Unit 2 (Part I) General Physics

1
 Mechanics:
A branch of physical science that deals with energy and forces and their effect on bodies.
The practical application of physics to the design, construction, or operation of machines or tools.
→ Kinematics is a subfield of physics, developed in classical mechanics, that describes the motion of
points, bodies (objects), and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without considering the forces that cause
them to move.
→ Dynamics is the branch of mechanics concerned with the motion of bodies under the action of forces.
Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

Part I: Motion in one and Two dimension
2
 Motion along a straight line
 Position and displacement
 Velocity and speed
 Acceleration as derivative of velocity with respect to time
 Interpret the sign of velocity and acceleration
 Free fall motion
 Projectile motion

3
What is motion?  Rectilinear motion:

Answer: Motion is the → Motion in straight line
process of movement  Circular motion:
→ The movement of an object along a circular
path with a fixed distance from the center.
 Rotational motion:
→ Anything spinning or moving in a circular path
around a fixed axis.
 Periodic motion:
→ Motion repeated in equal intervals of time.

Kinematics: Describing Motion
Consider object as point mass → only translation
Things to know about a moving object:
4 Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

Position
• In reference to some coordinate system
• numerical value x
• x(t) is location of particle as a function of time
• Initial position: x0 = x(t0) *

* Does not mean x0 = 0

Showing position
With respect to a coordinate system:

x-axis with origin and a positive direction (arrow)
Mark position at certain times:

Position versus Time Graphs

Position versus Time Graphs

Displacement
Displacement = Change in position: *
∆𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖
* Change (upper case delta Δ) is the final value of a quantity minus the initial value.
Δ𝑥 can be positive or negative ⟶ direction
Displacement is not the same as distance traveled!

Speed and velocity
Stotal
Speed = How fast anobject is moving =
t total
“I am currently going at 25 mph”
= instantaneous speed
Together with information about

direction:
“I am currently going at 25 mph
North on Pine Street”
= instantaneous velocity
“I move the 60 miles in one hour”
= average speed, distance per time

Average velocity
Average Velocity = Rate of change of displacement
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑥
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑣𝑥 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 ∆𝑡
𝑚
unit: * The subscript 𝑥 is
𝑠 very important!
𝑣𝑥 > 0 : object moves in the positive x-direction

𝑣𝑥 < 0 : object moves in the negative x-direction

Average velocity and x-t graph
Average velocity
between t1 and t3:
𝑥3 − 𝑥1
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣𝑎𝑣−𝑥 =
𝑡3 − 𝑡1
In this example:
𝑣𝑥 is negative.
Object moves to smaller
value of x.

Instantaneous velocity
Instantaneous Velocity = The velocity of a movig aboject at specific instant of time
∆𝑥 𝑥 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 − 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑖𝑛 = 𝑣 = lim = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Speedometer shows
absolute value
of instantaneous velocity
𝑣 = |𝑣 𝑥 | = speed
always positive

Direction of velocity
𝑣 𝑥 > 0: object moves in the positive x-direction
𝑣 𝑥 < 0: object moves in the negative x-direction

Acceleration
→ Acceleration: how fast velocity changes, time rate of change of velocity
Average acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes:

Slope of 𝑣𝑥 vs 𝑡 graph
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖
𝑎𝑥 = =
∆𝑡 𝑡
Acceleration produces change in velocity: 𝑑𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡

Instantaneous Acceleration
Instantaneous acceleration a, or acceleration at a specific instant in time, is obtained using the
same process discussed for instantaneous velocity. That is, we calculate the average velocity
between two points in time separated by Δt and let Δt approach zero. The result is the
derivative of the velocity function v(t), which is instantaneous acceleration and is expressed
mathematically as
∆𝑣 𝑣 𝑡 + ∆𝑡 − 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝑎 = lim = lim ≡ = 2
∆𝑡⟶0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡⟶0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Instantaneous acceleration is the slope of the velocity-versus-time graph.

Examples
18
1) A person walks first at a constant speed of 5.00 m/s along a straight

line from point A to point B and then back along the line
from 𝐵 𝑡𝑜 𝐴 at a constant speed of 3.00 𝑚/𝑠.
(a) What is her average speed over the entire trip?
(b) What is her average velocity over the entire trip?

Solutions!
19
(a) The average speed during any time interval is

equal to the total distance of travel divided by the
total time:
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 / 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
→ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 2𝑑𝐴𝐵 = 2𝑑𝐵𝐴 = 2𝑑
𝑑 𝑑
→ 𝑡𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝐵𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵𝐴
𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐴
𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 2𝑑 2𝑑 15 15
⟹ 𝑉𝑎𝑣 = 𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
=𝑑 𝑑 = 8𝑑
= 4
= 3.75 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
+
5 3
(b) The average velocity during any time interval

equals total displacement divided by elapsed time
∆𝑥
⟹ 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = ∆𝑡
Since the walker returns to the starting point,
∆𝑥 = 0 ⟹ 𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 0

Calculating Instantaneous Acceleration
2) A particle is in motion and is accelerating. The functional form of the velocity is
𝑣 𝑡 = 20𝑡 − 5𝑡 2 .
a) Find the functional form of the acceleration.
b) Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 1, 2, 3, and 5 s.
c) Find the instantaneous acceleration at t = 1, 2, 3, and 5 s.
d) Interpret the results of (c) in terms of the directions of the acceleration and velocity
vectors.

Solution
𝑑𝑣(𝑡)
a) 𝑎 𝑡 = = 20 − 10𝑡 𝑚 𝑠2
𝑑𝑡
𝑏) 𝑣 𝑡 = 1, 2, 3, 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑐)𝑎 𝑡 = 1, 2, 3, 5 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 𝟏𝟓 𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒄 1 10 𝑚 𝑠2
2 20 𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒄 2 0𝑚 𝑠2
3 15 𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒄 3 -10 𝑚
𝑠2
5 -2𝟓 𝒎 𝒔𝒆𝒄 5 -30 𝑚
𝑠2
𝑑) → at t = 1 sec, both v and a have the same sign + → the particle is moving faster.
→ at t = 2 sec, the slope of velocity function is zero → maximum velocity occures.

→ at t = 3 sec, both v and a have different signs +/− → the particle is slowing down.
→ at t = 5 sec, both v and a have the same sign − and increasingly negative → the particle is speeding up in the opposite direction.

We can see these results graphically as
Is it possible for speed to be constant while

acceleration is not zero?
Solution No, in one dimension constant
speed requires zero acceleration.

Signs of acceleration and velocity
If 𝑎 𝑥 > 0 and thus 𝑑𝑣 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 > 0:
if 𝑣 𝑥 >0 speed up if 𝑣 𝑥 <0 slow down

Motion with Constant Acceleration
 Interpret position-time graphs for motion with constant acceleration.
 Determine mathematical relationships among position, velocity, acceleration, and time.
 Apply graphical and mathematical relationships to solve problems related to constant
acceleration.
→ Velocity with Average Acceleration

If an object’s average acceleration during a time interval is known, then it can be used to
determine how much the velocity changed during that time.
The definition of average acceleration:
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖
𝑎= = ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖

Position with Constant Acceleration
 The slopes from the position time graph can be used to create a velocity-time graph
as shown on the right.
 The area under the v-t graph is equal to the object’s displacement.

Activity
The v-t graph below shows the motion of an airplane. Find the displacement of the airplane at
Δ𝑡 = 1.0 𝑠 and at Δ𝑡 = 2.0 𝑠.

Motion in two Dimension
Position and Displacement
→ In one dimension
x  x2 (t2 )  x1 (t1 )
x1 (t1) = - 3.0 m, x2 (t2) = + 1.0 m
Δx = +1.0 m + 3.0 m = +4.0 m
→ In two dimensions
 Position: the position of an object is
described by its position vector and
always points to particle from origin.
Displacement:   

r  r2  r1

r  ( x2iˆ  y2 ˆj )  ( x1iˆ  y1 ˆj )
 ( x2  x1 )iˆ  ( y2  y1 ) ˆj
 xiˆ  yˆj

Average & Instantaneous Velocity

Average & Instantaneous Acceleration

Summary in two dimension

Kinematics equations
For constant acceleration:
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + ½𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + ½𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
2
𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
2
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑦 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

Exercise
1) A car is moving with an initial velocity of 𝑣𝑖 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. After reaching a highway, it moves with a
constant acceleration of 𝑎 𝑚 𝑠2, what will be the final velocity of the car after traveling for 𝑡
seconds?
A) 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
B) 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 2𝑎𝑡
C) 𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑖2 + 2𝑎𝑡
D) 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 - 𝑎𝑡
2) What does the slope of the line indicate on displacement versus time graph? write rise over
run)
3) What does the slope of the line indicate on a velocity versus time graph?
4) How can I find displacement on a velocity vs time graph?
5) At 𝑡 = 0 𝑠𝑒𝑐, a particle moving in the x-y plane with constant acceleration has a velocity of
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣𝑖 = 3𝑖 − 2𝑗 𝑠𝑒𝑐 and is at the origin. At 𝑡 = 3𝑠𝑒𝑐, the particle‘s velocity is 𝑣𝑓 = 9𝑖 + 7𝑗 .
𝑠𝑒𝑐
Find the acceleration.
6) An airplane lands with initial velocity of 70 m/sec and then accelerates opposite to the
motion at 2 m/s2 for 30 seconds. What is its final velocity?

Solutions
1) A car is moving with an initial velocity of 𝑣𝑖 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. After reaching a highway, it moves with
a constant acceleration of 𝑎 𝑚 𝑠2, what will be the final velocity of the car after traveling for 𝑡
seconds? 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
2) What does the slope of the line indicate on displacement versus time graph? write rise over
run) Average velocity
3) What does the slope of the line indicate on a velocity versus time graph?
Average acceleration
4) How can I find displacement on a velocity vs time graph?
area under the curve
∆v 1 m
5) a = = 9i + 7j − (3i − 2j) ≡ 2i + 3𝑗 2
∆t 3 s
∆v 𝑚
6) a = ⟹ 𝑣 = 𝑢 − 𝑎𝑡 = 70 − 2 × 30 = 10
∆t 𝑠𝑒𝑐

Acceleration Due to Gravity
→ Free fall motion – the motion of a body when air resistance is negligible and the motion can be
considered due to the force of gravity alone.
 After a lot of observation, Galileo concluded that, neglecting the effect of the air, all objects in free fall
had the same acceleration.
 It didn’t matter what they were made of, how much they weighed, what height they were dropped
from, or whether they were dropped or thrown.
→ A free falling object is an object that is falling under the sole influence of gravity. Any object that is
being acted upon only by the force of gravity is said to be in a state of free fall. There are two important
motion characteristics that are true of free-falling objects:
 Free-falling objects do not encounter air resistance.
𝑚
 All free-falling objects (on Earth) accelerate downwards at a rate of 9.81 2 .
𝑠

Important note
• Free fall does not mean that the object is falling down only.
• Objects thrown upward or downward and those released from rest are all
the examples of free fall.
In vacuum both feather and apple falls
at the same rate.
Reason:
→ In vacuum there is no air, it means there
is no air resistance.
So, surface area and mass makes no
difference.

Falling objects and air resistance
→ Falling Body, g = 9.8 m
s2
Time (sec) Velocity (m/sec)
0 0
1 9.8
2 19.6
3 29.4
4 39.2
V = 𝑣0 ± 𝑔𝑡

Equations of motion for free fall
Kinematic equations are also applicable for free fall motion as
free fall is an example of uniformly accelerated motion.
Horizontal Motion Free fall motion

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 ± 𝑔𝑡
1 2 1 2
𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ± 𝑔𝑡
2 2
2 2 2 2
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 2𝑎 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 ± 2𝑎 𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖

Example
A rock is dropped off a cliff 800 𝑐𝑚 high. How long does it take for
the rock to reach the ground?

Example
A rock is dropped off a cliff 800 𝑐𝑚 high. How long does it take
for the rock to reach the ground?
𝑚
Givens: 𝑣𝑖 = 0, 𝑔 = 10 2 , 𝑕 = 𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦𝑖 = 8 𝑚
𝑠
Required: 𝑡 =?
Solution:
1 2 2𝑕 2×8
𝑕 = 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 ± 𝑔𝑡 ⟹ 𝑡 = = = 1.3 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
2 𝑔 10

Projectile Motion
 What is Projectile?
A projectile is any object thrown into space upon which the only acting
force is gravity. This doesn’t necessarily mean that other forces do not
act on it, just that their effect is minimal compared to gravity. The path
followed by a projectile is known as a trajectory. A baseball batted or
thrown is an example of the projectile.
 What is Projectile Motion?
When a particle is thrown obliquely near the earth’s surface, it moves
along a curved path under constant acceleration directed towards the
centre of the earth. The path of such a particle is called a projectile, and
the motion is called projectile motion.

In a Projectile Motion, there are two simultaneous
independent rectilinear motions
1. Along the x-axis: uniform velocity, responsible for the horizontal

(forward) motion of the particle.
2. Along the y-axis: uniform acceleration, responsible for the
vertical (downwards) motion of the particle.
⟶ When a particle is projected in the air with some speed, the only
force acting on it during its time in the air is the acceleration due to
gravity (g). This acceleration acts vertically downward. There is no
acceleration in the horizontal direction, which means that the
velocity of the particle in the horizontal direction remains constant.

Parabolic Motion of Projectiles
⟶ Let us consider a ball projected at an angle θ with respect to the horizontal x-axis with the
initial velocity u as shown below:
Horizontal Vertical
vx  v0 x v y  v0 y  gt
x  x0  v0 xt y  y0  v0 y t  12 gt 2
⟶ The point O is called the point of projection; θ is the angle of projection and OB =
Horizontal Range or Simply Range. The total time taken by the particle from reaching O to
B is called the time of flight.

⟶ For finding different parameters related to projectile motion, we can make use of
equations of motions:
vf = vi ± gt
1 ⟶ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = −𝑔
yf − yi = vi t ± 2 gt 2
⟶ 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑎 = +𝑔
vf2 = vi2 ± 2a yf − yi

1) Total Time of Flight
Time required for a projectile to cover total horizontal distance. Therefore, the time of flight
formula is given by using the Equation of motion:
vfy = viy − gt(0→A ), vfy = 0 and viy = v0 sin θ
v0 sin θ
⟹ t 0→A = t1 = g
As air resistance is negligible effect on the projectile,

𝐯𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
𝐭 𝐀→𝐁 = 𝐭 𝟐 = 𝐠
Therefore, the time of flight formula (t) is given by:
𝟐𝐯𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉
tf = 𝐭𝟏 + 𝐭𝟐 = 𝐠

2) Horizontal Range:
→ Maximum horizontal distance covered by the projectile.
Horizontal Range (OB) = Horizontal component of velocity 𝑢𝑥 × Total Flight Time (t)
2v0 sin θ v02 sin 2θ

R = v0 cos θ × ≡
g g
3) Maximum Height of Projectile

→ The highest vertical position along its trajectory. The maximum height of the projectile is
given by the equation of motion formula:
2 2
vfy = viy − 2ay yf − yi ≡ 0 = v02 sin2 θ − 2ghmax
v20 sin2 θ
⟹ hmax =
2g

The Equation of Trajectory
It can be calculated by
1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑦 𝑡 − 2 𝑔𝑡 2 .
𝑥
Where, 𝑢𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃, 𝑡 = 𝑣 . Thus,
0 cos 𝜃
𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔 𝑣 cos 𝜃
𝑣0 cos 𝜃 2 0
𝑔𝑥 2
⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 − cos2 𝜃
2𝑣02

Projectile Motion at Various Initial Angles
 Complementary values of the

initial angle result in the same
range
⟶ The heights will be different
 The maximum range occurs at
a projection angle of 45o
v0 sin 2
2
R
g

Examples of Projectile Motion
48
 Archery
 Water Escaping a Hose
 Sneezing
 Javelin Throw…etc.

Exercises
1) An object is launched at a velocity of 20 𝑚/𝑠 in a direction making an angle of 30°
upward with the horizontal.
a) What is the maximum height reached by the object?
b) What is the total flight time (between launch and touching the ground) of the object?
c) What is the horizontal range (maximum x above ground) of the object?
d) What is the magnitude of the velocity of the object just before it hits the ground?
𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑑)
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣 cos 𝜃 , 𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 − 𝑔𝑡𝑓
⟹𝑣= 𝑣𝑥 2 + 𝑣𝑦 2

1. A ball is thrown with an initial velocity of 𝑢 = 10𝑖 + 15𝑗 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐. When it reaches the
top of its trajectory, neglecting air resistance, what is its
a) velocity?
b) Acceleration?
2. An astronaut on a strange planet can jump a maximum horizontal distance of 15 m if his
initial speed is 3 m/s. What is the free fall acceleration on the planet?
Hint: For an astronaut to jump a maximum horizontal range, 𝜃 = 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 450
3. Two projectiles are thrown with the same initial velocity, one at an angle 𝜃 and the other at
an angle of 900 − 𝜃 .
(a) Can both projectiles strike the ground at the same distance from the projection point?
(b) Can both projectiles be in air for the same time interval?
Hint:
 sin 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± sin 𝐵 cos 𝐴
 cos 𝐴 ± 𝐵 = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵


Unit 2 (Part I) General Physics

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Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

 Motion along a straight line

 Position and displacement

 Velocity and speed

 Acceleration as derivative of velocity with respect to time

 Interpret the sign of velocity and acceleration

 Free fall motion

Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

What is motion?  Rectilinear motion:

Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

Things to know about a moving object:

4 Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

• In reference to some coordinate system

• x(t) is location of particle as a function of time

• Initial position: x0 = x(t0) *

5 Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

With respect to a coordinate system:

6 Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

7 Unit 2: Mechanics By; Bessie 3/31/2023

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Displacement = Change in position: *

Δ𝑥 can be positive or negative ⟶ direction

Displacement is not the same as distance traveled!

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Together with information about

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𝑣𝑥 > 0 : object moves in the positive x-direction

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𝑣 𝑥 < 0: object moves in the negative x-direction

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→ Acceleration: how fast velocity changes, time rate of change of velocity

Average acceleration is the rate at which velocity changes:

Acceleration produces change in velocity: 𝑑𝑣𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑑𝑡

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1) A person walks first at a constant speed of 5.00 m/s along a straight

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(a) The average speed during any time interval is

(b) The average velocity during any time interval

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→ at t = 2 sec, the slope of velocity function is zero → maximum velocity occures.

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Is it possible for speed to be constant while

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If 𝑎 𝑥 > 0 and thus 𝑑𝑣 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑡 > 0:

if 𝑣 𝑥 >0 speed up if 𝑣 𝑥 <0 slow down

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→ Velocity with Average Acceleration

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