Disciplines and Ideas in the Social Sciences

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Dominant Approaches and Ideas - Part 1

Dominant Approaches and Ideas - Part 1

The following are the objectives for this module:

1. Appraise the meanings that people attach to everyday forms of
interaction in order to explain social behavior
2. Analyze the psychodynamics of the person’s personality in terms of Id,
Ego, and Superego

Symbolic Interactionism
The Development and Origin
Symbolic Interaction developed in the middle of the 20th century in the
European academe. Scholars note that this ideology has its roots in American
pragmatic philosophy, headed by notable figures such as John Dewey. When
one speaks of a pragmatic philosophy or pragmatism for short, it means
that it is a philosophical movement that includes those who claim that an
ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily, that the meaning of a
proposition is to be found in the practical consequences of accepting it, and
that unpractical ideas are to be rejected. (McDermid, 2009) In other words,
pragmatism focuses on assenting to an idea only if it has a practical use.
Useless theories that have nothing to do with practical matters should be
discarded, according to pragmatic philosophers. Symbolic interactionists
agree that pragmatic philosophy was an important factor in its creation.
Another important root of symbolic interaction is behaviorism. It is defined
as “a movement in psychology and philosophy that emphasized the outward
behavioral aspects of thought and dismissed the inward experiential, and
sometimes the inner procedural, aspects as well; a movement harking back
to the methodological proposals of John B. Watson, who coined the name.”
(Hauser, 2010) Behaviorist approaches tend to focus more on the empirical
or outward observation of the subjects. This involves the analysis of human
movement only on an external level, and disregarding the inner impulses
that might have caused the external movements.
Both pragmatic philosophy and behaviorism have contributed to the very
essence of symbolic interaction. Evidently enough, we shall see different
elements from both root movements when we reach the definition of
symbolic interactionism.
Key Thinker: George Herbert Mead
Mead was born on February 27, 1863 in South Hadley, Massachusetts. He
attained his bachelor’s degree at Oberin College. In 1887 he went to Harvard
University and met William James and Josiah Royce, two thinkers who would
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 be very influential to Mead’s future work. In 1888, Mead moved to Leipzig,
Germany where he met and worked with renowned psychologist Wilhelm
Wundt. He married Helen Kingsbury Castle in 1891, the same year where he
obtained a post at the University of Michigan, where he met pragmatic
philosopher John Dewey. With Dewey they transferred to the University of
Chicago and taught until his death of heart failure on April 26, 1931.
Mead was considerably influenced by key persons in his life. These
individuals include William James and John Dewey, both of which are key
pragmatic philosophers. Having been with Dewey since his Michigan days
until his eventual transfer to Chicago, his thoughts have been formed with
exceptional pragmatic tones. When it comes to Mead’s writings, he
unfortunately had not published a book, but instead had numerous titles
attributed to him, which are collections of notes from students and
G.H. Mead
1863-1931 colleagues about his teachings. There are four volumes: Mead's 1930 Carus
Image from Google Lectures, edited by Charles W. Morris; The Philosophy of the Present (1932),
edited by Arthur E. Murphy; Mind, Self and Society (1934), edited by Charles
W. Morris; Movements of Thought in the Nineteenth Century (1936), edited by
Merritt H. Moore; and The Philosophy of the Act (1938). Within these works
lie the meaning of symbolic interactionism, and how his influences have
shaped the idea that we attribute to him today. The term “symbolic
interactionism” was coined by Mead’s student, Herbert Blumer, as a
summation of Mead’s theory.
The Theory
Symbolic interactionism’s key principles can be seen in the work Mind, Self,
and Society which actually enumerates all three important features of Mead’s
theory. For this reason, this exposition will rely heavily on the work.
The Three Principles of Symbolic Interactionism are as follows:
(1) Meaning
 “We are particularly concerned with intelligence on the human
level, that is, with the adjustment to one another of the acts of
different human individuals within the human social process; an
adjustment which takes place through communication: by
gestures on the lower planes of human evolution, and by
significant symbols (gestures which possess meanings and are
Mead was greatly
hence more than mere substitute stimuli) on the higher planes of
influenced by human evolution.” (Mead, 1972)
pragmatism and  The principle of meaning teaches us that human persons interact,
behaviorism and that we do so through the use of symbols. In other words, the
basis of forming relationships within society rest upon our
interpretation of meaning which, as Mead says, affects our
behavior as well. Mead mentions: “Meaning can be described,
accounted for, or stated in terms of symbols or language at its
highest and most complex stage of development.” (Mead, 1972)

(2) Language
 “What I want particularly to emphasize is the temporal and logical
preexistence of the social process to the self-conscious individual
that arises in it. The conversation of gestures is a part of the social
 Disciplines and Ideas in the Social Sciences
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Dominant Approaches and Ideas - Part 1

process which is going on. It is not something that the individual

alone makes possible. What the development of language,
especially the significant symbol, has rendered possible is just the
taking over of this external social situation into the conduct of the
individual himself.” (Mead, 1972)
 Chris Walden mentions that, “This principle says that when we
talk to each other, symbolic interaction means that humans
identify meaning, or naming, and then they develop discourse,
which is communication orally.” Before this use of language, we
first assign meaning to different objects through the first principle.
After having assigned meaning to a particular object, we can now
communicate it through symbolic interaction or, in other words,
through language.
Symbolic
interaction is (3) Thought
rooted in
 “In the human group, on the other hand, there is not only this kind
communication.
Language becomes of communication but also that in which the person who uses this
symbolic gesture and so communicates assumes the attitude of the other
individual as well as calling it out in the other. He himself is in the
role of the other person whom he is so exciting and influencing. It
is through taking this role of the other that he is able to come back
on himself and so direct his own process of communication. This
taking the role of the other, an expression I have so often used, is
not simply of passing importance. It is not something that just
happens as an incidental result of the gesture, but it is of
importance in the development of co- operative activity.” (Mead,
1979)
 When Mead mentions the ‘taking the role of the other,’ he implies
that through language, human persons could interpret the symbolic
nature of the individual he is communicating with. This principle
of interpreting symbols is called thought. Thought is based on
language. While in a conversation, your mind is imagining or
thinking about the different points of view or meanings to what
the other person is saying to you. Because of this, you may have an
understanding of what the other person is trying to say.
Symbolic
interaction is an
entire process of These three principles are important for Mead because these form a
dialogue: meaning, symbolic interaction that enables society to be united and become real
speaking, and
thinking
active agents of social progress. With the use of communication, there
arises a universal want for the common good. Mead’s use of the three
principles echo both pragmatic and behaviorist themes, specifically
for communication’s practicality when it comes to how society can use
it for its betterment. It also hinges on a behaviorist standpoint, since
symbolic interaction also involves an interpretation of external
symbols evident through the use of language.

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 Psychoanalysis
The Development and Origin
Before psychoanalysis came into being, psychiatrists were already present
tending to patients, albeit with different theoretical foundations.
Psychoanalysis as an approach was only considered a major psychological
and sociological theory during the life of its proponent, Sigmund Freud.
Psychiatrists before Freud have used a number of theoretical foundations to
support their therapies, some of which are still used today such as existential
therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and Adlerian therapy. So in order to
gauge the development of psychoanalysis, we need to take a look at the life
and works of its founder.
Key Thinker: Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was born in Frieburg, Moravia in 1856. Freud grew up with a
very authoritarian father, which would later influence his views on the
human person. In 1938 the Nazis invaded Austria, and Freud, who was
Jewish, was allowed to leave for England. His academic interests were broad,
but he settled for medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873 and obtained
his medical degree in 1881. At the age of 26, he obtained a post at the same
Sigmund Freud university. In 1885-86, Freud spent the greater part of a year in Paris, where
1856-1939 he was deeply impressed by the work of the French neurologist Jean Charcot
Image from
https://speakertoani
who was at that time using hypnotism as a medical technique. Upon his
mals.files.wordpress.c return to Vienna, he tried his hand at hypnotism as a technique, but
om/2011/06/sigmund
_freud.jpg discovered that it was inadequate. In 1895, Freud and his colleague Josef
Breuer published Studies in Hysteria, whose main thought is that a better
treatment other than hypnotism would be to recall past experiences and
confront them in the present. This rooting out of experiences would later
become a key ingredient in the formulation of psychoanalysis. In 1900, Freud
published The Interpretation of Dreams, perhaps his most famous work.
According to Stephen Thornton, “Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was initially
not well received – when its existence was acknowledged at all it was usually
by people who were, as Breuer had foreseen, scandalized by the emphasis
placed on sexuality by Freud.” (Thornton, 2010) Psychoanalysis was slowly
being formulated by Freud, this time with an emphasis on sexuality together
with the rooting out of experiences. In 1916 he published a book entitled Five
Lectures on Psycho-analysis that is considered now as one of the most
important Freudian writings when it comes to his views on psychoanalysis.
In 1923 he published The Ego and the Id. Freud was a mentor to two other
major psychologists: Adler and Jung, but disheartened when he discovered
Freud was first of
all a doctor, that these two thinkers founded two opposing schools to psychoanalysis. He
meaning that the died of cancer in England in 1939.
formulation of
psychoanalysis was
The Theory
meant to be a form In psychoanalysis, there are three key concepts: (1) the view of human
of treatment
nature, (2) the structure of personality and (3) ego-defense mechanisms.
(1) The View of Human Nature
 “The Freudian view of human nature is basically deterministic.
According to him, our behavior is determined by irrational forces,
unconscious motivations, biological and instinctual drives, as
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Dominant Approaches and Ideas - Part 1

these evolve through key psychosexual stages in the first six years
of life. (Corey, 2009)
 According to Freud, the human person is shaped by his past,
consciously or unconsciously. He places great emphasis on the
first six years of life because these are the years of what he calls
the life instincts. This includes the libido, a source of motivation
that encompasses sexual energy but goes beyond it. (Corey, 2009)
Freud places great emphasis on the sexual formation of an
individual, and how rooting out these past experiences in
psychoanalysis will be a good form of treatment.

(2) Structure of Personality

 According to the psychoanalytic view, the personality consists of
three systems: the id, the ego, and the superego.
1. The ID
 “The id is the original system of personality; at birth
a person is all id. The id is the primary source of
psychic energy and the seat of the instincts. It lacks
organization, and it is blind, demanding and
The ID serves as insistent.” (Corey, 2009)
the pleasure  When one speaks of the id, this is the pleasure
center. seeking element of one’s personality. The very basic
principle of the id is to attain pleasure and avoid
The EGO serves as
pain. The id is the most immature part of the
reality check.
personality, and is the domain of primal instincts.
The SUPEREGO 2. The EGO
serves as the  “It is the ‘executive’ that governs, controls and
idealist. regulates the personality. As a ‘traffic cop’ it
mediates between the instincts and the surrounding
environment. The ego controls consciousness and
exercises censorship.” (Corey, 2009)
 The ego is the one coordinator between the instincts
of the id and reality itself. It allows the person to act
accordingly in a given situation, and to not let the id
run freely. The ego makes sure that the id is kept in
check, and is moderated.
3. The SUPEREGO
 “It includes a person’s moral code, the main concern
being whether action is good or bad, right or wrong.
It represents the ideal rather than the real, and
strives not for pleasure but for perfection. The
rewards are feelings of pride and self-love; the
punishments are feelings of guilt and inferiority.”
(Corey, 2009)
 A person’s moral fiber can be found in the superego,
and is the actual ‘perfectionist’ in everyone. The
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 superego is the idealistic side of personality. It keeps
the id in check and influences the ego to shift it’s
attention not to reality itself but to idealism. The
superego is the reflection of all the authorities the
person has encountered in his or her life.

(3) Ego-Defense Mechanisms

 “Ego-defense mechanisms help the individual cope with anxiety
and prevent the ego from being overwhelmed.” (Corey, 2009) This
is particularly important in the recollection of experiences, where
if the person is encountered with a bad memory in the present
time, he or she will resort to mechanisms that will get rid of the
negativity due to anxiety. These mechanisms are most of the time
unconscious. There are 11 mechanisms:
1. Repression – threatening of painful thoughts and feelings
are excluded from awareness.
2. Denial – distorting what the individual thinks, feels, or
perceives in a traumatic situation.
3. Reaction Formulation – defense against a threatening
impulse is to actively express the opposite impulse.
All defense 4. Projection – attributing to others one’s own unacceptable
mechanisms desires and impulses.
are done
5. Displacement – discharge impulses by shifting from a
unconsciously
. threatening object to a “safer target.”
6. Rationalization – to manufacture “good” reasons to
explain away a bruised ego.
7. Sublimation – diverting sexual or aggressive energy into
other channels, ones that are usually socially acceptable
and sometimes even admirable.
8. Regression – in the face of severe stress, one deals with
anxiety by clinging to immature and inappropriate
behavior.
9. Introjection – taking in and “swallowing” the values and
standards of others.
10. Identification – identify oneself with successful causes,
organizations, or people in the hope that they will be
perceived as worthwhile.
11. Compensation – masking perceived weaknesses or
developing certain positive traits to make up for
limitations.
These three key elements make up the entirety of psychoanalysis. It’s role
when it comes to the social sciences is how psychoanalysis views human
individuals, thus having an effect on society as a whole which is composed of
those individuals. Freud’s emphasis on the human nature, structure of
personality, and the defense mechanisms offer a new interpretation of how
the individual perceives himself and society around him. Psychoanalysis may
be a psychological concept, but its role when it comes to society is crucial
especially in understanding its members more. Freud gave importance to an
examined individual. We will then, ultimately, have an examined society.
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Dominant Approaches and Ideas - Part 1

Glossary
 Behaviorism – a movement in psychology and philosophy that
emphasized the outward behavioral aspects of thought and dismissed
the inward experiential, and sometimes the inner procedural, aspects
as well; a movement harking back to the methodological proposals of
John B. Watson, who coined the name.
 Pragmatism – a philosophical movement that includes those who
claim that an ideology or proposition is true if it works satisfactorily,
that the meaning of a proposition is to be found in the practical
consequences of accepting it, and that unpractical ideas are to be
rejected.
 Psychoanalysis – a system of psychological theory and therapy that
aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of
conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing
repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques
such as dream interpretation and free association.
 Symbolic Interactionism – the view of social behavior that emphasizes
linguistic or gestural communication and its subjective understanding,
especially the role of language in the formation a social being.

References

Aboulafia, Mitchell (ed.) (1991) Philosophy, Social Theory, and the Thought
of George Herbert Mead. SUNY Press.
Corey, Gerald (2009) Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy.
Belmont, CA: Thomson Higher Education.
Cronk, George (2008) “George Herbert Mead.” Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. http://www.iep.utm.edu/mead/#H3. Accessed 18
September 2016.
Hauser, Larry (2010) “Behaviorism.” Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
http://www.iep.utm.edu/behavior/. Accessed 18 September 2016.
McDermid, Douglas (2009) “Pragmatism.” Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. http://www.iep.utm.edu/pragmati/. Accessed 18
September 2016.
Mead, George (1972) Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.
Silva, F. C. (2007) G.H. Mead. A Critical Introduction. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Thornton, Stephen (2010) “Sigmund Freud.” Internet Encyclopedia of
Philosophy. http://www.iep.utm.edu/freud/. Accessed 18 September
2016.

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