Journal of Green Engineering (JGE)

Volume-10, Issue-1, January 2020

Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods

Based on State of Charge– Review
1
D. Thiruvonasundari and 2K. Deepa
1
Research scholar, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Amrita
School of Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, Bangalore, India.
E-mail: sundarisamy@gmail.com
2
Assistant professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Amrita
School of Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, Bangalore, India.
E-mail:k_deepa@blr.amrita.edu

Abstract

Battery behavior prognostic is an important concern in most of the

applications especially in electric vehicles which are using lithium ion
batteries. Battery performance estimation methods will improve the life span
by preventing over-discharge and overcharge, yielding increased battery life.
It allows the battery user to make out the available energy in the battery
stack. Therefore an accurate, easy to use battery model should be established
to estimate the battery parameters. In this paper five important lithium-ion
battery models such as Empirical, Equivalent circuit, Electro chemical,
Reduced-order and Data driven models are discussed based on the State of
charge estimation and compared along with their advantages and
disadvantages. Battery model parameters are obtained by using Electro-
chemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) test and the implementation details
are presented.

Keywords: Battery model, Electric Vehicle (EV), Battery Management

System (BMS), Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery, State of Charge (SoC).

Journal of Green Engineering, Vol. 10 1, 24–61. Alpha Publishers

This is an Open Access publication. © 2020 the Author(s). All rights reserved
25 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

1 Introduction

In the recent years, Li-ion batteries are the most advanced energy
storage device compared to other batteries due to their low self-discharge,
high energy density, compactness, no memory effect and low maintenance.
The cost of the Li-ion batteries are also declining which makes the lithium
based batteries the best choice for electric vehicles application [1]. Due to
these Li-ion batteries have drawn the attention of automobile makers and
researchers to focus on various battery modeling.
For safe and efficient operation of the Li-ion battery stack exact
calculation of battery SoC is important [2]. Battery SoC measurement
during real-time is a challenging task [3] and more research is happening in
this area. Many SoC methods are discussed and classified. Four important
battery SoC estimation methods are classified as [4-7]: Coulomb counting
based, Look-up table based, Data driven and Model based methods. Look
up table method is based on the correlation between SoC and Open Circuit
Voltage (OCV), it takes more time to measure the battery OCV. Since, the
battery needs a lot of rest time to measure accurate OCV, it is only
applicable to the research laboratory. Coulomb counting method measures
SoC by integrating the battery current, its SoC measurement is inaccurate
due to current measurement error. So, it‘s opted to work with other
methods, e.g. model based methods. Data driven methods are based on
battery sample data. It can achieve better results based on their advanced
high fidelity machine learning algorithm. Model based methods uses a set of
non-linear equations and adaptive filters (Kalman filter, sliding mode
observer) to find the battery internal state. Since the lithium ion batteries
exhibit the nonlinear characteristics, choosing the accurate battery model is
a difficult task [8]. The lithium ion model selection is based on the nature of
the application and the system design [9]. This review paper emphasizes the
data driven and model based approaches based on the current SoC
estimation techniques.
This paper is structured as follows: The section 2 describes about the
structure and working principle of lithium ion cell. Section 3, 4 explain
about the detailed modeling methods of lithium ion cell and model based
methods. Section 5 represents data driven models. Comparison of modeling
methods are discussed in section 6. Battery testing methods to find out the
parameters of the battery models are explained in section 7.
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 26

2 Lithium-ion Cell Structure

Fig 1. Li- ion Cell Composition [10]

Fig.1 shows the lithium ion cell composition. Each cell has four
important components electrodes (Anode and Cathode), electrolyte and
separator. For charging and discharging, reduction–oxidation process
happens in the positive (cathode) and negative (anode) electrode in which
the electrolyte is typically a lithium salt dissolved in an organic solvent. The
separator is a porous membrane separating the anode and cathode
electrically as well as symmetrically. It allows only Li+ ions to migrate
inside the cell between electrodes [10].
During discharge the cell supplies current to the outside circuit.
Oxidation takes place in the anode

(1)

Reduction takes place in the cathode

(2)

For example, if the anode is made from graphite and cathode is made
from lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) during charging the Li-ion ( ) moves
from the positive electrode and reaches the negative electrode through the
electrolyte. The same way electrons ( ) moves from positive electrode to
the negative electrode through the outer circuit. The Li+ accumulates
between the layers of graphite.
During discharge, the Li+ migrate from the negative electrode and
reaches the positive electrode. When the cell is fully discharged all the Li-
ions are stored in between the layers of Cobalt and Oxide ion. The lithium
ion moves backward and forward between the electrodes as the battery
discharges and charges.
27 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

3 Classification of Li-ion Battery Modeling

Fig 2. Battery Modeling Methods

Battery Modeling is to understand the internal cell behavior

mathematically with a simple set of equations. Fig.2 represents the various
battery modeling methods based on the SoC measurement [11]. Data driven
and model based approaches attempt to predict the battery performance and
characteristics accurately with the help of complex algorithms with a set of
battery data and mathematical equations by integrating several factors [12].

4 Model Based Methods

Model based methods are widely used to find out the SoC, terminal
voltage and other battery parameters. It consists of a battery model and a
parameter estimation algorithm. Input to the model is generally temperature,
current and SoC. Based on the input, the model output voltage is measured
and compared with the real battery data. Error in the model output is
corrected by tuning the model parameters to obtain better performance.
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 28

4.1 Empirical Model

Empirical model also called as mathematical model or black box model,

is a simplified model which uses the mathematical approach to obtain the
output from the input parameter through transfer functions and not much
concerned about the electrochemical phenomenon happening inside the cell.
Empirical models are easy to configure and provide quick response, but
accuracy is limited. To improve the accuracy it has to be combined with low
level models [4]. The empirical models are classified as classical models,
enhanced self-correcting model and zero-state hysteresis model.

4.1.1 Classical Model

Classical model is a simplified electrochemical model such as Nernst

model, Unnewehr model, Shepherd model and Combination of all. Using
simple set of mathematical and polynomial equations, the empirical model
describes the non-linear response of the battery compared to other higher
order complex battery models. Here, output voltage is expressed as a function of
the battery current and the SoC.
The mathematical representation of the classical empirical models are
listed in Table 1, where E (t) is the battery output voltage, E0 is the OCV of
the battery, Ra is the Ohmic resistance, K1 - K4 are constants used for curve
fitting, i (t) is the battery current. Battery current is considered as positive
for charging & negative for discharging. Q (t) represents battery SoC, time
index is expressed as k and Yk is the terminal voltage.

Table 1 Classical models

S.No Model name Model output Equation Characteristics

1 Shepherd Continuous
( ) ( )
model ( ) discharging real time
applications
2 Unnewehr ( ) ( ) ( ) Simple mathematical
model battery model
3 Nernst model ( ) ( ) ( ( )) + ln(1- Best accurate model
Q(t))

4. Combined It includes all the

( )
model above
( ) Characteristics
29 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

Based on the performance analysis study Nernst and Unnewehr model

confirms better prediction than the Shepherd model. When the estimated
terminal voltages of the three models are compared with the actual voltage
of the battery Nernst model is reported as the best accurate model since it
involves two more constants K3 and K4 to estimate the dynamically
changing terminal voltage [13] accurately.
Classical battery models represented in Table 1 consists of voltage
sources which is connected with the resistance to model different types of
electrochemical batteries. SoC of the battery is considered as a state variable
to avoid loop issues [14]. Conventional empirical models are not
considering the hysteresis effect of the battery and hence the results are not
accurate during the relaxation period [15]. This type of battery models can
be easily implemented using dynamic simulation tools like
MatLab/Simulink [16].
Combined Model combines Nernst model, Unnewehr model and
Shepherd model. By considering additional parameters and chemical
reaction happening inside the battery, performance of the combined model
can be improved but at the same time implementation complexity is also
increased.
Some alternate methods are implemented to improve the performance
accuracy of the conventional combined empirical models. Modified
empirical model is proposed by considering the discharge and the charge
cycle of the battery separately using shepherd equation [17].

(( )
) (( )
) (3)

(( )
) (( )
) (4)

Where, Q is battery SoC, , are the polarization resistance

coefficient at charge and discharge. , are the polarization over
voltage coefficient at charge and discharge. The E0 term express the
interconnection between the SoC and OCV. The filtered current (i*) of the
battery shows the dynamic behavior of the battery. Exponential term
( ) emulates the hysteresis phenomenon of the battery. Third term ( ) is
added with respect to the polarization voltage. The temperature, batteries
ageing, capacity fading and self-discharge effects are not considered in this
model.

4.1.2 Zero-State Hysteresis Model

When the cell is permitted to take rest then the diffusion voltage Voc
decays to zero and the model voltage (Vt) reaches to zero but this does not
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 30

happen in real time. Diffusion voltage change depends on time but the
hysteresis voltage (Vh) depends on the battery SoC.

Fig 3 Zero-state hysteresis model

Fig.3.represents the circuit diagram of zero-state hysteresis model. The

model equation is described as follows

( ) (5)

Where, describes state of charge, M is a constant coefficient

describing the hysteresis level and describes charging or discharging
hysteresis effect. In addition to dynamic hysteresis voltage variation the
instantaneous hysteresis voltage variation should also be considered for
modeling. The model equation combing the dynamic and instantaneous
hysteresis are expressed as follows

( ) (6)

Where, describes the symbol of the current based on charging and

discharging.

4.1.3. Enhanced Self-Correcting Model

It includes OCV, hysteresis, internal resistance and single parallel RC

pair. It can contain more number of RC pairs and all the model parameters
should be positive. It describes all dynamic effects.
31 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

Fig.4. ESC model

Fig.4. shows the circuit diagram of Enhanced self-correcting model.

The model equation described as below

( ) ∑ (7)

4.2. Equivalent Circuit Model (ECM)

The next important battery model is an equivalent- circuit model. EC

models are also called as abstract model or grey box model. It‘s a widely
used battery model for electric vehicle battery management system [18-23].
It‘s an alternate way of representing the physical entity. It replaces the
complex electrochemical process happening inside the battery to equivalent
simple electrical circuit, but it needs look up tables to match with the
experimental data. For better accuracy of this model the capacity fading,
temperature and aging factor of the batter y should be considered.
ECMs are the extensively used battery models for the EV BMS to
estimate the dynamic battery characteristics. In order to find out the OCV
which is a function of SoC, a cell is charged and discharged to find the
battery SoC.

∫ ( ) (8)

SoC is calculated from equation (8), SoC0 describes the initial value of
SoC, I (t) represents the battery current in Ampere, C describes the total
capacity at room temperature, η is Coulomb efficiency usually it‘s close to 1
for lithium ion batteries.

EC Model consists of a DC voltage source, resistor-capacitor pair and

an internal resistor, which links the input and the output parameters.
Compared to mathematical models, EC Models are able to give better
insight about the battery and describe the charge and kinetic mass transfer
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 32

characteristics. The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV)

model is now widely used in EV studies.
The choice of the ECM is greatly based on the battery cell chemistry.
So there is no standard method for all the cells and at the same time the
model has to apply appropriate approach for the estimation of the battery
parameter. The Fig.5 represents the individual components of the battery
cell.

Fig.5 Equivalent circuit elements representing cell components [24]

In the ECM, the resistor indicates the internal resistance of the

electrolyte; electrodes, separator and the current collectors etc. The parallel
RC network with different time constants reflects the double layer, charge
transfer effect and as well as diffusion process taking place inside the
electrolyte and electrodes. The Thevenin model, Rint model, PNGV model
is common in the ECMs literature.

4.2.1 Rint Model

It is a basic ECM and it reflects only the steady-state behavior of the

battery as shown in Fig.6. If the requirement is not concerned about
dynamic characterization of the battery then this model is preferred. The
battery OCV is derived from the battery SoC.

Fig 6. Rint Model [25]

33 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

The model voltage is expressed as follows

(9)

refers to the output voltage, Voc describes the OCV, Ib represents the
battery discharge current and R0 indicates the battery internal resistance.

4.2.2 Thevenin Model

Thevenin model is also called as resistor-capacitor ECM. The dynamic

behavior of the battery is not taken care by the Rint model. To overcome the
disadvantage of Rint model, this model uses a RC network along with
internal resistance. The RC network is added to characterize the transient
behavior of the battery. The value of the RC pair can be determined from
hybrid pulse power characterization test (HPPC). The number of RC
branches vary based on the type of application.

Fig.7 Thevenin Model [26]

The output voltage equation of the model which is described in Fig.7 is

expressed as follows

- (10)

V1 refers to voltage drop across the parallel RC, C1 indicates the double
layer capacitance and R1 indicates the charge transfer resistance.

Table 2 Different application of ECM [25]

S.No Model name Application

1 Simple model High voltage grid integration
2 1RC,2RC Smart grid integration
3 3RC,4RC,5RC,1RCPE E-mobility
4 2RCPE,3RCPE Diagnosis

Table 2 describes the different application of ECMs. The single R

model is not suitable to describe the transient characteristics of the cell but it
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 34

explains the static characteristics. It is applicable for grid integration. One

RC model explains the charge transfer characteristics while the two RC
includes the diffusion process too. Both are suitable for smart grid
integration applications. Three RC and higher order RC models along with
Constant Phase changing Element (CPE) are used in electric mobility for
better accuracy. RC models along with CPE are used in diagnosis tools.

4.2.3 PNGV Model

PNGV model is obtained by adding the additional capacitance in the

Thevenin model. The capacitance describes the changes occurring in the
electromotive force. Fig.8.represents the circuit diagram of PNGV model.

Fig.8 PNGV Model [27]

The PNGV model output voltage is expressed as follows

- - (11)

refers drop across the bulk capacitance. The PNGV model shows
better accuracy compare to other two models. By adding more RC network
in the model the accuracy increases but at the same time it increases the
circuit complexity also. For Li-ion battery SoC measurement, ECMs with
one RC and two RC networks are mostly used.

4.2.4. Improved Models

4.2.4.1 DP model

An improved Thevenin Model [28] is obtained by adding one more RC

network to Thevenin. Rep, Cep indicate the electrochemical polarization
resistance, capacitance and Rcp, Ccp indicate the concentration polarization
resistance and capacitance are used to explain the dynamic behavior during
discharging or charging as shown in Fig.9.
35 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

4.2.4.2 Extended Thevenin model

In the extended Thevenin Model as discussed in section 4.2.2.more RC

networks are added to increase the accuracy of the model [27] such as
 1RC model
 2RC model
 3RC model

Fig.9 DP Model

Fig.10 Extended Thevenin Model

 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 36

Table 3 Model Equations

d
S.No Equivalent Circuit Models Equation
e
1 Rint Model
s
c
r Thevenin Model
2i ( ) ( )

b -
e
s ( ) ( )
3 PNGV Model
t –
h
4e DP Model
( ) ( )
c
h ( ) ( )
a
r
g Extended Thevenin Model
e ( ) ( )
5
t
( ) ( )
r
a
n

The 1RC model describes the charge transfer characteristics of the

electrolyte, solid electrolyte interface and electrodes. Diffusion process
which takes place in the low frequency area is represented by the 2RC
model. Diffusion as well as charge transfer characteristics are considered in
the 3RC model. Three RC model is accurate compared to other two models.
Fig.10. shows the extended Thevenin model for n number of parallel RC
pairs. Table 3 shows the different equivalent circuit models and their
characteristic equations.

4.2.5 Comprehensive Model (Aging Model)

The Comprehensive model [29] is also called as ―run time‖ based

model. The battery self-discharge and capacity fade is considered in this
model. The circuit consists of two parts. First part captures the battery
degradation over cycling and calendar aging and the second part simulates
the battery dynamic behavior. The capacity and run time of the battery is
37 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

modeled as a controlled current source and the voltage controlled source

represents the OCV predicted from the SoC. In the second comprehensive
model [30] a resistance with a capacity fade is added to find out the aging
and remaining useful life of the battery.

Fig.11.Comprehensive-Model 1

Fig.12. Comprehensive-Model 2

Table 3 Models and key influence factor [6]

Model Polarization Self-discharge Capacity-fade

Characteristics
Rint √ x x
Thevenin √ x x
PNGV √ x x
DP √ x x
Extended Thevenin √ x x
Comprehensive-1 √ √ x
Comprehensive-2 √ √ √
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 38

Polarization characteristics are included in all the battery models.

Comprehensive model 2 efficiently covers all the dynamic characteristics of
a battery throughout its entire life. Table 3 explains about the different
equivalent circuit models and their key influence factor.
In this paper [31], more than ten battery models including the
mathematical and Electrical circuit model with multiple RC pairs are
compared based on the modeling accuracy. It highlights that 1RC ECM is
found to be the best applicable battery model for Li-NMC battery and 1RC
model with one state hysteresis is the appropriate model for the LiFePO4
battery.
The battery output error is reduced in the 2RC model compared to the
1RC model under steady state as well as dynamic discharge state, but not
giving significant improvement. Therefore, 1RC model is the preferred
model for portable consumer electronics. However, for precise applications
such as electric vehicles and aerospace, the 2RC model could be the ideal
choice [32]. For sensitive medical diagnostics more RC networks are added
to predict the battery behavior exactly.

4.3 Electrochemical model

Electrochemical modelsalso called as white box models or physical

models, are used to acquire the transient behavior of the cells to achieve
high accuracies and to describe complex electrochemical process happening
inside the cell. Detailed key features of the battery chemical process are
useful for battery designers but, it‘s difficult to use this model for practical
applications. Electrochemical models are based on the following laws
 Ohm‘s law; it takes care of the potential distribution in the positive and
negative electrode.
 Fick‘s law, it includes the lithium ion material balancing in an active
particle.
 Butler–Volmer equation, explains about the flux which exists at the
boundary between the electrolyte and electrodes called as pore-wall flux.
 Faraday's law which relates the pore wall flux with the deviation of the
current flow in the electrolyte.
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) (12)

The above equation is used to find out the pore wall flux where, i = n
describes the negative electrodes and i = p describes the positive electrode.
No flux in the middle portion of the particle, e.g. flux is zero in the
separator.
Electrochemical models are classified as the Single Particle Model
(SPM), Pseudo-2D model [33], the First principle model and the Quasi three
39 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

dimensional full order physical models. The pseudo-2D model is based on

[34-36] porous electrode theory. One of the important aspects of pseudo-2D
model is that it analyses the battery mechanism. It considers the electrode as
a multi particle, but SPM considers it as a single particle. The SPM and P2D
models are very popular compared to other models [37-43]. Fig.13. shows
P2D schematic model with the anode, cathode and separator.

Fig.13 P2D schematic model with the anode, cathode and separator [44]

P2D model includes solid phase diffusion, electrolyte and Butler-

Volmer kinetics. The main drawback of this model is that, it consumes more
time for simulation process as it contains lot of non-linear differential
equations. So computationally this model is not an efficient model for large
battery packs. It is not suitable for BMS applications. To overcome the
drawbacks of this model, researchers prefer the SPM which is represented in
Fig.14.
From the lithium ion concentration profile the SPM model can calculate
the voltage drop in the electrolyte to increase the accuracy and calculates the
battery SoC with minimum calculation error [46-48]. SPM accounts for
solid, electrolyte concentration and thermal constraints. It considers
different particle chemical reaction which is happening inside the positive
and negative electrode as a single spherical particle. It explains the
movement of the lithium ions inside a solid particle in the easiest way while
comparing with the P2D model. Though the model is simplified, the
estimation process is still time consuming and estimation accuracy is not up
to the mark under varying working scenarios.
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 40

Fig.14 SPM [45]

The first principle model is used to simulate the capacity fade of the
battery under the constant current constant voltage (CC-CV) charging. The
quasi three dimensional full order physical models represent the various
chemical, physical and electrochemical processes happening inside the cell
during the rest period and operating conditions.

4.4 Reduced Order Model

Simplified reduced order model [49] is a derivative of electrochemical

model by considering with additional assumptions. An average battery
model is made by ignoring the concentration distribution and diffusion
inside the electrode material considered. It is suitable for control system
based applications [50]. By assuming electrolyte material concentration as a
constant, the model can be simplified but due to assumption there is a loss
of information compared to the complete physical model. Nevertheless, it is
the most preferred model for voltage estimation and SoC measurement.

5 Data-Driven Models

The most critical part of electric vehicle BMS is an accurate

measurement of the battery SoC. Especially batteries like Li-ion overcharge
and over discharge will reduce the battery lifespan and induce safety issues;
sometimes it may harm the battery permanently. Thus, a data driven model
is used for improving the accuracy of the SoC estimation. Compare to other
types of battery chemistry the Li-ion battery is a highly complicated
electrochemical structure, its performance vary with battery aging. It is a
challenging task to find out the exact battery SoC using classical battery
models.
41 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

Data-driven models are also called as black box models. Data-driven

methods consider the battery current, voltage, temperature and SoC to
develop a controller and based on that it estimates the system behavior
which does not require a precise system model. This control approach can
provide great benefit in the below scenarios [51]:

 The mathematical model of the system is not known

 The uncertainties happening in the system is high;
 The control system which cannot be modeled by using empirical
set of equations
 The system which is not suitable for design and analysis

The fuzzy controller [52, 53], the support vector machine [54] and the
neural network [55, 56] algorithms are used by the black box model.
Statistical data is very useful for practical system modeling. Reference [57]
uses the neural logic to build the battery model estimator to calculate SoC,
which considers temperature, current and SoC as input and output is the
battery voltage. Modeling accuracy is very high and can solve non-linear
equations efficiently.

Fig.15 Data-driven model [6]

The data driven model can be combined with the model based method
to achieve a superior data model. The model real time behavior will enhance
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 42

the controller performance. The data-driven model in Fig. 15.shows the

relationship between the input and the output voltage.

6 Comparison of the Battery Modeling Methods

Based on the discussion in the previous sections, each method has its
own advantages and the performance of the modeling methods are mainly
based on the environmental condition, operating temperature, battery ageing
and different SoC operating ranges. The accuracy of the same battery model
under various SoC range is analyzed in [58] and the result shows that the
battery models are sensitive for the above operating parameters especially in
the electric vehicle application the pack contains large number of series and
parallel connected cells and this in turn spreads the difference across an
individual cell [59]. The battery stack level current and voltage is used to
measure the SoC of the battery [60] but it cannot ensure in terms of the
safety perspective. Alternate techniques for pack level SoC measurement is
calculating the cell level SoC first then calculating the pack level SoC. It
gives better accuracy but complexity is more and not applicable Electric
vehicle BMS. Comparisons of modeling methods are presented in Table 4.

Table 4 Comparative study on battery modeling

Battery Models Mathematical ECM Physical Reduced Data-driven
Model Model order Model Model
Accuracy Low accuracy Medium Very High High High
Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy Accuracy
Voltage Limited Parameter Very complex Easy to do Tedious data
measurement capability estimation is and time voltage collection
in the terminal complex for consuming measurement process
voltage voltage
estimation measurement
Physical Low Limited High Medium Medium
interpretability
Time Simple and low Simple and Time Average time Less time
time consuming Easily consuming due consumption consuming as
understood so to accurate prior battery
medium time voltage knowledge is
consuming calculation not required
Computational Low Medium to low High High High
Complexity
Configuration Low Medium High Medium High
Effort
Application All energy Real-time Battery system SoC Electric
storage system monitoring and design stage & estimation, vehicle,
BMS diagnosis Control Hybrid
application electric
vehicle
 43 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

Electrochemical model is the base model for the entire battery model.
By simplifying the electrochemical model the empirical model is obtained.
Chemical process happening inside the battery is replaced by means of
circuit component in the equivalent circuit. Data-driven model expresses the
electrochemical characteristics by high accuracy data analysis.
The model should be as simple as possible for real time applications.
For on line estimation the equivalent circuit model is more reliable and for
high precision SoC measurement artificial neural network and adaptive
filter based models are the perfect one. An electrochemical model explains
the charge transfer between the two electrodes and reveals the
electrochemical phenomenon, but it is not fit for online estimations due to
high complexity.
SoC accuracy is based on how accurate the model is and if the accuracy
is high then the model complexity is also high. So always there is a tradeoff
between model accuracy and simplicity as shown in the table 5.
Performance accuracy is improved by considering the following

 Battery system variables are modeled as a function of battery

current, temperature and SoC.
 OCV and hysteresis are modeled as a function of temperature
and SOC.
 RC network are modeled at different state of charge and
temperatures
 Aging effects are included in the model

Table 5 Battery models

Models Merits Demerits Papers

Mathematical Model Simple and less time Low accuracy [4,13-17, 26, 61]
consumption
Equivalent circuit model Instinctive to be Medium accuracy [18-32, 62-65]
implemented and
simple
Electrochemical model Very high accuracy Complex and time [33-48, 66 ]
consuming
Reduced order model Less computational cost Not an accurate model [49,50, 67]
because of
assumptions
Data driven model Less time consumption High complexity [51-57, 68-78]
and high accuracy
 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 44

7 Battery Testing

7.1 Constant – Current Charge or Discharge Test

A simple battery test is done on a cell or a battery which is a constant-

current charge/discharge test, where all cells are charged and discharged to
and from 0% and 100% SoC at a constant current of 0.7A. Then the OCV
(VOC) of the battery is obtained. 18650 Li- ion cells are used for the test.
From this test, it is possible to measure the simple model parameters like
OCV and internal resistance of the battery which is represented in Fig.16
and Fig.17.

Fig.16 SoC Vs OCV

Fig.17 SoC Vs R0
45 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

7.2 EIS Test

EIS test is a non-invasive, high efficient technique to analyze the battery

behavior and to find the battery parameters. The impedance studies are used
to analyze the system variables with respect to current, SoC and operating
temperature. Based on this, the State of health (SoH) and aging factor of the
battery can be obtained at various working scenarios [79-84].
The EIS test applies a small sinusoidal signal to measure the system
current, voltage for the given input amplitude and phase by finding out the
impedance of the system while repeating for the range of frequencies which
is continued until the cell is empty.

( ) (13)
( ) (14)
( ) (15)

From the EIS measurement the impedance variation is compared with

the reference cell to untested new cell impedance. The measurement is done
at ambient temperature or calendar cycling temperature for all SoC or
selected SoC range. EIS test was performed mostly under potentio-static
mode and conducted in a periodic manner with a periodicity of 30 minutes
interval to ensure the cell reaches SoC level for each repetition of the test.

EIS test is conducted for 18650, 2200mAh, 4.2 V Li-ion cell by

applying 3mV sinusoidal voltage under potentio-static mode at 20ºC for the
frequency range 1mHz to 100kHz. From the EIS data, the Nyquist plots are
drawn for different SoC ranges.

Nyquist Plot (R, C and L behavior)

Fig.18 100% SoC Fig.19 90% SoC

Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 46

Fig.20 80% SoC

Fig.21 70% SoC Fig.22 60% SoC

47 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

Fig.23 50% SoC

Fig.24 40% SoC Fig.25 30% SoC

Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 48

Fig.26 20% SoC

Fig.27 10% SoC Fig.28. 0% SoC

Fig.18 to Fig.28 shows the Nyquist plot of 100% to 0% SoC curves.

The Nyquist plots show the resistive, inductive and capacitive behaviors of
the battery cell considered at different SoC for the analysis. It shows the real
part of the impedance (resistance on the X-Axis) and the imaginary part of
the impedance (capacitance on the Y-Axis) at different SoC. The negative
value in the impedance curve indicates the battery inductance.
49 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

Nyquist Plot (R and C behavior)

Fig.29 100% SoC Fig.30 90% SoC

Fig.31 80% SoC

Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 50

Fig.32 70% SoC Fig.33 60% SoC

Fig.34 50% SoC

51 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

Fig.35 40% SoC Fig.36 30% SoC

Fig.37 20% SoC

 Electric Vehicle Battery Modelling Methods Based on State of Charge– Review 52

Fig.38 10% SoC Fig.39 0% SoC

The Nyquist plots shown in the Fig.29 to Fig.39 consider only the
resistance and capacitance features of the battery at different SoC. The
inductive part is not considered as it has negligible effect on the battery
modeling.

Fig.40. Equivalent Circuit Models

The semi circles in the plot illustrate the behavior of RC model rather
typical anode-cathode representation, as the cathode and anode impedance
are not differentiated in the commercially available Li-Ion cells. The L
represents the cable inductance; R0 explains the internal resistance of the
battery, R1and R2 describe charge transfer resistance which occurs in both
the electrodes, C1 represents the capacitance of the electrode which is
modeled through constant phase changing element, Zw describes the
Warberg impedance which is related to the diffusion process [85] is
represented in Fig.40. Using Nyquist plot the equivalent circuit parameters
at different SoC and temperature can be measured by using the curve fitting
algorithm.
The impedance variations are observed from 0% to 100% SoC as shown
in the Nyquist plots (figures 18-39). So the impedance of the battery cell
53 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

varies based on the SoC. EIS is an accurate analytical technique for

measuring critical battery parameters [57], including: SoC, SoH, Battery
Ageing, temperature and internal faults.

8 Conclusion

Battery modeling is one of the fundamental processes to obtain accurate

battery state analysis. The battery SoC can be influenced by various internal
and external factors, and the battery SoC estimation techniques vary based on
the application (Energy Storage System, EV and Hybrid EV). The modeling
methods discussed in this paper is efficient and reliable for an application
under certain operating conditions. Hence, the selection of the right model is
based on the type of application and the designer choice and this paper helps
in selection of a better model for a particular scenario. The parameters for the
selected battery modeling methods can be obtained from constant discharge
current tests, EIS test as discussed in section 7. This paper also presents the
state of art techniques in battery modeling and testing methods available. The
Li-ion battery ECM feasibility is considered in the analysis, model
parameters are successfully derived from the EIS test.

Acknowledgement This work has been supported by Robert Bosch

Engineering and Business Solution Limited, Bangalore, India

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Biographies

Thiruvonasundari.D is a Ph.D student at Amrita School of Engineering

Bangalore, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, India since August 2016. She has
completed B.E in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from IRTT,
Bharathiyar University, Tamilnadu, India. She obtained M.Tech in Power
Electronics from TOCE, Viveshvaraiya Technological University,
Bangalore, India. She has worked as an Assistant Professor from 2013. Her
Ph.D work is to improve the operation of Battery Management System used
in the Electric vehicle application.

K. Deepa graduated from Alagappa Chettiar college of engineering and

Technology, T.N, India in 1998. She obtained M.Tech degree from Anna
University, Guindy campus, T.N, India in 2005. She received Doctoral
degree from Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Anantapur, A.P,
India in 2017. Currently she is working as Assistant professor in Electrical
and Electronics Engineering Department, Amrita School of Engineering,
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham University, Bangalore, Karnataka, India. She
has 20 years of teaching experience. She is a life Member of IETE and ISTE,
India and a senior member of IEEE. She has authored two textbooks on
―Electrical Machines‖ and ―Control Systems‖. She has published 27
international journal paper, 31 papers in international conference and 6
papers in national conference. 15 M.Tech Degrees were awarded under her
guidance. She is the advisor for the IEEE-PES & IAS student branch joint
chapter and advisor for IEEEWIE in Amrita School of Engineering,
61 D. Thiruvonasundari et al

Bangalore from 2015. She is also a joint treasurer for 2018 EXECOM of
IEEE PES Bangalore chapter. Her areas of interests include Power
electronics, Renewable energy technologies and Control Engineering.