TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT 2022-23

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOCICAL UNIVERSIY

JNANA SANGAMA, BELAGAVI – 590014

H.K.E SOCIETY’S
S.L.N COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
YERAMARUS CAMP RAICHUR-584135

TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT ON

CAUSES, REPAIR & PREVENTION OF BUILDING CRACKS
SUBMITTED BY
MOHAMMED KAZIM BAIG
(3SL18CV030)

Internal guide
MAHANTESH PATIL

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

2022-23

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H.K.E SOCIETY

S.L.N COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

YERAMARUS CAMP RAICHUR-584135

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that MOHAMMED KAZIM BAIG (3SL18CV030) of B.E 8th Semester
has successfully completed the Technical Seminar(18CVS84) entitled “SEISMIC
ANALYSIS OF BUILDING” for the partial fulfilment of Bachelor of Engineering in
Civil Engineering as prescribed by the Visvesvaraya Technological University,
Belagavi during the academic year 2022-23.

Signature of Internal Guide Signature of HOD

MAHANTESH PATIL Shankar Gowda Patil
Assistant Professor Head of the department
Dept. Of Civil Engineering Dept. Of Civil Engineering
SLNCE, Raichur SLNCE, Raichur

Name of Examiner: Signature with Date

1. 1.

2. 2.

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that, the Technical Seminar Report entitled, “SEISMIC ANALYSIS OF BUILDING”
which is submitted here with for the award of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Civil
Engineering of Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi during the year 2022-23 is the
result of the work done by us at Department of Civil Engineering, H.K.E Society’s S.L.N College
of Engineering, Raichur, under the supervision of MAHANTESH PATIL. & Prof. AMARESH.C. I
further declare that, the matter embodied in this technical seminar work have not been
previously submitted by me for award of any other degree.

Declaration by
MOHAMMED KAZIM BAIG
(3SL18CV030)

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
My special gratitude and heartfelt thanks to the Management of S.L.N. College of Engineering,
Raichur for their blessings and wishes to carry out the Technical Seminar.

I extend our sincere thanks to our beloved Professor Mahantesh patil, S.L.N. College of
Engineering, Raichur for their kind support in the successful completion of technical seminar.
We are also grateful to our Head of the Department Shankar Gowda Patil, Department of Civil
Engineering & Technical Seminar coordinator Prof. Subhash A Patil for his constant
encouragement and support in carrying out the Technical Seminar.

I would like to express our immense gratefulness to Our Prof. Amaresh. C. Department of Civil
Engineering, for his guidance and support throughout my Technical Seminar work.

I also wish to express our profound gratitude to my parents for their blessings, faith and
support for me, which has always been a constant source of inspiration.

I would also like to acknowledge our department technicians who have helped and contributed
towards my work. Without their support this work would not have been accomplished.

Submitted By

MOHAMMED KAZIM BAIG

(3SL18CV030)

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INDEX
Sl no. Contents Page no

1 Introduction
2 Causes and Prevention of cracks in building

3 Common crack patterns in building

4 Repair of cracks

5 General measures for prevention of cracks

6 References
7 Conclusion

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CHAPTER-1

INDRODUCTION

Occurrence of various crack patterns in the building during construction, after completion when it is
subjected to super imposed load or during the service life, is a common phenomenon. A building
component develops cracks whenever the stress in the components exceeds its strength. Stress in the
building component could be caused by externally applied forces, such as dead, live, wind or seismic
loads, foundation settlement etc. or it could be induced internally due to thermal movements, moisture
changes, elastic deformation, chemical action etc.

Cracks in buildings could be broadly classified as structural and non-structural cracks.

1. Structural Cracks: These occur due to incorrect design, faulty construction or overloading and these
may endanger the safety of a building. e.g., Extensive cracking of an RCC beam.

2. Nonstructural Cracks: These are mostly due to internally induced stresses in buildings
materials and do not endanger safety of a building but may look unsightly, or may create an
impression of faulty work or may give a feeling of instability. In some situations, due to penetration
of moisture through them nonstructural cracks may spoil the internal finishes thus adding to the cost
of maintenance, or corrode the reinforcement, thereby adversely affecting the stability of the
Structure in long run. e.g., Vertical crack in a long compound wall due to shrinkage or thermal
movement.

Cracks may appreciably vary in width from very thin hair crack barely visible to naked eye to gaping
crack. Depending upon the crack width cracks are classified as

(a) Thin Crack - less than 1 mm in width,

(b) Medium Crack - 1 to 2 mm in width,
(c) Wide Crack - more than 2 mm in width.
(d) Crazing - Occurrence of closely spaced fine cracks at the surface of a material is called crazing.

Cracks may of uniform width throughout or may be narrow at one end gradually widening at the
other. Crack may be straight, toothed, stepped, map pattern or of random type and may be
vertical, horizontal or diagonal. Cracks may be only at surface or may extend to more than one layer
of material. Cracks due to different causes have varying characteristics and by the careful
observations of these characteristics, one can diagnose the cause of cracking for adopting the
appropriate remedial measures.

The commonly used building material namely masonry, concrete, mortar etc. are weak in tension
and shear. Therefore, the stresses of even small magnitude causing tension and shear stresses can
lead to cracking. Internal stresses are induced in the building components on account of thermal
movements,

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moisture change, elastic deformation, chemical reactions etc... All these phenomenon causes
dimensional changes in the building components, and whenever this movement is restraint due to
interconnectivity of various member, resistance between the different layers of the components etc.,
stresses are induced and whenever these stresses (tensile or shear) exceed the strength of material
cracking occurs.

Depending upon the cause and certain physical properties of building material these cracks may be
wide but further apart or may be thin but more closely space. As a general rule, thin cracks even
though closely spaced and greater in number, are less damaging to the structures and are not so
objectionable from aesthetic and other considerations as fewer number of wider cracks.

Keeping above in view, in the subsequent chapters the various precautions and the preventive
measures for mitigating the non-structural cracks, or containing them in less damaging fine cracks has
been enumerated in detail.

Figure -1: Tensile crack in masonry wall

Fig 2: shear crack on masonry pillar at beam support

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CHAPTER-2
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF CRACKS IN BUILDINGS
Cracks can occur due to chemical reactions in construction materials, changes in temperature and
climate, foundation movements and settling of buildings, environmental stresses like nearby trains,
earth quakes etc. Faulty design, bad quality materials, wrong method of construction, weather effects
and lots of wear and tear can create cracks in walls, floors and ceilings. Here are given various reasons of
cracks and their prevention techniques.

a. Elastic Deformation

When the walls are unevenly loaded, due to variation in stresses in different parts of wall the cracks are
formed in walls. When two materials having wide different elastic properties are built together under
the effect of load, different shear stresses in these materials create cracks at the junction. Dead and live
loads cause elastic deformation in structural components of a building.

Prevention:

Create slip joints under the support of RCC slab on walls. Masonry work on RCC slabs and beams should
not be started before drying RCC slab and beam. Provide horizontal movement joints between the top
of brick panel and RCC beam/slab.

b. Thermal Movement

Thermal movement is one of the most potent causes of cracking in buildings. All materials more or less
expand on heating and contract on cooling. The thermal movement in a component depends on a
number of factors such as temperature variations, dimensions, coefficient of thermal expansion and
some other physical properties of materials. The coefficient of thermal expansion of brickwork in the
vertical direction is fifty percent greater than that in the horizontal direction, because there is no
restraint to movement in the vertical direction.

Thermal variations in the internal walls and intermediate floors are not much and thus do not cause
cracking. It is mainly the external walls especially thin walls exposed to direct solar radiation and the
roof which are subject to substantial thermal variation that are liable to cracking.

Prevention:

Thermal joints can be avoided by introducing expansion joints, control joints and slip joints. In structures
having rigid frames or shell roofs where provision of movement joints is not structurally feasible,
thermal stresses have to be taken into account in the structural design itself to enable the structure to
withstand thermal stresses without developing any undesirable cracks.

c. Chemical Reaction

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Chemical reactions in building materials increase their volume and internal stress causes cracks. The
components of structure also weaken due to chemical reactions. Some common instances of chemical
reactions are following.

 Sulphate attack on cement products

 Carbonation in cement-based materials
 Corrosion of reinforcement in concrete
 Alkali aggregate reaction

Prevention

Use dense and good quality concrete i.e., richer mix of cement concrete 1:1.5:3 (M 20) to prevent cracks.
Repair corrosive cement concrete surface by ‘gunning’/ injecting technique after removing all loose and
damaged concrete and cleaning reinforcement from all rust also.

Figure 3: Cracking and up-heaving of a tile floor due to sulphate action in base concrete (brick aggregate containing
more than 1% of soluble sulphates and there is long spell of dampness due to high water table).

d. Shrinkage

Most building materials expand when they absorb moisture from atmosphere and shrink when they are
dry. Cement made materials shrink due to drying up of the moisture used in their construction. The
factors causing shrinkage in cement concrete and cement mortar and their preventions are following.

1. Excessive Water:

Excess water present in the concrete causes concrete to shrink. Hence the compacted concrete as
contains lesser amount of water shows better shrinkage resistance.

Prevention:

Use minimum quantity of water required for mixing cement concrete or cements mortar according to
water cement ratio. Never allow cement concrete work without mechanical mix and vibrator.

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2. Quantity of Cement

As a general rule, the richer the mix is, the greater the shrinkage/drying will be.

Prevention:

Do not use excessive cement in the mortar mix.

3. Un-graded Aggregate

Aggregate can cause shrinkage also. If un-graded and fine material/aggregate is used in cement concrete
and cement mortar which requires more water and can cause greater shrinkage.

Prevention:

Use largest possible aggregate and ensure good grading of materials. The use of water according to
required workability has less shrinkage because of reduction in the porosity of hardened concrete.

4. Curing

After laying cement concrete mix, the hardening of cement takes place, causes reduction in moisture
and creates shrinkage. This causes cracks in concrete work.

Prevention:

Proper curing should be started as soon as initial setting has taken place and be continued for at least
seven to ten days. When hardening of concrete takes place under moist environment, the shrinkage
due to drying is comparatively less.

5. Excessive Fine materials

Fine materials take more surface area and require more water for mix. The use of excessive fine
materials i.e., silts; clay and dust in aggregate create more shrinkage.
Prevention:
Do not use fine materials containing silt, clay and dust. Use coarse sand/fine aggregate in cement
concrete and cement mortar mix which has silt and clay less than 4%. Use coarse aggregate and fine
aggregate after washing to reduce silt contents.

e. Foundation Movement and Settlement of Soil

Shear cracks occur in buildings when there is large differential settlement of foundation due to any of
following causes.

 Unequal bearing pressure under different parts of the structure

 Bearing pressure being in excess of safe bearing strength of the soil
 Low factor of safety in the design of foundations
 Local variation in the nature of supporting soil

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Prevention:

The design of foundation must be based on sound engineering principles and good practice.

Figure 4: Crack at the corner of a building due to foundation settlement

f. Earthquake:

Crack may occur due to sudden shift in lower layer of the earth. The voids in the earth might have
suddenly collapsed and be filled with soil from the above. Many geological events can trigger earth
movements but is continuous movement. This results in cracks.

Prevention

Construct the foundation of buildings on firm ground while doing construction. Tie up the building with
connecting beams at foundation level, door level and roof level.

g. Vegetation

The roots of trees located in the vicinity of a wall can create cracks in walls due to growth of roots under
foundation. The cracks occur in clay soil due to moisture contained by roots.

Prevention:

Do not let trees grow too close to the buildings, compound walls etc. Remove any saplings of trees as
soon as possible if they start growing in or near of walls etc. The trees are kept ‘K’ times its length where
K varies from 0.5 to 2 as per the type of trees.

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Figure 5: Trees growing close to building on shrinkable soil may cause cracks in the walls due to shrinkage of soil
(Narrow at base and wide upward)

h. Permeability of Concrete: As deterioration process in concrete begins with penetration of

various aggressive agents, low permeability is the key to its durability. Concrete permeability is
controlled by factors like water-cement ratio, degree of hydration/curing, air voids due to
deficient compaction, micro-cracks due to loading and cyclic exposure to thermal variations. The
first three are allied to the concrete strength as well. The permeability of cement paste is a
function of water- cement ratio given good quality materials, satisfactory proportioning and
good construction practice; the permeability of the concrete is a direct function of the porosity
and interconnection of pores of the cement paste.

i. Corrosion of Reinforcement:

A properly designed and constructed concrete is initially water-tight and the reinforcement steel within
it is well protected by a physical barrier of concrete cover which has low permeability and high density.
Concrete also gives steel within it a chemical protection. Steel will not corrode as long as concrete
around it is impervious and does not allow moisture or chlorides to penetrate within the cover area.
Steel corrosion will also not occur as long as concrete surrounding it is alkaline in nature having a high
pH value.

Concrete normally provides excellent protection to reinforcing steel. Notwithstanding this, there are
large number of cases in which corrosion of reinforcement has caused damage to concrete structures
within a few years from the time of construction. One of the most difficult problems in repairing a
reinforced concrete element is to handle corrosion damage. Reinforcement corrosion caused by
carbonation is arrested to a great extent through repairs executed in a sound manner. However,
the treatment of

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chloride-induced corrosion is more difficult and more often the problem continues even after extensive
repairs have been carried out. It invariably re-occurs in a short period of time. Repairing reinforcement
corrosion involves a number of steps, namely, removal of carbonated concrete, cleaning of
reinforcement application of protection coat, making good the reduced steel area, applying bond coat
and cover replacement. Each step has to be executed with utmost care. When chlorides are present in
concrete, it is extremely difficult to protect reinforcing steel from chloride attack particularly in cases
where chlorides have entered through materials used in construction and residing in the hardened
concrete.

This increase in volume causes high radial bursting stresses around reinforcing bars and result in local
radial cracks. These splitting cracks results in the formation of longitudinal cracks parallel to the bar.
Corrosion causes loss of mass, stiffness and bond and therefore concrete repair becomes inevitable as
considerable loss of strength takes place

Prevention:

Reinforcement steel in concrete structures plays a very important role as concrete alone is not capable
of resisting tensile forces to which it is often subjected. It is therefore important that a good physical
and chemical bond must exist between reinforcement steel and concrete surrounding it. Due to
inadequacy of structural design and /or construction, moisture and chemicals like chlorides penetrate
concrete and attack steel. Steel oxidizes and rust is formed. This results in loss of bond between steel
and concrete which ultimately weakens the structure.

The best control measure against corrosion is the use of concrete with low permeability. Increased
concrete cover over the reinforcing bar is effective in delaying the corrosion process and also in resisting
the splitting.

j. Poor Construction Practices:

The construction industry has in general fallen prey to non-technical persons most of whom have little
or no knowledge of correct construction practices. There is a general lack of good construction practices
either due to ignorance, carelessness, greed or negligence. Or worse still, a combination of all of these.

The building or structure during construction is in its formative period like a child in mother’s womb. It is
very important that the child’s mother is well nourished and maintains good health during the
pregnancy, so that her child is healthily formed. Similarly for a healthy building it is absolutely necessary
for the construction agency and the owner to ensure good quality materials selection and good
construction practices. All the way to building completion every step must be properly supervised and
controlled without cutting corners.

Some of the main causes for poor construction practices and inadequate quality of buildings are given
below:

 Improper selection of materials.

 Selection of poor-quality cheap materials.
 Inadequate and improper proportioning of mix constituents of concrete, mortar etc.

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 Inadequate control on various steps of concrete production such as batching, mixing,

transporting, placing, finishing and curing
 Inadequate quality control and supervision causing large voids (honey combs) and cracks
resulting in leakages and ultimately causing faster deterioration of concrete.
 Improper construction joints between subsequent concrete pours or between concrete
framework and masonry.
 Addition of excess water in concrete and mortar mixes.
 Poor quality of plumbing and sanitation materials.

k. Poor Structural Design:

Very often, the building loses its durability on the blue print itself or at the time of preparation of
specifications for concrete materials, concrete and various other related parameters.

It is of crucial that the designer and specifier must first consider the environmental conditions existing
around the building site. It is also equally important to do geotechnical (soil) investigations to determine
the type of foundations, the type of concrete materials to be used in concrete and the grade of concrete
depending on chemicals present in ground water and subsoil.

It is critical for the structural designer and architect to know whether the agency proposed to carry out
the construction has the requisite skills and experience to execute their designs. Often complicated
designs with dense reinforcement steel in slender sections result in poor quality construction. In
addition, inadequate skills and poor experience of the contractor, ultimately causes deterioration of the
building.

Closely spaced of reinforcement steel bars due to inadequate detailing and slender concrete shapes
causes segregation. If concrete is placed carelessly into the formwork mould, concrete hits the
reinforcement steel and segregates causing fine materials to stick to the steel, obstructing its placement
and is lost from the concrete mix while the coarse material falls below causing large porosity
(honeycombs).

Slender structural members like canopies (chhajja), fins and parapets often become the first target of
aggressive environment because of dense reinforcement, poor detailing, less cover of concrete to the
reinforcement steel. Added to all this, low grade of concrete and poor construction practices can make
the things worse. It is necessary for the structural consultant to provide adequate reinforcement steel to
prevent structural members from developing large cracks when loaded.

Prevention to Construction practice and Structural Design:

 Proper specification for concrete materials and concrete.

 Proper specifications to take care of environmental as well as sub – soil conditions.
 Constructible and adequate structural design.
 Proper quality and thickness of concrete cover around the reinforcement steel.

Architects and Engineers are parents of the buildings they plan and design and therefore their
contribution to the health and life of the building is quite significant. Once the plans are drawn the

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structural designs and specifications are prepared, it is then the turn of the agency to construct the
building and bring the blue print to reality. Special care must be taken in the design and detailing of
structures and the structure should be inspected continuously during all phases of construction to
supplement the careful design and detailing.

l. Poor Maintenance:

A structure needs to be maintained after a lapse of certain period from its construction completion.
Some structures may need a very early look into their deterioration problems, while others can sustain
themselves very well for many years depending on the quality of design and construction.

Regular external painting of the building to some extent helps in protecting the building against
moisture and other chemical attacks. Water-proofing and protective coating on reinforcement steel or
concrete are all second line of defense and the success of their protection will greatly depend on the
quality of concrete.

m. Indiscriminate addition and alternations:

There have been some building collapses in our country due to indiscriminate additions and alterations
done by interior decorators at the instance of their clients.

Generally, the first target of modifications is the balcony. Due to the requirement to occupy more floor
area, balconies are generally enclosed and modified for different usages.

Balconies and canopies are generally cantilever RCC slabs. Due to additional loading, they deflect and
develop cracks. As the steel reinforcement in these slabs have less concrete cover and the balcony and
canopy slab are exposed to more aggressive external environment, corrosion of steel reinforcement
takes place and repairs become necessary.

The loft tanks are generally installed in toilets or kitchens, which are humid areas of the buildings. The
structure in addition to being overloaded is also more prone to corrosion of reinforcement steel in these
areas and therefore deteriorates and if not repaired, part of the building can even collapse.

n. Creep:

Concrete when subjected to sustained loading exhibits a gradual and slow time dependent deformation
known as creep. Creep increases with increase in water and cement content, water cement ratio and
temperature. It decreases with increase in humidity of surrounding atmosphere and age of material at
the time of loading. Use of admixtures and pozzolanas in concrete increases creep. Amount of creep in
steel increases with rise in temperature.

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CHAPTER-3
COMMON CRACK PATTERNS IN BUILDINGS

The commonly observed crack pattern in building can be group as, cracks in:

• Walls,
• RCC members,
• Renderings and plasters,
• Concrete and terrazzo floors, and
• Roof terrace

Each of these has been covered in this chapter along with preventive measures and feasibility of
repairs in specific cases. However, main emphasis is given on prevention of cracks, as in many cases
there may be no satisfactory method of repairing the cracks after they have appeared.

Cracks in walls

Cracks in walls can be further grouped as:

• In masonry structure
• In RCC frame structure
• In free standing walls

In masonry structure:

Commonly observed cracks in masonry structures are:

(i) Cracks at ceiling level in cross walls (fig. 6): In load bearing structures, where a roof slab
undergoes alternate expansion and contraction due to temperature variation, horizontal
cracks may occur (shear cracks) in cross walls, due to inadequate thermal insulation or
protective cover on the roof slab. To prevent such cracks, the following measures may be
adopted:

a) Over flat roof stabs, a layer of some insulating material having good heat insulation capacity,
preferably along with a high reflectivity finish, should be provided so as to reduce heat load on
the roof slab. In Western India, it has been a common practice to lay a layer of broken China in
lime mortar over lime concrete terracing which, because of high reflectivity coefficient reduces

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heat load on the roof and at the same time gives a good wearing and draining surface on the
terrace.

b) Slip joint (Para 3.4.9) should be introduced between slab and its supporting wall, as well as
between slab and cross walls.

c) The slab should either project for some length from the supporting wall or the slab should bear
only on part width of the wall (fig. 18 & 23). On the inside, wall plaster and ceiling plaster should
be made discontinuous by a groove about 10 mm in width.

(ii) Cracks at the base of a parapet wall: An instance of very frequent occurrence of thermal
cracks in buildings is the formation of horizontal crack at the support of a brick parapet wall
or brick- cum-iron railing over an RCC cantilevered balcony. Factors, which contributes to this
type of cracking, are:

a) Thermal coefficient of concrete is twice that of brickwork and thus differential expansion and
contraction cause of horizontal shear stress at the junction of the two materials.
b) Drying shrinkage of concrete is 3 to 4 times that of brick masonry.
c) Parapets are generally built over the concrete slab before the latter undergone its drying
shrinkage fully, and
d) Parapet or railing does not have much self-weight to resist horizontal shear force at its support
caused by differential thermal movement and differential drying shrinkage.

The following measures may be adopted to reduce the severity of such cracking.

a) Concrete for slab should be of low shrinkage and low slump.

b) Construction of masonry over the slab should be deferred as much as possible (at least one
month) so that concrete undergoes some drying shrinkage before construction of parapet.

c) Mortar for parapet masonry should be 1 cement: 1 lime: 6 sand and a good bond should be
ensured between masonry and concrete.

d) Plastering on masonry and RCC work should be deferred as much as possible (at least one
month) and made discontinuous at the junction by providing v Groove in plaster. This way the
cracks if they occur, will get concealed behind the groove and will not be conspicuous.
Alternatively, a 10 cm. Wide strip of metal mess or lathing may be fixed over the junction to act
as reinforcement for plaster.

e) In case of brick-cum-iron railing, cracks could be avoided by substituting the brickwork (of which
there are only a few courses) with a low RCC wall, supporting RCC railing.

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Figure 6: Horizontal cracks at the base of brick masonry para-pet (or masonry cum iron railing) supported on a
projecting RCC slab.

(iii) Horizontal cracks in the topmost story below slab level: These cracks are due to deflection
of slab and lifting up of edge of the slab, combined with horizontal movement in the slab due
to shrinkage. These cracks appear a few months after construction and are more prominent
if the span is large. These cracks are mostly confined to the top most storey because of light
vertical load on the wall due to which, end of slab lifts up without encountering much
restraint. In the lower stories, lifting of the corners is prevented by the vertical load of the
upper stories.

Sometimes horizontal cracks develop in the topmost storey of a building at the corners, due
to lifting of the slab at corners on account of deflection of slab in both directions. These
cracks could be avoided by providing adequate corner reinforcement in the slabs.

When large spans cannot be avoided, defection of slabs or beams could be reduced by
increasing depth of slabs and beams so as to increase their stiffness. Adoption of special
bearing arrangement (fig. 18 & 23) and provision of groove in plaster at the junction of wall
and ceiling will be of some help in mitigating the cracks.

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Figure – 7: Horizontal cracks in top-most storey below slab due to deflection of slab.

Figure – 8: Horizontal cracks in top- storey below slab due to lifting of corners.

Figure - 9: Details of bearing at the support for a roof slab

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(iv) Diagonal cracks in cross walls of a multi-story load bearing structure: These cracks are due to
differential strain in the internal and external load bearing walls to which the cross walls are
bonded. When walls are unevenly loaded with wide variation in stress in different parts,
excessive shear stress is developed which causes cracking in the walls.

Figure 24 shows, a multi-story load bearing structure having brick walls and RCC floors and
roofs. When the central wall ‘A’, which carries greater load then external walls ‘B’ and has
either the same thickness as wall `B' or is not correctly proportioned, it is stressed more than
walls `B’. This results in shear stress in the cross walls, which are bonded to the load bearing
walls `A' and 'B' and causes diagonal cracking as illustrated in figure.

For prevention of such cracks, it should be ensured that stress in various walls of a load
bearing structure is more or less uniform at the design stage only.

Figure – 10: Diagonal cracks in cross walls of Figure – 11: Vertical cracks in of Multikulti-storey load bearing
structure. stored building having window openings in load bearing wall.

(v) Vertical cracks below openings in line with window jambs: Elevation of another load bearing
multi-storey structure having large window openings in the external walls is shown in Figure 25.
It can be seen that portions of wall marked `A' act as pillars and are stressed much more than
the portions marked `B' below the windows. Thus, as a result of differential stress, vertical shear
cracks occur in the wall as illustrated in the Figure.

To minimize these cracks, too much disparity in stress in different walls or parts of a wall should be
avoided. If RCC lintels over openings and the masonry in plinth and foundation have good
shear strength, cracking in question would not be very significant.

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(vi) Vertical cracks in the top most storey at the corner

These cracks are caused due to shrinkage of RCC roof slab on initial drying as well as due to thermal
contraction, exerting an inward pull on the walls in both directions.

These cracks can be mitigated/prevented by providing proper movement joint i.e., slip joint between
slab and supporting walls

Figure – 12: Vertical cracks at corners in the top storey of a building due to drying shrinkage and thermal contraction
of slab

(vii) Vertical cracks around stair case / balconies opening

These cracks are caused due to drying shrinkage/elastic shortening and thermal movement in the
building. Generally, these cracks are not very conspicuous, and can be mitigated by delaying the
rendering/plastering so as to allow shrinkage/elastic deformation of masonry/concrete to take place.

Figure – 13: Vertical cracks in the external Cracks in external wall around wall around staircase openings in a
long RCC balcony building.

(viii) Vertical cracks in the side walls at the corner of long building:

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These cracks are mainly due to thermal expansion, aggravated by moisture expansion of brickwork
and are notice during hot weather. Chances of such cracks are more in the building constructed in
cold weather.

These cracks start from DPC level and travel up-ward, and are more or less straight and passes
through masonry units. These cracks can be mitigated/prevented by providing movement joints as
per guidelines given in chapter 5.

Figure – 14: Vertical cracks at corners in the side walls of a long building due to thermal movement

(ix) Horizontal cracks at lintel/sill level in top story:

These cracks are caused due to pull exerted on the wall by the slab on account of drying shrinkage
and thermal contraction. Such cracks generally occur when window and room spans are large. These
cracks could be prevented by providing slip joint at supporting walls.

(x) Diagonal cracks over RCC Lintels spanning large opening:

These cracks are caused due to drying shrinkage of in-situ RCC Lintel and are observed during the 1 st
dry spell after construction. These cracks could be prevented by using low shrinkage and low slump
concrete or using pre-cast lintels.

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Figure – 15: Diagonal cracks in brick masonry wall over Lintel of long
span openings.

Figure – 16: Horizontal cracks at window Lintel level in top most storey

RCC Framed Structures:

(i) Cracking of panel walls: The external non-load bearing walls in a framed structure are
termed as panel walls.

(a) Horizontal cracks: Brick panel wall of a framed structure supported on a beam and built
right up to the soffit of the upper beam. Due to shortening of columns, caused by elastic
deformation, creep and drying shrinkage, or due to comparatively greater deflection of
upper beam under heavy loads, wall is subjected to a Large compressive force, with the
result that it gets buckled. and horizontal flexural cracks occur as illustrated in Figure 32.

Figure – 17: Horizontal cracks in brick Figure – 18: Vertical cracks in brick panel panels of a framed
structure. of framed structure.

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These cracks generally become apparent a few years after construction and are accompanied
by bowing of the wails. Likelihood of damage due to these cracks is more if time interval
between casting of the frame and building up of masonry wall has been small.

(b) Vertical Cracks: In case of long panels built tightly between RCC columns brick work may
get compressed due to thermal and moisture expansion and buckle, thus developing
vertical cracks as shown in figure 33.
(c) Remedial Measures: To remedy these cracks, force in the panel should be relieved by
opening out the horizontal joint between the top of the wall and the soffit of the beam
and filling the joint with some joint filling compound. If damage is extensive and bowing is
very conspicuous, rebuilding of panel wall may be necessary.

(ii) Cracking of partition walls: The internal non-load bearing wall in a framed structure is
generally termed as partition walls. Due to excessive deflection of support, masonry partition
walls may crack. Location and pattern of cracks depend upon the length-to-height ratio of the
partition and position of door opening in the partition as described below.

(a) Length to height ratio of Partition Is large (Fig. 34)

Case – A: There is no opening: Due to deflection in the floor, middle portion of the partition loses
support and because of large length to height ratio, load of the partition gets transferred to the ends
of the supports mostly by beam action. Thus, horizontal cracks occur in masonry at the support or
one or more courses above the supports as illustrated in Figure. Also, vertical cracks appear near the
bottom in the middle of the partition due to tensile stress, because of bending. These vertical cracks
can be quite significant if the partition is built up to the soffit of the upper floor slab or beam and
some load is transmitted to the partition due to the deflection of the latter. Shortening of the
columns supporting the floor due to elastic strain, creep and shrinkage, often aggravates the cracking
of the partition.

Case B - There is a central opening: In this case, diagonal cracks occur because of combined action of
flexural tension in the portion of masonry above the opening and self-weight of unsupported
masonry on the Sides of the opening. Cracks start from lintels where they are widest and get thinner
as they travel upward.

Figure – 19: Cracking in a partition wall supported on RCC slab/beam when length to height ratio of
partition is large.

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Case C - Opening is off center: In this case, diagonal cracks occur due to combined action of flexural
tension in the portion of masonry above the opening and horizontal tension in the unsupported
portion of masonry the side of the opening due to loss of support in the middle. It is important to
note that ·a partition with off-center opening is more prone to cracking than the one with central
opening.

(b) Length to height ratio of partition is small (Fig. 19)

Case A - There is no opening: In this case, self-load of the partition is transmitted to the ends of the
support, mainly by arch action and horizontal cracks occur at some height from the support because
of tension developed due to self-weight of unsupported portion of partition in the central region.
There is not much of beam action in the partition due to small length to height ratio.

Case B - There is a central Opening: Horizontal cracks appear in this case in the fewer portion of the
partition, mainly because of tension due to self-weight of unsupported masonry on the sides of the
opening.

Figure – 20: Cracking in a partition wall supported on RCC slab/beam when length to height ratio of
partition is small.

Case C - Opening is off center: In this case, crack is mainly due to tension caused by self-load of
unsupported masonry on one side of the opening. There is not much of beam action in this case.

(I) Preventive Measures: Though it may not be possible to eliminate cracking altogether, following
measures will considerably help in minimizing cracks in panel walls and partitions in RCC
frame structures.

• When brick masonry is to be laid abutting an RCC column, brickwork may be deferred, as
much as possible.
• Masonry work on RCC slabs and beams should not be started till at least two weeks
elapsed after striking of centering.

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• As far as possible, full framework should be completed before taking up masonry work of
cladding and partition, which should be started from top storey downward.
• Provide horizontal movement joint i.e., telescopic anchorage between top of brick panel
and soffit of beam.

Telescopic Anchorages: Horizontal- expansion joint about 10 mm in width should be

provided between top of panel or partition walls. The gap should be filled up with a
mastic compound finished with some sealant or filled with weak mortar up to a depth of
3 cm on the external face and left open on the internal face. When structurally necessary,
lateral restraint to the wall at the top should he provided by using telescopic anchorage
as shown in Figure.

Figure – 21: Telescopic anchorage for panel walls.

• Provide upward camber in floor slab and beam so as to counter act deflection.
• Provide central door opening in preference to off center opening. □ Provide horizontal
reinforcement in masonry partitions, which have length-to- height ratio exceeding 2. In
case of panels longer than 5 - 8 m, either provide a groove in the plaster at the junction of
RCC column and brick panel, or fix a 10 cm wide strip of metal mesh or lathing over the
junction before plastering. The reinforced strip of plaster can accommodate differential
movement elastically without cracking to some extent.

Cracks In free standing Walls:

Following types of cracks are generally encountered in freestanding walls, i.e.

compound, garden or parapet walls.

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i. Vertical cracks at regular intervals of 5 to 8 m and at change of direction may be due to drying
shrinkage combined with thermal contraction. Cracks tend to close in hot weather. If wide
enough, cracks may be repaired by enlarging them and filling the same with weak mortar (1
cement, 2 lime, 9 sand). If no expansion joints have been provided earlier, some of the cracks
may he converted into expansion joints.
ii. Diagonal cracks, which are tapering and are wider at the top, are due to foundation settlement.
If cracks are wide enough to endanger the stability of the wall, affected portion should be
dismantled and rebuilt providing adequate foundation.
iii. Diagonal cracks, which are tapering and are wider at the bottom, may be caused by the upward
thrust exerted by the roots of any trees and plants that may be growing in the vicinity of the
wall.
iv. Arching up and cracking of the coping stone of a parapet or compound wall (Fig. 8) happens if
the wall is built between two heavy structures, which act as rigid restraints, and no expansion
joints have been provided in the coping stone. Remedy for this defect lies in relaying the
affected portion of coping and providing expansion joint at suitable intervals.
v. Horizontal Cracks in the bed joints of free-standing walls, if the same occur two or three years
after construction and the wall in question has been subjected to periodic wetting for long
spells, may he due to sulphate action. This should be confirmed by chemical test. of mortar and
bricks. There is no effective remedy for these cracks and the damaged portion has to be rebuilt
when it becomes unserviceable, taking other precautions for preventing recurrence of sulphate
attack.

CRACKS IN RCC MEMBERS

(I) In exposed members (Sunshades, Balconies, etc.): Drying shrinkage of concrete combined with
thermal contraction results in formation of straight cracks in sunshades, balconies, open
verandahs, etc. across the length at regular intervals of 3 to 5 m and also at changes in
direction. These cracks occur due to non-provision of proper control/expansion joints. Cracks
will be widest in winter and may lose partially in summer. Job executed in summer are more
prone to such cracks and, there is no effective remedy for these. Sometimes it may be
possible to introduce a control joint at cracked sections by sawing across the section.

These cracks can be prevented by:

(a) Adequate provision of temperature reinforcement i.e., 50% to 100 % more of the minimum
amount depending upon severity of exposure, size of member & local condition.

This reinforcement is more effective if bars are small in diameter and closely placed.

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(b) As these are liable to large deflection under load, removal of centering and imposition of load
should be deferred as much as possible so that concrete attains sufficient strength.

(c) Expansion joints should be provided at about 6 m interval. A typical expansion joint in
sunshade is shown in Figure 37.

Figure –: Expansion joints in long sun-shade.

(ii) Cracks in RCC members due to corrosion of reinforcement: Corrosion of reinforcement results in
straight cracks in concrete column, beams and slabs parallel to reinforcement accompanied
by spalling of cover and exposure of reinforcement at places, cracks occur 10 to 25 years after
construction. These cracks would occur if concrete in question is not sufficiently dense and
moisture from some source is causing dampness in the affected portion.

If corrosion is not severe, it can be repaired by removing all loose and damage concrete,
cleaning reinforcement and re-concreting the affected area by guniting.

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CHAPTER-4
REPAIR OF CRACKS
A} Epoxy Injection: Epoxy injection is an economical technique of mending non-transferring cracks in
concrete walls, slabs, columns and docks a take a manage is capable of restoring the concrete to its pre-
cracked energy. The approach usually consists of creating entry and expelling ports at near durations
alongside the cracks, sealing the crack on exposed surfaces, and injecting the epoxy under pressure.

Fig-22: Epoxy are filling in crack.

B} Gravity Filling: Low viscosity monomers and resins may be used to seal cracks with surface width of to
0.001 to 0.09 by means of gravity filling. High molecular weight methacrylate’s, urethanes, and a few
low viscosity epoxies were used successfully.

C} Routing and sealing: The crack is made wider at the surface with a saw or grinder in this method, and
the groove is filled with a flexible sealant. This is a common crack treatment technique that is relatively
simple in comparison to the procedures and training required for epoxy injection.

Process-To begin, clean the surface to remove any paint, dirt, oil, efflorescence, or bond inhibiting
agents. After that, apply epoxy. Insert a foam breaker or rod of appropriate diameter to prevent epoxy
from flowing out, and sealant is applied to it.

Fig-23: Routing and sealing.

D} Stitching: This technique is used to provide a long-term solution for masonry repairs and cracked wall
reinforcing. Drilling holes on both sides of the crack, cleaning the holes, and securing the legs of the
staples in the holes with a non-shrink grout are the steps involved.

E} Gravity Filling: Low viscosity monomers and resins may be used to seal cracks with surface width of to
0.001 to 0.09 by means of gravity filling. High molecular weight methacrylate’s, urethanes, and a few
low viscosity epoxies were used successfully.

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CHAPTER-5

GENERAL MEASURES FOR PREVENTION OF CRACKS IN BUILDING

There are several general measures that can be taken to prevent cracks in buildings:

Good foundation design: A properly designed foundation is essential for preventing cracks in buildings.
The foundation should be able to withstand the weight of the building and the forces acting upon it.

Proper drainage: Adequate drainage is important to prevent water from accumulating around the
foundation. Water can cause the soil to shift and settle, which can result in cracks in the building.

Use of quality materials: Using high-quality building materials can help prevent cracks in buildings.
Inferior quality materials may not be able to withstand the stresses placed upon them, which can lead to
cracking.

Proper construction techniques: Proper construction techniques should be followed to prevent cracks.
This includes ensuring that walls are properly aligned and level, and that concrete is poured correctly.

Regular maintenance: Regular maintenance of the building can help prevent cracks from forming. This
includes repairing any damage promptly and ensuring that the building is properly sealed against the
elements.

Control of temperature and humidity: Extreme changes in temperature and humidity can cause
building materials to expand and contract, which can lead to cracking. Controlling the temperature and
humidity inside the building can help prevent this.

Professional inspection: Periodic inspection of the building by a professional can help identify any
potential issues before they become major problems. This can include checking the foundation, walls,
and roof for signs of damage or wear.

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CHAPTER-6
REFERENCES

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CHAPTER-7
CONCLUSION

1} Cracks should not form under any circumstance Because they affect the aesthetics of the
building and may cause leaking problems. As much as possible, cracks should not form in
buildings, and care should be taken in the design and execution of important and multistory
buildings.

2} Building cracks can occur for a variety of reasons, including settlement, moisture,
temperature changes, structural issues, and more. Repairing cracks typically involves identifying
the underlying cause and addressing it before filling the crack with an appropriate material.

3} Prevention of building cracks involves proper design and construction techniques, regular
maintenance and inspection, and addressing any issues promptly.

4} When it comes to the type of crack, there are several points to consider. For example,
horizontal cracks can indicate a serious structural issue and should be addressed immediately.

5} Vertical cracks may be less serious, but can still lead to water infiltration and damage if left
untreated. Diagonal cracks can indicate differential settlement, and may require foundation
repair.

6} In general, it is important to address building cracks promptly to prevent further damage and
potential safety hazards. This involves identifying the underlying cause of the crack, repairing it
using the appropriate technique and material, and taking steps to prevent future cracking. By
doing so, building owners can ensure the safety and longevity of their structures.

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