) to maximise the
distance for a given force and therefore provides a greater moment (turning force)
o This makes it easier to push or pull it

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WORKED EXAMPLE

A uniform metre rule is pivoted at the 50 cm mark.

A 0.5 kg weight is suspended at the 80 cm mark, causing the rule to rotate about the pivot.

Assuming the weight of the rule is negligible, what is the turning moment about the pivot?

Exam Tip

If not already given, drawing all the forces on an object in the diagram will help you see which ones are
perpendicular to the distance from the pivot. Not all the forces will provide a turning effect and it is not unusual
for a question to provide more forces than required to throw you off!

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The Principle of Moments

 The principle of moments states:

For a system to be in equilibrium, the sum of clockwise moments about a point must be equal to the sum of the
anticlockwise moments (about the same point)

Diagram showing the moments acting on a balanced beam

 In the above diagram:

o Force F2 is supplying a clockwise moment;
o Forces F1 and F3 are supplying anticlockwise moments
 Hence: F2 × d2 = (F1 × d1) + (F3 × d3)

WORKED EXAMPLE

A uniform beam of weight 40 N is 5 m long and is supported by a pivot situated 2 m from one end.

When a load of weight W is hung from that end, the beam is in equilibrium as shown in the diagram.

What is the value of W?

A     10 N               B     50 N               C     25 N               D     30 N

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Exam Tip

Make sure that all the distances are in the same units and you’re considering the correct forces as clockwise or
anticlockwise, as seen in the diagram below

4.1.3 Turning Effects of Forces

Couples

 A couple is a pair of forces that acts to produce rotation only

 Unlike moments of a single force, the moment of a couple doesn’t depend on a pivot, only on the
perpendicular distance between the two forces
 A couple consists of a pair of forces that are:
o Equal in magnitude
o Opposite in direction
o Perpendicular to the distance between them

Diagram of a couple

 Couples produce a resultant force of zero, so, due to Newton’s Second law (F = ma), the object
does not accelerate
 The size of this turning effect is given by its torque

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WORKRD EXAMPLE

Which pair of forces act as a couple on the circular object?

     ANSWER: A

 In diagram A, the forces are:

o Equal in size
o In opposite directions
o Perpendicular to the distance between them
 B is incorrect as the forces are in the same direction
 C is incorrect as the forces are different in size
 D is incorrect as the distance between the forces is not perpendicular

Exam Tip

The forces that make up a couple cannot share the same line of action which is the line through the point at
which the force is applied. An example of this is shown in the diagram below

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Torque

 The moment of a couple is known as a torque

 You can calculate the torque of a couple with the following equation

Torque τ (N m) = one of the forces (N) × perpendicular distance between the forces (m)

WORKED EXAMPLE

A steering wheel of diameter 40 cm and the force of the couple needed to turn it is 10 N.

Calculate the torque on the steering wheel.

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WORKED EAMPLE

A rule of length 0.3 m is pivoted at its centre.

Equal and opposite forces of magnitude 4.0 N are applied to the ends of the ruler, created a couple as shown
below.

What is the magnitude of the torque of the couple on the ruler when it is at the position shown?

Exam Tip

The forces given might not always be perpendicular to the distance between them. In this case, remember to find
the component of the force vector that is perpendicular. You can learn more on how to do this in the ‘Resolving
Vectors’ section of ‘Scalars & Vectors’

4.1.4 Conditions for Equilibrium

Equilibrium

 A system is in equilibrium when all the forces are balanced. This means:
o There is no resultant force
o There is no resultant torque
 An object in equilibrium will therefore remain at rest, or at a constant velocity, and not rotate
 The system is in an equilibrium state when applying the principle of moments (see The Principle of
Moments)

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WORKED EXAMPLE

Four beams of the same length each have three forces acting on them.

Which beam has both zero resultant force and zero resultant torque acting?

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Coplanar Forces in Equilibrium

 Coplanar forces can be represented by vector triangles

 Forces are in equilibrium if an object is either
o At rest
o Moving at constant velocity
 In equilibrium, coplanar forces are represented by closed vector triangles
o The vectors, when joined together, form a closed path
 The most common forces on objects are
o Weight
o Normal reaction force
o Tension (from cords and strings)
o Friction
 The forces on a body in equilibrium are demonstrated below:

Three forces on an object in equilibrium form a closed vector triangle

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WORKED EXAMPLE

A weight hangs in equilibrium from a cable at point X. The tensions in the cables are T1 and T2 as shown.

Which diagram correctly represents the forces acting at point X?

Exam Tip

The diagrams in exam questions about this topic tend to be drawn to scale, so make sure you have a ruler handy!

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4.2 Forces: Density & Pressure

4.2.1 Density

Density

 Density is the mass per unit volume of an object

o Objects made from low-density materials typically have a lower mass
o For example, a balloon is less dense than a small bar of lead despite occupying a larger
volume
 The units of density depend on the units used for mass and volume:
o If the mass is measured in g and volume in cm3, then the density will be in g / cm3
o If the mass is measured in kg and volume in m3, then the density will be in kg / m3

Gases are less dense than a solid

 The volume of an object may not always be given directly, but can be calculated with the appropriate
equation depending on the object’s shape

Volumes of common 3D shapes

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WORKED EXAMPLE

A paving slab has a mass of 73 kg and dimensions 40 mm × 500 mm × 850 mm.

Calculate the density, in kg m-3 of the material from which the paving slab is made.

Exam Tip

 When converting a larger unit to a smaller one, you multiply (×)

o E.g. 125 m = 125 × 100 = 12 500 cm

 When you convert a smaller unit to a larger one, you divide (÷)

o E.g. 5 g = 5 / 1000 = 0.005 or 5 × 10-3 kg

 When dealing with squared or cubic conversions, cube or square the conversion factor too

o E.g. 1 mm3 = 1 / (1000)3 = 1 × 10-9 m3

o E.g. 1 cm3 = 1 / (100)3 = 1 × 10-6 m3

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4.2.2 Pressure

Pressure

 Pressure tells us how concentrated a force is, it is defined as the force per unit area

Pressure is equal to the force per unit area

 This equation tells us

o If a force is spread over a large area it will result in a small pressure
o If it is spread over a small area it will result in a large pressure

Different pressure is exerted for the same force on different areas 

 The units of pressure depend on the units of area:

o If the area is measured in cm2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/cm2
o If the area is measured in m2 (and the force in N), then the pressure will be in N/m2
 Pressure can also be measured in pascals, Pa where 1 Pa is the same as 1 N/m2
 Pressure, unlike force, is a scalar. Therefore pressure does not have a specific direction

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U-tube manometer
 A manometer is an instrument to measure pressure and density of two liquids

 In Figure 1: The level of liquid is equal because the atmospheric pressure (Patm) is the same
 In Figure 2: If the pressure on one side rises, the liquid will be forced down making the liquid in the
other limb rise. The difference between the two levels gives the pressure difference between the two
ends of the tube
 In Figure 3: The U-tube now has two different liquids. The density of the blue one is larger than that of
the orange one. The pressure at each point is due to the atmospheric pressure plus the weight of the
liquid above it

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Worked Example

A cylinder is placed on a horizontal surface as shown below

The mass of the cylinder is 4.7 kg and the diameter is 8.4 cm. Calculate the pressure produced by the cylinder
on the surface in Pa.

Exam Tip
The area referred to is the ‘cross-sectional’ area of a 3D object. This is the area of the base that the force is
applied on. For a cylinder, this will be a circle.

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4.2.3 Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h

Derivation of ∆p = ρg∆h

 Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within
the fluid, due to the force of gravity
 The derivation for this equation is shown below:

Hydrostatic pressure derivation

Exam Tip

You will be expected to remember all the steps for this derivation for an exam question. If any equations which
look unfamiliar, have a look at the notes for “Density” and “Pressure”.

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Using the Equation for Hydrostatic Pressure

 Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure that is exerted by a fluid at equilibrium at a given point within
the fluid, due to the force of gravity
 This is when an object is immersed in a liquid, the liquid will exert a pressure, squeezing the object
 The size of this pressure depends upon the density (ρ) of the liquid, the depth (h) of the object and the
gravitational field strength (g):

 When asked about the total pressure remember to also add the atmospheric pressure

Total pressure = Hydrostatic pressure + Atmospheric pressure

 Atmospheric pressure (also known as barometric pressure) is 101 325 Pa

WORKED EXAMPLE

Atmospheric pressure at sea level has a value of 100 kPa. The density of sea water is 1020 kg m-3.

At what depth in the sea would the total pressure be 250 kPa?

A. 20 m               B. 9.5 m               C. 18 m          D. 15 m

Exam Tip

These pressures can vary widely and depend on metric prefixes such as kPa or MPa. When you’re doing
calculations make sure all the pressures are in the same units (otherwise you may be out by a factor of 1000!).
To be on the safe side, you can convert them all to Pascals.

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4.2.4 Upthrust
Upthrust

 Upthrust is a force which pushes upwards on an object submerged in a fluid i.e. liquids and gases
 Also known as buoyancy force, upthrust is due to the difference in hydrostatic pressure at the top
and bottom of the immersed object
 The force of upthrust is significantly larger in liquids than in gases, this is because liquids are much
denser than gases
 Recall that hydrostatic pressure depends on the height (h) or depth that an object is submerged in
from P = ρgh
 Therefore, the water pressure at the bottom of an object is greater than the water pressure at the top, as
shown in the diagram below:

This can will experience upthrust due to the hydrostatic pressure difference

 Upthrust is a force and is directly proportional to the pressure. The force on the bottom of the can will
be greater than the force on top of the can
 This resultant pressure causes a resultant upward force on the can known as upthrust
 Upthrust is why objects appear to weigh less when immersed in a liquid. If the upthrust is greater than
the weight of the object, the object will rise up
 For an object to float, it must have a density less than the density of the fluid it is immersed in

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Worked Example

A steel cube with cross-sectional area of 2 m2 is totally immersed in water.

The scale balance reading is reduced when the cube is immersed.

The cube experiences pressures of 3000 Pa and 7700 Pa at the top and bottom of the cube respectively.

Which value is equal to the upthrust on the cube during immersion?

A. 9400 N          B. 6000 N          C. 15400 N          D. 92210 N

Exam Tip

Since upthrust is force it is influenced by pressure, not by the density of the object as commonly misunderstood.

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4.2.5 Archimedes Principle

Archimedes' Principle

 Archimedes’ principle states that an object submerged in a fluid at rest has an upward buoyancy force
(upthrust) equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
 The object sinks until the weight of the fluid displaced is equal to its own weight
 Therefore the object floats when the magnitude of the upthrust equals the weight of the object
 The magnitude of upthrust can be calculated by:

Upthrust equation

 Since m = ρV, upthrust is equal to F = mg which is the weight of the fluid displaced by the object
 Archimedes’ Principle explains how ships float:

Boats float because they displace an amount of water that is equal to their weight

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WORKED EXAMPLE

Icebergs typically float with a large volume of ice beneath the water. Ice has a density of 917 kg m-3 and a
volume of Vi.

The density of seawater is 1020 kg m-3.

What fraction of the iceberg is above the water?

A. 0.10 Vi          B. 0.90 Vi          C. 0.97 Vi          D. 0.20 Vi

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