Heywood Solutions Manual

Internal
Solutions Manual
to Accompany
Combustion Engine
Fundamentals
Second Edition
JOHN B. HEYWOOD
Sun Jae Professor of Mechanical Engineering, Emeritus
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
McGraw-Hill Education
TABLE OF CONTENTS
SOLUTIONS MANUAL
PAGE
NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT ........................................................................... iv
CHAPTER 1 - ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION ....................................... 1
CHAPTER 2 - ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS ..................... 6
CHAPTER 3 - THERMOCHEMISTRY OF FUEL-AIR MIXTURES ....................... 21
CHAPTER 4 - PROPERTIES OF WORKING FLUIDS .............................................. 38
CHAPTER 5 - IDEAL MODELS OF ENGINE CYCLES ........................................... 54
CHAPTER 6 - GAS EXCHANGE PROCESSES ......................................................... 80
CHAPTER 7 - MIXTURE PREPARATION IN SI ENGINES..................................... 93
CHAPTER 8 - CHARGE MOTION WITHIN THE CYLINDER .............................. 104
CHAPTER 9 - COMBUSTION IN SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES .......................... 113
CHAPTER 10 - COMBUSTION IN COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES ........... 135
CHAPTER 11 - POLLUTANT FORMATION AND CONTROL ............................... 144
CHAPTER 12 - ENGINE HEAT TRANSFER ............................................................. 155
CHAPTER 13 - ENGINE FRICTION AND LUBRICATION ..................................... 163
CHAPTER 14 - MODELING REAL ENGINE FLOW AND COMBUSTION

PROCESSES (NO PROBLEMS INCLUDED IN THIS CHAPTER)
CHAPTER 15 - ENGINE OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS ................................. 169
iii
Notes
1. The problems in this text vary widely in complexity and time required for solution.
Some are easy, some are much more difficult; most fall in between these extremes.
Some of the problems involve substantial calculations; others do not. Check the
solutions of any problems to be assigned to ensure that the difficulty level and time
requirements are appropriate.
2. Many of the problems in the text require information beyond that given in the
problem statement. This approach is a deliberate choice. In a field such as internal
combustion engines which draws on many disciplines as well as extensive practical
experience, students should be taught that engineering “problems” often need further
definition. Making the appropriate additional assumptions and finding the necessary
additional information is part of the learning process. The answers to these problems
will of course depend to some extent on the additional assumptions and data used.
3. A number of the problems are design problems. These have “better” or “worse”
solutions, but not necessarily a unique or correct solution.
4. A number of the problems ask for estimates of typical or characteristic quantities

which define one or more aspects of engine operation. Use of an appropriate logic and
set of assumptions to obtain the answer, and the approximate magnitude of that
answer are what matters. Alternatives to the solutions given here may be just as
satisfactory.
Acknowledgment
Many of the Sloan Automotive Laboratory’s graduate students assisted in preparing these
problems and solutions. Their valuable assistance is gratefully acknowledged.
iv
Chapter 1
ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION
1.1
Piston: Transmit the gas pressure force to the connecting rod; seal the cylinder (with piston
rings); compress the fuel-air mixture prior to combustion; draw in fresh mixture, expel
burned gases (4-stroke cycle).
Connecting rod: Transform the rotating motion of crank to reciprocating motion of piston;
transmit forces from crank to piston and piston to crank.
Crankshaft: Transmit the usable mechanical power; crank throws with connecting rods
convert reciprocating motion of piston to rotating motion.
Cams and camshaft: Open and close the valves (inlet and exhaust) at appropriate times in the
cycle, via the lifters and rocker arms. Camshaft driven off crankshaft.
Valves: Control the flow of gas into and out of the cylinder.
Intake manifold: Direct approximately equal masses of air (and in some cases fuel) to each
cylinder; in SI engines acts as a sub-atmospheric pressure plenum to reduce engine load
below WOT levels.
Exhaust manifold: Collect exhaust gases from individual cylinders and feed to common pipe
which contains muffler (and sometimes catalytic converter).
1.2 Note: piston accelerating towards crankshaft axis.
1
1.3
Spark-ignition Diesel
1. Air enters cylinder; fuel Air drawn in; fuel injection into
injected in intake port, or cylinder just before combustion.
cylinder.
2. Spark-ignition of fuel-air Spontaneous ignition of fuel-air

mixture. mixture in fuel sprays.
3. Load reduced by throttling air Load reduced by reducing fuel

and fuel. injected per cycle: no throttling.
4. Fuel: gasoline. Volatile, does Fuel: distillate oil. Must ignite

not spontaneously ignite easily. easily at high temperatures.
5. Lower compression ratio (~10) Higher compression ratio (15 to

due to knock limits. 22); not knock limited.
6. Lighter construction since Heavier construction; higher

pressure forces lower and less forces and durability more
durability required. important.
1.4
2
1.5
1. Differences between spark-ignition (SI) engines and diesel engines
Standard automobile SI engine Truck diesel engine

(a) Where the fuel is Liquid gasoline is injected into the Fuel is injected directly into the cylinder
injected and why intake port. Fuel then vaporizes off (or into a prechamber which is connected
the port and valve walls flowing to the cylinder for indirect injection
into the cylinder largely as vapor engines), just before (some 5 CAD) the
when the engine is warmed-up. A desired start of combustion. High
homogeneous charge (air, fuel and pressure injection produces small, high
burned residual) in the cylinder velocity fuel droplets which vaporize
results. rapidly in the sprays.
(b) How the load is varied The air-fuel ratio (AFR) is held The air flow is held constant (no throttle)
at fixed speed constant at close to the in a naturally aspirated engine, and only
stoichiometric value. Thus both air the fuel flow is varied to vary torque. In
and fuel flows are varied (air flow TC engines, boost level varies with load.
is regulated by a throttle and fuel
flow by injector pulse width).
(c) How the combustion The charge is ignited by a spark- Spontaneous ignition occurs shortly after
process starts, develops, discharge-created hot gas kernel. A start of injection, as the injected fuel
and ends premixed flame forms around this, atomizes, vaporizes and mixes with high
propagates across the chamber as a temperature air. Rapid chemical energy
turbulent flame, and extinguishes release then occurs in fuel already mixed
at the cylinder walls. with air. A diffusion flame then develops
around each fuel spray as fuel continues
to mix with air, until all fuel is consumed.
(d) How the fuels are Gasoline: sufficiently volatile to Distilled oil: less volatile than gasoline.
different and why vaporize in the intake port. Resists Needs rapid spontaneous ignition
spontaneous ignition (onset of characteristics (to auto-ignite at high
knock) well. pressures and temperatures in the absence
of a spark).
(e) How the in-cylinder See diagram See diagram
pressure varies as a
function of crank angle
3
1.6 Intake and exhaust strokes of four-stroke cycle are much more effective at removing
the burned gases from the cylinder and filling the cylinder volume with fresh fuel-air mixture
than is two-stroke cycle scavenging process. Hence, full load four-stroke cycle cylinder
pressures are substantially higher than two-stroke cycle pressures. Also, power is required to
boost scavenging air (mixture) pressure prior to entry to cylinder.
1.7 (1) With multicylinder engine, more firing strokes per crank revolution hence
smoother output torque versus time.
(2) Forces on each piston, connecting rod, etc. reduced with multicylinder engine.
(3) Inertia forces that result from the acceleration and deceleration of piston (and
connecting rod) reduced and with suitable arrangement of crank throws can be balanced so
there is no (or only small) net inertia force. Reduces engine vibration, problems substantially.
(4) For a given displacement, the more cylinders the higher the engine’s maximum
power. Smaller size cylinders have higher maximum engine speed before intake flow choking
occurs: so engine maximum power is increased.
(5) Packaging the engine into a vehicle is easier with multicylinder engines with
more, but smaller cylinders.
4
1.8 (a) Currently, competing “prime movers” are the diesel compression-ignition engine,
the gasoline-electric hybrid and the battery-powered all-electric vehicle. Variations in the
fuels used exist such as alcohol (ethanol, methanol) in SI engines and biodiesel, often blended
with gasoline and diesel fuel, respectively. Other alternative fuels options are: natural gas,
LPG, and hydrogen, in SI engines.
(b) Diesel engines are normally more robust and achieve a better fuel economy due to
their higher efficiency. Their current problem is their air pollutant emissions: due to the
complexity of the NOx and particulates after-treatment emission reduction technologies,
these as yet have not been sufficiently developed. All-electric vehicles don’t have this vehicle
emissions problem, but due to their power source (batteries), they are range limited and have
long recharging times. They are currently more expensive. Gasoline – electric hybrids have
been growing in popularity, and for a reason. They combine the best of both worlds,
achieving lower emissions and higher fuel economy. They are still more expensive. Fuels
such as ethanol or biodiesel are good supplements to traditional fuels; they are starting to be
used in the U.S., and elsewhere. Price, availability, and sources for their production, are all
factors currently affecting the scale of their use.
(c) The most important factors for me “would be price of the fuel, fuel economy,
price of the car, and performance. “I definitely like smooth driving, high performance cars,
and I would be willing to pay for that.” Remember size scales with weight, so bigger vehicles
have worse fuel consumption. “A gasoline-electric hybrid would be my choice.”
5
Chapter 2
ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
2.1 (a) Diesel engines operate at much leaner conditions overall than spark-ignition
engines.
0.056 < (F/A)S.I. < 0.083
0.014 < (F/A)D < 0.056
From Eq. (2.41)
mep = ηf ηv Q HVρa,i (F / A)
Although ηf and ηV of a diesel engine are higher than those of an S.I. engine, the maximum
bmep of a diesel engine is lower than that of a spark-ignition engine due to lower (F/A).
(b) Maximum rated power occurs at higher speed than does maximum rated torque
because the volumetric efficiency is lower at the maximum-rated-power speed, and the
friction mep is higher since it increases with increasing speed.
2.2 (a) Engine in Fig. 1.11 (4-stroke SI engine):
Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.086 × 5300 / 60 = 15.2 m/s
At maximum power:
Pn R 187 × 103 × 2
bmep = = = 2117 kPa
Vd N 2.0 × 5300 / 60
187 × 10 −3 × 4
P / A p = P / (nπB2 / 4) = = 8.0 MW/m
2
4 × π× 0.086 2
(n = no. of cylinders)
At maximum torque:
6.28 × 2 × 353
bmep = = 2217 kPa
2.0
Engine in Fig. 1.13 (4 – stroke SI hybrid engine):
Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.085 × 5000 / 60 = 14.2 m/s
6
Pn R 57 × 103 × 2
bmep = = = 912 kPa
Vd N 1.5 × 5000 / 60
57 × 10 −3 × 4
P / Ap = = 3.2 MW/m 2
4 × π× 0.075 2
At maximum torque:
Max. torque not given: likely max. bmep about 1100 kPa (naturally-aspirated engine focussed
on high efficiency).
(b) Engine in Fig. 1.31 turbo charged DI diesel,
bore = 135 mm, stroke = 150 mm
Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.150 × 2100 / 60 = 10.5 m/s
Pn R 294 × 103 × 2
bmep = = = 1302 kPa
Vd N 12.9 × 2100 / 60
294 × 10 −3 × 4
P / Ap = = 3.4 MW/m
2
6 × π× 0.135 2
At maximum torque:
6.28 × 2 × 1667
bmep = = 1623 kPa
12.9
High-speed DI diesel engine (Fig. 1.32):
(assume B = L, 2.2-liter 4-cylinder engine: B = L = 89 mm)
Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.089 × 4500 / 60 = 13.4 m/s
Pn R 93 × 103 × 2
bmep = = = 1127 kPa
Vd N 2.2 × 4500 / 60
93 × 10 −3 × 4
P / Ap = = 6.8 MW/m 2
2.2 × π× 0.089 2
At maximum torque:
6.28 × 2 × 285
bmep = = 1627 kPa
2.2
7
Note sequence in max. bmep (bmep at max. torque): NA SI hybrid engine (lowest);
turbocharged DI diesels, truck and high-speed diesels (comparable); turbocharged SI engine
(highest).
2.3 The power required to move vehicle up hill of slope α is:
Pg = (Mv g sin α)Sv
Now: Sv = 50 mile/h = 22.4 m/s
Use Eq. (2.53). Road load plus hill climbing power is:
⎡ 1 ⎤
P = ⎢CR m v g + ρa CD A vS2v + m v g sin α ⎥ Sv
⎣ 2 ⎦
P = [0.0135 × 1500 × 9.81 + 0.5 × 1.18 × 0.4 × 2 × 22.4 2 +
1500 × 9.81× sin15°] × 22.4 × 10 −3
P = 95 kW
Note: 90 percent of this power is required for hill climbing.
2m a
2.4 Eq. (2.33a) gives ηv = ⋅ Since Sp = 2NL,
ρa,i Vd N
a 4L
m 60 g/s × 4 × 0.092 m
ηv = = = 0.85 Ans.
ρa,i Vd Sp 1.184 g/l × 2.2 l × 10 m/s
2.5 Eqs. (2.33a) and (2.10) give:
ρa,i Vd Sp
a = ηv ×
m
4L
1.184 × 12.9 × 8
= 0.92 ×
4 × 0.150
a = 187 g/s Ans.
m
f = (F / A) m
m a = 9.4 g/s
8
−1
1 ⎛ rev 1 cycle 1 min ⎞
m f / cyl = m f × × ⎜ 1600 × ×
6 ⎝ min 2 rev 60 s ⎟⎠
1 1
= 9.4 × ×
6 13.3
= 118 mg/cycle/cylinder Ans.
2.6 Eq. (2.30b) gives:
1
ηf ,b = = 0.3
bsfc (mg/J) Q HV (MJ/kg)
1
bsfc (mg/J) =
m f Q HV
Fuel QHV (MJ/kg) sfc (mg/J) sfc (g/kW·h)

Isooctane 44.3 0.0732 271
Gasoline 43.0 0.0776 279
Ethanol 26.9 0.124 447
Methanol 20.0 0.167 601
Hydrogen 120.0 0.0278 100
2.7 (a) mep = Wc / Vd = ηf m f Q HV = ηf ηvρa,i Q HV (F / A)
So, bmep = ηm ηf ,i ηvρa,i Q HV (F / A)
Now, ρa,i = pa,i / (RTa,i )
bmep × R × Ta,i
Hence, pa,i (F / A) =
ηm ηf ,i ηv Q HV
bmep × Vd × N
(b) Pb = (n R = 2 for 4-stroke cycle)
nR
With units:
bmep(kPa)Vd (dm 3 = liters) N(rev/s)

Pb (kW) =
n R × 1000
B2
Now: Vd = n cylinders × π L
4
9
N max = Sp max / (2L)
Careful with units (B and L in cm):
B2 L 1 Sp (m / s)
Pb (kW) = bmep(kPa) × n cyl π × × × 100 / 2 × 1000
4 103 2L
400 × 16 × 10 4
Or, n cyl B =
2
= 1415 cm 2
1200 × π× 12
6 cylinders: B = 15.4 cm
8 cylinders: B = 13.3 cm
(either is a reasonable choice)
Assume stroke = bore
12 × 100 6 cyl: N max = 39 rev/s = 2340 rev/min

Then: N max =
2 × B (cm) 8 cyl: N max = 45 rev/s = 2700 rev/min
(c) Use eqn from (a) to find (F/A)
pa,i = 2 atm = 2 × 105 Pa
ηm = 0.9, ηf ,i = 0.42, ηv = 0.9
Q HV = 42 MJ/kg, R air = 8314 / 28 = 297 J/kg K
Ta,i = 325 K
1200 × 103 × 297 × 325

2 × 10 (F / A)max =
5
So: 0.9 × 0.42 × 0.9 × 42 × 106
(F / A)max = 0.04 (A / F)max = 25
2.8 f Q HV
(a) brake work = 0.3 × 190 = 57 kW = 30% m
⎛ 1 ⎞
(b) friction work = 57 × ⎜ − 1 ⎟ = 14.3 kW
⎝ 0.8 ⎠
14.3
= f Q HV = 7.6% m
× 100 × m f Q HV
190
(c) heat losses = 60 kw
60
= f Q HV = 32% m
× 100 × m f Q HV
190
10
(d) exhaust chemical energy = (1 − 0.94) × 190 = 11.4 kW
11
= f Q HV = 6% m
× 100 × m f Q HV
190
(e) exhaust sensible energy = 190 − (a + b + c + d)
= 190 − 57 − 14.3 − 60 − 11.4 = 47.3 kW
47.3
= f Q HV = 24.9% m
× 100 m f Q HV
190
2.9 (a) Brake fuel conversion efficiency given by
bmep tfmep
ηf ,b = ηm ⋅ ηf ,i where ηm = = 1−
imep imep
Now tfmep = mfmep + afmep + pmep
and pmep = (pe − pi)
Wc,i Wc,i
Now imep = , and ηf ,i =
Vd m f Q HV
Substitute for imep:
ηf ,i m f Q HV ηf ,i Q HV
imep = = (ηvolρa,i Vd ) (F / A)
Vd Vd
mass of air in cylinder
⎡ (mfmep + afmep + p e − p i ) ⎤
So, ηf ,b = ηf ,i ⎢1 −
⎣ ηf ,i Q HV (ηvolρa,i )(F / A) ⎥⎦
(b) For pi = 0.4, 0.7, 1.0 bar (with pe = 1 bar) find ηm and ηf,b (ηf,i = 38%)
mfmep + afmep = 90 + 20 = 110 kPa = 1.1 bar
tfmep
pi pe − pi tfmep ρa.i imep ηm = 1 −
imep
kPa kPa kPa kg / m 3 kPa
40 60 170 0.44 419 0.59 ⎫
⎪
70 30 140 0.76 724 0.81 ⎬ Ans.
100 0 110 1.09 1038 0.89 ⎪⎭
pi
Need ρa,i = R for air is 287 J/kg ⋅ K
RTi
11
p i (kPa) × 103
Assume Ti = 320 K ρa,i =
287 × 320
imep = ηf ,i Q HV ηvρa,i (F / A) ηv = 0.85
or
imep = 0.38 × 44 × 106 × 0.85 × ρa,i × 0.067 × 10 −3 (kPa)
p i (kPa) ηm ηf .b
40 0.59 0.22 ⎫
⎪
70 0.81 0.31 ⎬ Ans.
100 0.89 0.34 ⎪⎭
(c) At idle, ηf.b = 0 so,

mfmep + afmep + (p e − p i )
1− =0
ηf .i Q HV [ηv (p i / RTi )](F / A)
pi
110 + (100 − p i ) = 0.38 × 44 × 106 × 0.85 × × 0.067 kPa
287 × 320
∴ p i = 18.5 kPa
2.10 (a) Force balance for the piston along the cylinder axis:
Let F be the friction force

Fp be the gas pressure force
Fp = pAp, where p is the pressue and Ap is the projected area
of the piston.
R be the reaction force in the connecting rod.
ϕ is the angle of the connecting rod with the cylinder axis.
M be the mass of the piston.
a be the acceleration of the piston.
The axial force balance equation is (positive away from the crank):
∑F axis = Ma; F − pA p + R cos φ = Ma
(b) Force balance transverse to cylinder axis:
∑F trans = 0; FT − R sin φ = 0.
12
where FT is the transverse force exerted by the cylinder wall on the piston.
2.11 Find the bore and stroke: assume equal
Vd n c (π / 4)B2 L = n c (π / 4)B3 = 1600 cm 3
n c = 4, hence B = L = 80 mm
(a) Piston speed:
Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.08 × 2500 / 60 = 6.7 m/s
Sp,max = 1.63 Sp (from Fig. 2.2) = 10.9 m / s
(b) Max. intake charge velocity:
Now: Vport A port = Sp,max A p
Vport = 10.9 × 5 = 55 m / s
(c) At 2500 rev/min, one crank angle is equivalent to (60/2500)/ 360 = 0.0667 ms
Thus:
one engine cycle = 720° = 48 ms
the intake process (IVO = 15° BTC, IVC = 60 ABC) = 255° = 17 ms
the compression process (BC to 30° BTC) = 150° = 10 ms
the combustion process (30° BTC to 30° ATC) = 60° = 4 ms
the expansion process (TC to BC) = 180° = 12 ms
the exhaust process (60° BBC to 20° ATC) = 260° = 17 ms
(d) Flame velocity:
Assume flame travel length
Lf = (2/3)B
Flame travel time = 60° = 4 ms
Average flame velocity
Vf = 0.67 × 0.08 / 4 × 10 −3 = 13 m / s
13
(e)
Assume average intake manifold runner diameter Di = (1/2)B. Then if shaded vol. equals
displaced cylinder vol.
(π / 4)D2i L i = (π / 4)B2 L
Or L i = 0.08 × 4 = 0.32 m
Typical port length is 10 cm and manifold runner length is 20-25 cm. So each fresh cylinder
charge essentially fills the port and runner.
(f) Assume exhaust manifold runner diameter De = (1/2)B. If cylinder charge

occupies length Le, then
(π / 4)D2e L eρe = (π / 4)B2 Lηvρa,i
⎛ρ ⎞
2
⎛ B ⎞
Hence Le = ⎜ ⎟ 2L ⎜ a,i ⎟
⎝ De ⎠ ⎝ ρe ⎠
L e = 4 × 0.08 × 0.85 × 2.3 = 0.6 m
(ρa,i = ρe × (425 + 273)/25 + 273) = 2.3 ρe, since pe and pi are almost equal)
2.12
Diesel engine details Intake manifold

4 cylinder pi = 2.0 bar
4 Stroke Ti = 380 K
B: 100 mm ηvol = 0.9
L: 120 mm
14
(a) Volume swept per cylinder per cycle
πB2 L π(0.1)2 (0.12)

= = 9.4 × 10 −4 m 3
4 4
1500 rpm = 25 rev/sec
4 - Stroke → 2 revolutions / cycle.
→ 12.5 cycles per second
Volume swept per second
= 4 × 12.5 × 9.4 × 10−4
= 4.7 × 10−2 m3/s.
actual volume flowrate at intake conditions

ηv =
vol. swept per second
⇒ Actual flowrate = (0.9)(4.7 × 10 −2 )
= 4.23 × 10 −2 m3 /s = Q
pQ (2 × 10 5 )(4.23 × 10 −2 )
=
m =
RT (287)(380)
Mass flowrate of air = 7.76 × 10−2 kg/s
f per cycle per cyl

(b) m
7.76 × 10 −2
m f / sec = = 2.77 × 10 −3 kg/s
28
2.77 × 10 −3
m f / cycle cylinder =
(4)(12.5)
= 5.54 × 10 −5 kg
(c) Indicated work
Wc
ηf = ⇒ Wc = (0.55)(5.54 × 10 −5 ) ⋅ (42,500)(103 )
m f Q HV
= 1.29 kJ / cycle cylinder
15
work/cycle.cylinder
(d) imep =
vol swept/cycle cylinder
1.29 × 103
=
9.4 × 10 −4
= 13.7 bar
bmep = imep − fmep
= 11.5 bar
(e) Power output from engine shaft
= bmep × vol/cycle cyl × cyl.cycles/sec
= (11.5) (105) (9.4 × 10−4) (12.5) (4)
= 54.1 kW
f (g / h)
m (2.77 × 10 −3 )(3600)
(f) bsfc = =
brake power (kW) 54.1
= 184 g / kW ⋅ h
(g) brake fuel conversion efficiency
bmep 11.5
ηmech = = = 0.84
imep 13.7
brake fuel conversion efficiency
= (0.84) (indicated fuel conv. effic)
= (0.84) (0.55)
= 0.46
2.13 Following the notation of Eq. (2.54a)
mv = 1787 kg (assume for 68 kg passengers)
CR = 0.0135 (use avg value on pg 77)
CD = 0.4 (use avg value on pg 77)
ρa = 1.18 kg/m3 (assume at 300 K)
Av = (70 in) (41 in) (estimated)
= 1.85 m2
16
(a) From Eq. (2.53)
⎛ 1 ⎞
Pr = ⎜ Cr M vg + ρa CD A v Sv2 ⎟ Sv
⎝ 2 ⎠
= ⎡⎣(0.0135)(1787 kg) ( 9.807m/s2 ) +
1 ⎤
(1.18 kg/m 3 ) (0.4)(1.85 m 2 )S2v ⎥ Sv
2 ⎦
Pr = [237 N + 0.414 kg/m Sv ]Sv
2
⎛ 1000 m ⎞ ⎛ 1 hr ⎞
For Sv = 50 km / h ⎜ ⎟ = 13.9 m/s
⎝ km ⎠ ⎜⎝ 3600 s ⎟⎠
Pr = [237 N + 0.414 kg/m (13.9 m/s2 )](13.9 m/s)

Pr = 4.4 kW
For Sv = 100 km / h = 27.8 m / s
Pr = [237 N + 0.414 kg/m (27.8 m/s)2 (27.8 m/s)]

Pr = 15.4 kW
As vehicle speed increases, the aerodynamic drag becomes dominant (it increases as S3v ,
while the rolling resistance increases as Sv).
(b) First, find power req’d to move mass up hill. Then add to power req’d from above.
θ = 18° (20% grade)
F = m v g sin θ
= (1787 kg)(9.807 m/s2 )sin18°
F = 5416 N
estimate, Rwheel = 12″ = 0.30 m
Phill = F R wheel Sv
= (5416 N)(0.30 m)(13.89 m/s)
Phill = 22.6 kW
17
So Preq = Proll + Phill
= 4.4 kW + 22.6 kW
Preq = 27 kW
(c) First determine total power produced by engine:
Sv
engine rotational speed = 3.27
R wheel
= 10.9 m −1 S v
Ptotal = Tengine N engine

= (247 N ⋅ m)(10.9 m −1 S v )
Ptotal = (2692 N) Sv
The “losses” in power are given by the previous road load powers:
Plosses = [237 N+0.414 kg/m Sv2 ] Sv
The power that can be used to accelerate is the difference in these two:
Puseful = Ptotal − Plosses

= (2692 N)Sv − [236.6 N + 0.414 kg/m S2v ]Sv
Puseful = [2456 N + 0.414 kg/m Sv2 ]Sv
Power = Force × velocity, but here the Force is an inertial one, so
Puseful = m v a Sv
a = Puseful / (m v Sv )
(2456 N + 0.414 kg / m S2v )Sv
=
1787 kg Sv
So
a = 1.37 m/s2 + (2.32 × 10 −4 m −1 ) S2v
Recall, a = dSv/dt. Rewrite:
dSv
= dt
1.37 m/s + (2.32 × 10 −4 m −1 )S2v
2
integrate from Sv = 40 km/h (= 11.1 m/s) at t = 0, to Sv = 80 km/h (= 22.2 m/s) and t =t*
18
22.2 m/s dSv t*
∫11.1 m/s −4 −1
1.37 m/s + (2.32 × 10 m )Sv
2 2
= ∫ dt
0
evaluate numerically (Matlab, Calculator)
t* = 7.6 sec
2.14 Knowns: θ, pcyl, pcc > patm (i.e., pressure in crankcore ≅ atmospheric pressure)
B=L
R = ℓ/a
γc (Compression ratio)
Ffric (friction force on piston)
Mp (mass of piston, pin, and half connecting rod)
N (engine speed)
Use Eq. (2.14) or Fig. 2.2 to calculate the piston acceleration at 45° ATC, with L = 80 mm, a
= 40 mm, R = 3.5 and N = 2500 rev/min:
ap = −1960 m/s2, and the inertia force Mpap is −1120 N (downward).
Draw a free body diagram that shows all the forces:
sin φ = (a / 2) / A
= (40 / 1.41) / 140
= 0.203
So φ = 11.7°
The piston area, Ap = πB2/4, is 5.03 × 10−3 m2. Fcr (force exerted by the con. rod on the
piston), is at an angle of 11.7° to the vertical. Thus, the forces acting on the piston are the
following:
19
pcyl A P = (1000 × 103 N/m 2 )(5.03 × 10 −3 m 2 ) = 5030 N, downward
Ffric = 65 N (given), upward
pcc A P = (100 × 103 N/m 2 )(5.03 × 10 −3 m 2 ) = 503 N, upward
Weight = M P g = (0.57 kg)(9.8 m 2 / s) = 5.6 N, downward
Using ∑F vertical = M P a P = −pcyl A p + Ffric + pcc A p
−M p g + Fcr cos 11.7°
So Fcr = [M P (a p + g) + (pcyl − pcc )A P − Ffric ] / cos 11.7°
Thus: Fcr = 3416 N
The torque: T = Fcr × a sin (θ + ϕ)
torque = (3416 N) × (40 × 10−3 m) sin (45 + 11.7) = 114 N·m
(b) Intake stroke: pcyl = 0.5 bar
pcyl AP = (0.5) (105) (5.03 × 10−3) = 255 N, downward
Ffric = 65 N, upward
pcc AP = 503 N, upward
Weight = 5.6 N, downward
Inertial force = −1120 N
Using ∑F vertical = M P a P gives
Fcr = +255 − 65 − 503 + 5.6 − 1120 = −1427 N
Thus, the connecting rod is in tension.
2.15 Suggested laboratory project: no solution.
20
Chapter 3
THERMOCHEMISTRY OF FUEL-AIR MIXTURES
3.1 a
Air flow rate m
a = (A / F) m
m f = 14.6 × 2 = 29.2 g / s
sec 1
f×
m f per cycle = m ×
cycle cylinder
2 × 60 1
= 2 g/s × × = 40 mg/cycle cylinder
1500 4
m a per cycle = 40 × 14.6 = 584 mg/cycle cylinder
m a 29.2
ηV = 2 = 2× = 0.82
ρa,i Vd N 1.184 × 2.4 × 1500 / 60
1 ⎛ 10 ⎞
3.2 C4 H10 + ⎜ 4 + ⎟ (O2 + 3.773 N 2 )
0.9 ⎝ 4⎠
⎛ 1 ⎞ 6.5 × 3.773
→ 4CO2 + 5H 2 O + ⎜ − 1 ⎟ × 6.5 O2 + N2
⎝ 0.9 ⎠ 0.9
Total moles (wet): n W = 4 + 5 + 0.72 + 27.2 = 37
Wet exhaust gas composition:
CO 2 = 10.8%, H 2 O=13.6%, O2 = 2.0%, N 2 = 73.6%.
1
3.3 C3H8 + (3 + 2) (O2 + 3.773 N 2 )
φ
⎛1 ⎞ 1
→ 3CO2 + 4H 2 O + ⎜ − 1 ⎟ 5O2 + × 5 × 3.773 N 2
⎝φ ⎠ φ
Total moles products (dry; water excluded):
⎛1 ⎞ 1 23.9
n D = 3 + 5 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ + 18.9 = −2
⎝φ ⎠ φ φ
21
⎛1 ⎞
5 ⎜ − 1⎟
φ ⎠
× 100; O2 = 4.5% = ⎝
3
CO 2 = 10.8% = × 100;
nD nD
Solve for: n D = 27.8, and φ = 0.8, λ = 1.25
3.4 (a) QLHV per unit mass of mixture = Q LHVm
QLHV per unit mass of fuel = Q LHVf
1
Then: Q LHVm = Q LHVf ×
1 + (A / F)
Fuel (A/F)s Q LHVf (MJ/kg) Q LHVm (MJ/kg)
methane 17.23 50.0 2.74

isooctane 15.13 44.3 2.75
gasoline 14.6 43 2.76
methanol 6.47 20.0 2.68
ethanol 9.0 26.9 2.69
hydrogen 34.3 120.0 3.40
(b) Calculate the volume per unit mass of mixture. First find the molecular weight of
mixture M. If fuel is CnHmOp, stoichioimetric mixture will be:
Cn H m O p + (n + m / 4 − p / 2)(O2 + 3.773 N 2 )
mass of mixture m f (1 + A / F)
Then: M= =
moles of mixture 1 + (n + m / 4 − p / 2) × 4.773
where mf is fuel mass
Then calculate the volume per unit mass of mixture:
V T R 298.15 K × 8314 J/mol ⋅ K

= =
m pM 1.013 × 105 Pa × M
Then lower heating value per unit volume of stoichiometric mixture, Q LHVv , is
Q LHVv = Q LHV m × (m/V)
22
Fuel Mf (A/F)s M V/m (ℓ/g) Q LHVv (kJ / A)
methane 16.04 17.23 27.8 0.88 3.11

isooctane 114.23 15.13 30.5 0.80 3.42
gasoline 100 14.6 31.2 0.78 3.54
methanol 32.04 6.47 29.4 0.83 3.22
ethanol 46.07 9.0 30.1 0.81 3.32
hydrogen 2.015 34.3 21.0 1.16 2.92
3.5 The equivalence ratio from the air and fuel flow rates is
m f /m
a 0.4 / 5.6
φm = = = 1.04
(F / A)s 0.0685
Now calculate the equivalence ratio from the exhaust gas composition measurements ϕe:
1 ⎛ 1.87 ⎞
CH1.87 + ⎜1 + ⎟ (O2 + 3.773 N 2 )
φe ⎝ 4 ⎠
c 1.47
→ aCO2 + bH 2 O + cCO + H 2 + × 3.773 N 2
3 φ
The total number of (dry) moles is:
4 5.54
nD = a + c +
3 φe
From carbon conservation:
a+c=1
a c
x CO2 = 0.13 = , x CO = 0.028 =
nD nD
Hence: n D = 6.33
4 5.54
Now n D = 0.13n D + × 0.028n D +
3 φe
ϕe = 1.05
The two equivalence ratios match well.
3.6 Compare gasoline, diesel fuel, methane, ethanol & hydrogen. Table D.4 in Appendix
D has the fuels data.
23
(a) LHV per unit volume of stoichiometric mixture at STP?
⎛ mass fuel in ⎞
⎜ ⎟
LHVmix = ⎜ fixed volume ⎟ × LHVfuel
⎜ of mix ⎟
⎝
⎠
# moles fuel
in fixed volume × MWfuel
of mix

mole fraction of fuel × # total moles mix.
Approach
1. Assume 1 m3 of stoich mix. Find total # moles in it. (It is a mixture of 2 ideal gases.)
2. Determine mole fraction of fuel in stoich mix, from stoichiometry
3. Compute LHVmix = x fuel n total MWfuel LHVfuel
From ideal gas law
pV
n total =
RT
(1 atm)(1 m 3 ) 101× 103 Pa
= ⋅
(8.314 J/mol ⋅ K)(298.15 K) atm
n total = 40.75 moles
Mole fractions?
– Balance the chemical reactions.
gasoline approx as C7H13 (Table D.4)
Use Eq. (3.5) for chemical element balance:
C7H13 + 10.27 (O2 + 3.773 N2) → (products)
1
so x gasoline = = 0.0200
1 + 10.27(4.773)
Similarly for the other hydrocarbons:
diesel: approximate as C13H24, Section 1.11.1
24
1
(use avg values for diesel) → x diesel fuel = = 0.0109
1 + 19(4.773)
methane: CH4
1
→ x methane = = 0.0948
1 + 2(4.773)
ethanol: C2H6O
balance the chemical elements:
C2 H 6 O + α(O2 + 3.773N 2 ) → β CO2 + γ H 2 O + δ N 2
atom balance:
C: 2 =β
H : 6 = 2γ ⇒ γ = 3
O : 1 + 2α = 2N
β+γ
7
2α = 6 ⇒ α = 3
1
so x ethanol = = 0.0653
1 + 3(4.773)
hydrogen: H2
Chemical element balance:
H 2 + α(O2 + 3.773 N 2 ) → β H 2 O + γ N 2
atom balance:
H: β =1
O : 2α = β = 1 ⇒ α = 1
2
1
so x Hydrogen = = 0.295
1 + 12 (4.773)
Now calculate LHVmix for each fuel.
LHVmix = x fuel n total (40.75 moles)MWfuel LHVfuel
25
Fuel x fuel MWfuel LHVfuel LHVmix LHVmix
gasoline
LHVmix
gasoline 0.0200 97.09 g/mol 43.0 kJ/g 3403 kJ 1.00
diesel 0.0109 180 g/mol 43.2 kJ/g 3454 kJ 0.98
methane 0.0948 16.0 g/mol 50.0 kJ/g 3090 kJ 0.88
ethanol 0.0653 46.0 g/mol 26.9 kJ/g 3293 kJ 0.95
hydrogen 0.295 2.0 g/mol 120.0 kJ/g 2885 kJ 0.83
Sample calculation (gasoline)
LHVmix = 0.0200 × 40.75 × 97.09 × 43 = 3403 kJ per m3 of stoichiometric mixture
Note (right hand column) numbers are close.
(b) LHV per unit volume of fuel at STP?
mass fuel
LHVvolume of fuel = × LHVfuel
in volume

ρ
fuel at STP
Approach:
1. Assume 1 m3 fuel.
2. Compute LHV per unit volume
LHVvolume fuel = ρfuel × LHVfuel
fuel ρfuel LHVfuel LHVvolume fuel LHVvol fuel

gasoline
LHVvol fuel
gasoline 750 kg/m3 43.0 MJ/kg 32.3 × 103 MJ 1.00

diesel 810 kg/m3 43.2 MJ/kg 35.0 × 103 MJ 1.08
methane 0.79 kg/m3 50.0 MJ/kg 39.5 MJ 1.2 × 10−3
ethanol 785 kg/m3 26.9 MJ/kg 21.1 × 103 MJ 0.65
hydrogen 0.090 kg/m3 120.0 MJ/kg 10.8 MJ 3.3 × 10−4
Fuel data from Table D.4.
(c) The output of the engine will change slightly when using each of these fuels. The
engine has a given cylinder volume: thus, the heating value per unit vol. of stoichiometric
mixture is the relevant heating value. So hydrogen would reduce output by (1−0.83) or 17%
26
(the fuel molecules take up significant volume. Part (c) shows the value of using a liquid fuel,
rather than a gas. Also, while a stoichiometric mixture of ethanol and air has comparable
chemical energy to gasoline, a larger fuel tank (1 ÷ 0.65 = 1.5) for the same driving range
would be needed.
3.7 (a) What fraction of ethanol-gasoline mixture must be ethanol for 2% oxygen?
Consider unit mass of mixture : mass fraction x is ethanol, (1 − x) is gasoline
Ethanol is C2H6O.
Then, oxygen mass = x × 16 (atomic wt oxy.) / (2 × 12 + 6 × 1 + 16)
This equals 0.02
46
so x = 0.02 × = 0.0575 i.e. 5.75%
16
(b) Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio of mixture:
Unit mass of fuel: 0.0575 mass ethanol, 0.9425 mass gasoline
Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio = 9 × 0.0575 + 14.6 × 0.9425
= 14.27 per unit mass fuel
Mixture stoichiometric A/F = 14.27
a
(c) Fixed mass flow rate of air, m
a / 14.6
Mass of gasoline = m
mixed fuel = m
Since density is essentially the same m gasoline
So for fuel mixture, λ, the relative air/fuel ratio is:
a / (m
m a / 14.6)
λ mixed fuel = = 1.023
14.27
3.8 (a) The overall combustion reaction for the alcohol is:
a C7 H n Om + b(O2 + 3.773 N 2 ) → 0.13 CO2 + 0.052 CO

+0.091 H 2 O + 0.013 H 2 + 0.713 N 2
From carbon balance:
7a = 0.13 + 0.052 → a = 0.026
27
From hydrogen balance:
0.026n = 2 × 0.091 + 0.013 × 2 → n = 8
From nitrogen balance:
2 × 3.773 × b = 0.713 × 2 → b = 0.189
From oxygen balance:
0.026m + 0.189 × 2 = 0.13 × 2 + 0.052 + 0.091
m 1
Therefore the elemental composition of the alcohol fuel is
C7H7OH
⎛ A ⎞ 0.189(32 + 3.773 × 28)

(b) ⎜ ⎟ = = 9.26
⎝ F ⎠ 0.026(7 × 12 + 8 + 16)
For stoichiometric mixture:
17 17
C7 H8 O + (O2 + 3.773 N 2 ) → 7 CO2 + 4 H 2 O + × 3.773 N 2
2 2
⎛A⎞ (17 / 2)(32 + 3.773 × 28)
⎜ ⎟ = = 10.83
⎝ F ⎠stoich 7 × 12 + 8 × 1 + 16
Relative air/fuel ratio:
(A / F)actual 9.263
λ= = = 0.86
(A / F)stoich 10.83
So the mixture is fuel rich.
(c) What is actual torque/max torque at this speed?
Find the ratio of actual bmep to max. bmep.
Vd = 3 L
a = 0.06 kg/sec
m
N = 3000 rev/min ( = 50 rev/sec)
fmep = 200 kPa (constant)
We are told ηf,ig is independent of load. Recall that
28
wc,ig
ηf ,ig = (eqn 2.23)
m f Q HV
(imep g Vd )
ηf ,ig =
⎡ ⎛ mf ⎞ ⎤
⎢m a φ ⎜ m ⎟ ⎥ Q HV
⎣ ⎝ a ⎠stoich ⎦
at these condition ϕ1(mf/ma)stoich, QHV, Vd, N and ηf,ig are all constant.
imepgpart m apart m apart

So = =
imepfull
g m afull m afull
afull – Assume volumetric efficiency of 0.9

Estimate m
zm a
ηv = (Eq. 2.33a)
ρa,i Vd N
ηv
Here afull =
m ρa,i Vd N
2
0.9
= (1.18 kg / m 2 )(0.003 m 3 )(50 rev/s)
2
afull = 0.08 kg/s

m
apart (= 0.06 kg/s)

m
So imepgpart = imep full
g ×
afull (= 0.08 kg/s)
m
imep gpart = 0.75 imep full

g
Need ratio of bmeppart to bmepfull
Assume for this NA engine technology that bmepmax is approx 1100 kPa. Torque curve is
relatively flat in the mid-speed range, so use this value at this speed.
bmepfull ≈ 1100 kPa
Recall:
bmepfull = imep full

gross − pmep
full
− fmep full
↑
= 0 at full load 200 kPa
gross = 1300 kPa

imep full
29
From above,
part
imep gross = 0.75 imep full
gross = 0.75 × 1300 = 975 kPa
Since bmep part = imep gross

part
− pmep part − fmep part
need to estimate the part-load intake pressure
Pipart / Pifull = (m part T part / VIVC ) / (m full T full / VIVC )
Since Tpart ≈ Tfull, and m part / m full ≈ m apart / m afull (mf is small compared to ma), then
p part
i = (m part / m full )p full
i = 0.75 × 100 = 75 kPa
So bmeppart = 975 − (100 − 75) − 200 = 750 kPa
Ratio of bmep’s:
bmep part ⎛ T part ⎞ 750

⎜= ⎟= = 68%
bmep full ⎝ Tfull ⎠ 1100
The engine is operating at about 2/3 load.
3.9 Consider reaction N2 + O2 = 2NO
Given N:O ratio is 15. Consider 15 moles N2 and 1 mole O2 initially;
let α/2 moles of each react to form α moles of NO:
species moles mole fraction

N2 15 − α/2 (15 − α/2)/l6
O2 1 − α/2 (1 − α/2)/16
NO α α/16
Σ 16 1.0
Use equilibrium relation Eq. (3.40): log Kp normally expressed per mole of product NO.
Then:
(α / 16)
= 10 −1.2
[(15 − α / 2) / 16]1/2 [(1 − α / 2) / 16]1/2
251α 2 = (15 − α / 2)(1 − α / 2) = 15 − 8α + α 2 / 4
30
Solve:
0.23
α = 0.23, x NO = = 0.014
16
3.10 where n = no. of moles

(a) From the ideal gas law pV = nRT
n p 1.013 × 105 Pa
= = = 1.22 × 10 −2 kmole/m 3 = 1.22 × 10 −5 gmole/cm 3

V RT 8314 J/kmol ⋅ K × 1000
Hence:
n
[CO] = × 0.03 = 3.66 × 10 −7 gmole/cm 3
V
n
[O2 ] = × 0.07 = 8.53 × 10 −7 gmole/cm 3
V
d[CO]
(b) = −4.3 × 1011 × (3.66 × 10 −7 ) × (8.53 × 10 −7 )0.25 exp[ −20]
dt
= −1.0 × 10 −5 (gmole/cm 3 ⋅ s)
1
(c) Consider CO+ O2 = CO2
2
Kp = 1010; thus at equilibrium essentially all of the CO will have recombined. Per 100 moles
gas entering reactor:
species entering moles equilibrium moles equilibrium mole

fraction
CO 3 α α/n
O2 7 5.5 + α/2 (5.5 + α/2)/n
CO2 6 9−α (9 −α)/n
N2 + H2O 84 84 84/n
100 n = 98.5 − α/2 1.0
Equilibrium relation (p = 1 atm):
(9 − α) / n
= K p = 1010
(α / n)[5.5 + α / 2) / n]1/2
31
Since α 1,
α = 9(98.5 / 5.5)1/2 / 1010 = 4 × 10 −9
x CO = 4 × 10 −11 , essentially zero
(d) Approximate relation for time to reach equilibrium CO concentration is:
τ = [CO]t =0 / (d[CO] / dt)t =0

= 3.7 × 10 −7 / 10 −5 = 40 ms
(The actual time to reach equilibrium will be longer since the reaction rate decreases as the
[CO] concentration decreases.)
3.11 The overall combustion equation for hydrogen is:
0.5 ⎛1 ⎞ 0.5 × 3.773

H2 + (O2 + 3.773 N 2 ) = H 2 O + 0.5 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ O2 + N2
φ ⎝φ ⎠ φ
Thus:
product species no. of moles mole fraction

H2O 1 1/n
⎛1 ⎞
O2 0.5 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ etc.
⎝φ ⎠
N2 0.5 × 3.773 / φ
Total n = 0.5[1 + 4.773 / φ]
We can find ϕ from mole fractions or ratio of no. of moles. Easiest method:
n H2 O φ 22.3
= = which gives φ = 0.6
n N2 0.5 × 3.773 70.2
3.12 The overall equation for lean combustion of hydrocarbon fuel CHy is:
1⎛ y⎞ y
CH y + ⎜ 1 + ⎟ (O2 + 3.773N 2 ) → CO2 + H 2 O
φ⎝ 4⎠ 2
⎡ 1 ⎛ y ⎞ ⎛ y ⎞⎤ 1
+ ⎢ ⎜ 1 + ⎟ − ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ⎥ O2 + (1 + y / 4)3.773 N 2
⎣ φ ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠⎦ φ
32
(a) Atomic H/C ratio = y = 2x H2 O / x CO2
y = 2 × 0.0468/0.05855 = 1.6
(b) Combustion products are:
⎛1 ⎞ 1.4 × 3.773
CO 2 + 0.8H 2 O + 1.4 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ O2 + N2
⎝φ ⎠ φ
The mole fraction CO2 is:
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1.4 × 3.773 ⎤
x CO2 = 1 / ⎢1 + 0.8 + 1.4 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ + ⎥ = 0.0585
⎣ ⎝φ ⎠ φ ⎦
Solve for ϕ:
1.4 × 4.773
1 / 0.0585 = 17.1 = 0.4 + + φ = 0.4
φ
(c) Only a diesel can operate with ϕ = 0.4. This is beyond the lean limit for SI
engines.
(d) Maximum equivalence ratio is about 0.7 for a diesel.
Since it is a 2 liter engine it will be a high-speed DI diesel engine.
(0.7 − 0.4) × 100

Hence increase in fuel flow rate = = 75%
0.4
3.13 (a) Consider each component of the LPG mixture separately:
0.7 × [C3H8 + 5(3.773N 2 + O2 ) → 3CO2 + 4H 2 O + 5 × 3.773N 2 ]
0.05 × [C 4 H10 + 6.5(3.773N 2 + O2 ) → 4CO2 + 5H 2 O + 6.5 × 3.773N 2 ]
0.25 × [C3H 6 + 4.5(3.773N 2 + O2 ) → 3CO2 + 3H 2 O + 4.5 × 3.773N 2 ]
Add these to get overall stoichiometric combustion reaction for one mole of LPG:
(0.7C3H8 + 0.05C4 H10 + 0.25C3H 6 ) + 4.95 × (3.773N 2 + O2 ) →
3.05CO2 + 3.8H 2 O + 18.68N 2 Ans.
33
The stoichiometric fuel/air ratio is given by:
(0.7 × 3 + 0.05 × 4 + 0.25 × 3) × 12 + (0.7 × 8 + 0.05 × 10 + 0.25 × 6)
4.95 × 4.773 × 28.96
(F / A)s = 44.2 / 684.2 = 0.0646
(A / F)s = 1 / 0.0646 = 15.5
(Note the numerator of the above expression gives the molecular weight of this LPG as 44.2.)
(b) Higher heating values for each compound are:
C3H8 50.38 MJ/kg (Mol. Wt = 44)
C4H10 49.56 MJ/kg (Mol. Wt = 58)
C3H6 48.95 MJ/kg (Mol. Wt = 42)
Higher heating value of the LPG fuel per gram-mole is:
Q HHV = 0.7 × 44 × 50.38 + 0.05 × 58 × 49.56 + 0.25 × 42 × 48.95

= 2,209 MJ/kmole
Divide by molecular weight of LPG to get higher heating value per kg
2,209 MJ/kmol
Q HHV = = 50.0 MJ/kg
44.2 kg/kmol
The lower heating value (LHV) can be calculated the same way, or:
1 mole fuel gives 3.8 moles H2O
Thus the lower heating value per kmole
Q LHV = 2,209 − 3.8 × 18 × 2442 × 10 −3 = 2,042 MJ/kmole
(2442 kJ/kg is hfg of water)
The lower heating value per kg is:
2,042 MJ/kmole
Q LHV = = 46.2 MJ/kg Ans.
44.2 kg/kmole
3.14 Stoichiometric combustion equation for isooctane C8H18 is:
C8 H18 + 12.5(O2 + 3.773N 2 ) → 8CO2 + 9H 2 O + 47.2N 2
34
For lean combustion (ϕ < 1)
1
12
1⎛1 ⎞ 47.2
C8 H18 + 2 (O2 + 3.773N 2 ) → 8CO2 + 9H 2 O + 12 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ O2 + N2
φ 2⎝φ ⎠ φ
where ϕ is the equivalence ratio.
The total no. of moles of products including water is
⎛ 1 ⎞ 47.2 59.7
= 8 + 9 + 12.5 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ + = 4.5 + = nw
⎝φ ⎠ φ φ
The no. of moles of products after H2O removed is:
⎛ 1 ⎞ 47.2 59.7
= 8 + 12.5 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ + = − 4.5 = n D .
⎝φ ⎠ φ φ
The mole fractions in the dry products are:
8 1.25[(1 / φ) − 1] 47.2
x CO2 = ; x O2 = ; x N2 =
nD nD φn D
Thus:
Mole fractions in dry exhaust

Equivalence nD x CO2 x O2 x N2
ratio ϕ
0.5 114.9 0.0696 0.109 0.822
0.7 80.8 0.0991 0.0663 0.835
0.9 61.8 0.129 0.0224 0.849
1.0 55.2 0.145 0 0.855
For rich mixtures (ϕ > 1):
12.5 47.2
C8 H18 + (O2 + 3.773N 2 ) → aCO2 + bH 2 O + cCO + dH 2 + N2
φ φ
Given: c = 3d;
12.5
Element balance gives: a + c = 8, 2b + 2d = 18, and × 2 = 2a + b + c
φ
35
Solve to get:
1 ⎛ 75 ⎞ 1 ⎛ 25 ⎞
a = ⎜ − 43 ⎟ ; b = ⎜ + 11 ⎟
4⎝ φ ⎠ 4⎝ φ ⎠
75 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 25 ⎛ 1 ⎞
c= ⎜ 1 − ⎟ ; d = ⎜1 − ⎟
4 ⎝ φ⎠ 4 ⎝ φ⎠
The total number of moles of products (with water)
47.2 47.2
=a+b+c+d+ = nw = + 17
φ φ
For dry products after water removed:
47.2 1 ⎛ 163 ⎞
nD = a + c + d + = ⎜ 57 +
φ 4⎝ φ ⎟⎠
Hence, mole fractions are:
1 ⎛ 75 ⎞ 75 ⎛ 1 ⎞
x CO2 = ⎜ − 43 ⎟ / n D , x CO = ⎜ 1 − ⎟ / n D , x H2 = x CO / 3, x N2 = 47 / (φn D )
4⎝ φ ⎠ 4 ⎝ φ⎠
Mole fractions in dry exhaust

ϕ nD x CO2 x CO x H2 x N2
1 .0 55 0.145 0 0 0.855
1.1 51.3 0.123 0.033 0.011 0.833
1.3 45.6 0.081 0.095 0.032 0.793
1.5 41.4 0.042 0.151 0.050 0.757
The air/fuel ratio is 14:
(12.5 / φ)(32 + 3.773 × 28.16)

i.e., = 14
8 × 12 + 18 × 1
Solve: ϕ = 1.08 so mixture is rich
Find mole fractions on wet basis (with water included):
47.2
n w (rich mixture) = + 17 = 60.6
φ
x CO2 = a / n w = 0.110
36
x H2 O = b / n w = 0.141
x CO = c / n w = 0.022
x H2 = d / n w = 0.0072
x N2 = 47 / φn w = 0.720
Total Σx i = 1.000
37
Chapter 4
PROPERTIES OF WORKING FLUIDS
4.1 (a) Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio for ethane C2H6 is (Eq. (3.6))
34.56 (4 + 6 / 2)
(A / F)s = = 16.09
12.011 + 1.008 × 6 / 2
0.48
Hence: φ = (m f / m a ) / (F / A)s = ×16.09 = 1.1
7
Use Table 4.3:
4 4
ε= = = 0.571; ψ = 3.773
4+ y 4+6/ 2
Equation (4.6) gives c:
(K − 1)c 2 − c{K[2(φ − 1) + εφ] + 2(1 − εφ)} + 2Kεφ(φ − 1) = 0
(3.5 − 1)c2 − c{3.5[2(1.10 − 1) + 0.571(1.10)] + 2(1 − 0.571(1.10))}

+ 2(3.5)(0.571)(1.10)(1.10 − 1) = 0
c 2 − 1.459c + 0.177 = 0, c = 0.134
CO2 H2O CO H2 O2 N2
moles ni 0.495 0.877 0.134 0.068 0 3.773
x i (= n i / 5.345) 0.0926 0.1641 0.0251 0.0127 0 0.706
(b) Stoichiometric (F/A) for ethanol C2H6O is (Appendix D, or Eq. (4.7a)) 0.111.
Hence the equivalence ratio is:
ϕ = (0.48/7)/0.111 = 0.618
Equation (4.7b):
2 2
ζ= = = 1.058
2 − εz(1 − φ) 2 − 0.571× 0.5 × (1 − 0.618)
Equation (4.7c) gives:
φ* = ζφ = 1.058 × 0.618 = 0.654
38
⎛ εZ ⎞ ⎛ 0.571× 0.5 ⎞
and ψ* = ⎜1 − ⎟ ζψ = ⎜ 1 − ⎟ × 1.058 × 3.773 = 3.422
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Use Table 4.3 with ϕ* instead of ϕ and ψ* instead of ψ:
CO2 H2O CO H2 O2 N2
moles ni 0.373 0.561 0 0 0.346 3.422
x i (= n i / 4.702) 0.0793 0.119 0 0 0.0736 0.728
4.2 (a) Use the ideal gas model with constant specific heats of Example 4.1.
Constant volume combustion: Eq. (4.23) is:
⎛ M ⎞⎛ T Δh ⎞
Tb = ( γ b − 1) ⎜ b ⎟ ⎜ u + f ⎟
⎝ Mu ⎠ ⎝ γu −1 R u ⎠
Δh f
From Example 4.1: γ u = 1.31, γ b = 1.21, = 1.2 × 104 K
Ru
Given: T = 700 K, ϕ = 1, xb = 0.1 ; from Fig. 4.1: Mu = 30.2, Mb = 28.7
28.7 ⎡ 700 ⎤
Tb = (1.21 − 1) ⎢ ⎥ + 1.2 ×104 K] = 2845 K
30.2 ⎣1.31 − 1 ⎦
Constant pressure combustion: Eq. (4.24) is:
γb −1 Mb ⎡ γu Δh f ⎤
Tb = − T +
γ b M u ⎢⎣ γ u −1 R u ⎥⎦
u
1.21 − 1 28.7 ⎡ 1.31 ⎤

Tb = ⎢ 700 + 1.2 ×104 ⎥ = 2467 K
1.21 30.2 ⎣1.31 − 1 ⎦
(b) Use charts for the calculations; Figures 4.3 and 4.8:
For a constant-volume adiabatic combustion process, Eq. (4.29) gives
u b = u u = u s,u + Δu Df ,u
For a constant-pressure adiabatic combustion process, Eq. (4.28) gives
h b = h u = h s,u + Δu Df ,u
39
Enthalpies and internal energies of formation of stoichiometric unburned mixtures vary with
burned gas fraction as follows: (Eq. (4.32)):
Δh Df ,u = −129.7 − 2951 x b kJ / kg air
u Df ,u = −118.2 − 2956 x b kJ / kg air
From Fig. 4.3: us,u = 370 kJ/kg air; hs,u = 490 kJ/kg air
Hence:
ub = 370 + (−118.2 − 2956 × 0.1) = −43.8 kJ/kg air
hb = 490 + (−129.7 − 2951 × 0.1) = 65.2 kJ/kg air
From Fig. 4−8 (ϕ = 1.0) with v = 0.125 m3/kg and ub = −44 kJ/kg.
constant volume adiabatic combustion yields:
Tb = 2800 K
For constant pressure adiabatic combustion:
ub = hb − pv = 65.2 − 15 × 101.33 x v kJ/kg air
= 65.2 − 1519.9 v kJ/kg air
Using pb = 1520 kPa, and trial and error with Fig. 4.8 gives
Tb = 2400 K
4.3 For an ideal gas:
h = h(T), u = u(T), pv = (R / M)T, c v = du / dT, c p = dh / dT,
For fixed composition, M = constant. Since
h = u + pv = u + (R / M)T (A)
dh du
= + (R / M); c p = c v + R / M
dT dT
Now γ = cp/cv
R
Hence M=
c p [1 − (1/ γ )]
40
Use Figs. 4.15 and 4.16, with R = 8.3143 kJ / kmol ⋅ K , for ϕ = 1.0:
1750 K 2250 K 2750 K

cp (J/kg·K) 1.44 1.72 2.44
γ (= cp/cv) 1.254 1.216 1.181
M 28.5 27.2 22.2
M (Fig. 4.14) 28.6 28.5 28.1
As temperature increases, the fixed composition assumption for burned gases becomes less
accurate. M is then a significant function of temperature and differentiation of equation (A)
above becomes more complex.
4.4 (a) From Table 4.7:
Mole Mass c*p R = R / M cp %

fraction fraction (J/kg·K) mixture cp
R (J/kg·K)
x i xi
CO2 0.125 0.192 7.1 189 1342 18
H2O 0.140 0.088 5.88 461 2713 17
N2 0.735 0.720 4.23 297 1256 65
Total 1.000 1.000 100
*From Fig. 4.11 at 1750 K
x i = x i M i / ∑ x jM j
mixture c p = x i c p,i / ∑ x jc p, j
(b) cp of exhaust gas mixture from (a) is x i c p,i / ∑ x jc p, j
cp(mixture) = 0.192 × 1342 + 0.088 × 2713 + 0.72 × 1256
= 1400 J/kg·K
For air, use Gas Tables; Keenan, Chao, Kaye, or extrapolate Fig. 4.15 to ϕ = 0:
cp(air) = 1270 J/kg·K
cp of burned gas mixture is greater than cp of air at same temperature, 1750 K, due to presence
of triatomic molecules. It would take more energy to increase the temperature of the burned
gas mixture by one degree than to raise the same amount of air one degree.
41
4.5 As ϕ is increased above 1.0, not enough air is available to burn completely the carbon
and hydrogen present in the fuel. Thus increasing amounts of products of partial combustion
(CO and H2) must be present. Because the mixture is air deficient, O2 concentration is low.
As CO and H2 increase, so CO2 mole fractions and eventually H2O decrease, as ϕ increases.
As ϕ decreased below 1.0, increasing excess air is available. Thus O2 mole fraction
increases steadily. Since excess air is present, concentrations of products of partial
combustion (CO and H2) are low. Since increasing amounts of excess air are present, CO2 and
H2O mole fractions decrease.
4.6 The data in Fig. 4.22 are well fitted by the straight lines:
x CO2 = 0.147φ
x O2 = 0.21(1 − φ)
x CO = 0 for φ < 0.7; x CO ≤ 0.05 for 0.9 > φ > 0.7
where these are mole fractions in the dry exhaust gases.
Table 4.3 gives:
n CO2 = εφ, n O2 = 1 − φ, n CO = 0
n b = (1 − ε)φ + 1 + ψ, and n H2O = 2(1 − ε)φ
Hence dry mole fractions are:
εφ εφ
x CO2 = =
(1 − ε)φ + 1 + ψ − 2(1 − ε)φ 1 + ψ − (1 − ε)φ
(1 − φ)
x O2 = ; x CO = 0
1 + ψ − (1 − ε)φ
For (CH2)n fuel, ε = 4/(4+y) = 4/6 = 0.667, and ψ = 3.773. Hence
0.667 φ 0.14φ
x CO2 = =
4.773 − 0.333φ 1 − 0.07φ
(1 − φ) 0.21(1 − φ)
x O2 = =
4.773 − 0.333φ 1 − 0.07φ
Agreement between linear fits to the data in Fig. 4.22 and Table 4.3 is good, since 0.07ϕ << 1.
42
4.7 The equivalence ratio based on net HC and dry inorganic gas analysis is determined
from Eq. (4.65) as follows:
φ = 2n O2 / [n p x H2O + n p (1 − x H2O )(x *CO + 2x *O2 + x *NO + 2x *NO2 ) − r]
where x i = (1 − x H2O )x 1*
n p = n / [x CHb/a + (1 − x H2O )(x *CO + x *CO2 )]
m * ⎡ x *CO m * ⎤
x H2O =
2n
(
x CO + x *CO2 ) 1 + ( *
⎢ K x * + 2n x CO + x CO2 ⎥ )
⎣ CO 2 ⎦
x i denotes wet mole fraction of species;
x 1* denotes dry mole fraction of species;
fuel composition: CnHmOr = C8H15.12
To obtain Eq. (4.65) it is assumed that the composition of the unburned hydrocarbon is the
same as of the fuel and that
x CO x H2O
= K [Eq. (4.61)]
x CO2 x H2
15.12 ⎡ 0.0064 15.12 ⎤

(a) x H2O = (0.0064 + 0.14) ⎢1 + + (0.0064 + 0.14) ⎥
2×8 ⎣ 3.5 × 0.14 2 × 8 ⎦
= 0.120
8
np = −6
= 60.6
(3200 ×10 ) + (1 − 0.120)(0.0064 + 0.14)
m 15.12
n O2 = n + = 8+ = 11.8
4 4
2 × 11.8
φ=
60.6 × 0.12 + 60.6(1 − 0.12)(0.0064 + 2 × 0.14 + 2 × 0.007 + 3600 ×10−6 )
= 1.003
(b) x H2O = 0.130, n p = 53.3, which with the data gives
ϕ = 1.11
(c) x H2O = 0.107, n p = 69.4, which with the data gives
ϕ = 0.834
43
4.8 (a) The chemical energy leaving the engine is
∑x M Q i i LHV,i
summed over the combustible components in the exhaust, C8H18, H2 and CO. The fuel
chemical energy going into the engine (per cycle) is mfQLHV,f.
The mass of fuel per mole of exhaust gas is
(x CO 2 + x CO ) ×12 + ( x H2O + x H2 ) × 2 + x C8 H18 × 114
mass carbon mass hydrogen unburned fuel
Hence, the combustion inefficiency is:
(0.0003 × 114 × 44.4 + 0.005 × 2 × 120 + 0.01× 28 ×10.1) /

[(0.12 + 0.01) ×12 + (0.14 + 0.005) × 2 + 0.0003 ×114] × 44.4
= 0.066 or 6.6% Ans. (a)
(b) the fraction of this inefficiency which corresponds to unburned fuel is:
(0.0003 × 114 × 44.4)/(numerator in the above expression)
= 0.27 or 27% Ans (b)
4.9 (a) Engine is operating at part-load, close to stoichiometric, so it is a spark-ignition

engine.
Is there enough O2? Have 2% O2 in the exhaust: 0.5% CO requires 0.25% O2 to make
CO2; 0.5% CH2 (UHC) requires (0.5 + 0.25%) O2 for complete combustion. Answer is yes,
there is sufficient O2 to burn CO and HC fully.
(b) Inefficiency due to CO is 0.5 × (12 + 16) × 10 MJ/%
= 140 MJ/%
Inefficiency due to HC is 0.5 × (12 + 2) × 44
= 308 MJ/%
Fuel energy input
= (11 × 12 + 11.5 × 2 + 0.5 × 12 + 0.5 × 14) × 44
= 7392 MJ/%
44
140
Hence: CO inefficiency = = 0.019 or 1.9%
7392
308
and, UHC inefficiency = = 0.042 or 4.2%
7392
(c) With a perfect catalyst, all the CO and UHC would be converted to CO2 and H2O.
Combustion efficiency would increase from 0.939 to 1.0, an increase of 6.5 percent. Hence
specific fuel consumption would decrease by 6.5 percent.
4.10 (a) Overall combustion equation for isooctane is
aC8H18 + b(O2 + 3.773N2) → 11.4CO2 + 2.9CO + cH2O + 1.602+ 84.1N2
(volumetric fractions are the same as mole fractions)
Equate coefficients of different elements:
b = 84.1/3.773 = 22.3; a = (11.4 + 2.9)/8 = 1.79
c = 9a = 16.09
So, per mole C8H18, the overall combustion equation is
C8 H18 + 12.502 + 47.0N 2 → 6.38CO 2 + 1.62CO + 9H 2 O + 0.8902 + 47.0N 2
(b)
For control volume around the working fluid, steady flow,
+W
=Q
(h R − h p )m
Per mole C8H18:
h R = h Df ,C8 H18 = −259, 280 kJ
h p = ∑ n i ( h Df ,i + h s,i
p
660 K
( )
) = n CO2 h Df ,CO2 + h s,CO2 +
( )
n CO ( h Df ,CO + h s,CO ) + n H2O h Df ,H2O + h s,H2O + n O2 h s,O2 + n N2 h s,N2
45
(where hs,i is the sensible enthalpy = h(T) – h(25°C))
h p = 6.38(−393,522 + 15,823) + 1.62(−110,529 + 10, 789)

+ 9(−241,827 + 12, 710) + 0.89(11, 200) + 47.0(10, 749)
h p = −4,117, 000 kJ
(h R − h p ) = 3,867, 000 kJ/kmol C8 H18
So R − h P ) = 3.0 × 10−3 × 3,867, 000 /114 = 102 kW

m(h
= 102 − 50 kW = 52 kW Ans.
Q
4.11 (a) For control volume around the working fluid in the engine, apply steady flow
energy equation:
f Q HV = m
m f n f ,ig Q HV (= W) +m
+Q exh (h e − h De )
where h e − h De = h s,e , the exhaust sensible enthalpy.
For ϕ = 0.8, and (F/A)s = 0.067:
a = 0.5 kg/s, m
m f = 0.8 × 0.5 × 0.067 = 0.0268 kg/s
exh = 0.527 kg/s
m
f Q HV ⎛
m Q ⎞
h s,e = ⎜ 1 − n f ,ig −
m exh ⎝ HV ⎟⎠
mQ
0.0268 × 42 × 106 ⎛ 280 ×103 ⎞
= ⎜ 1 − 0.45 − 6 ⎟
0.527 ⎝ 0.0268 × 42 ×10 ⎠
= 644 kJ / kg
Use Fig. 4.10, sensible enthalpy for burned gas at low temperature. For hs,e = 644 kJ/kg,
Te = 830 K at ϕ = 0.8.
46
Rated brake power:
f ηf ,ig Q HV = 0.85 × 0.0268 × 0.45 × 42 ×106

Pb = ηm m
= 431 kW
e Δh s,e
(b) Heat transferred in boiler = m
hs,e at boiler inlet (830 K) = 644 kJ/kg
hs,e at boiler exit (400 K) = 120 kJ/kg
So, heat transferred = 0.527 × (644 − 120) = 276 kW
additional power = 0.3 × 276 = 83 KW
New total power = 83 + 431 = 514 kW
514 × 103
Total system brake efficiency =
0.0268 × 42 ×106
= 0.46
4.12
R = 287 J/kg · K, p1 = 101.3 kPa, T1 = 325 K
(a) Find p2 and T2:
γ
p 2 ⎛ V1 ⎞
= = 221.4 = 75.75 : p 2 = 7674 kPa
p1 ⎜⎝ V2 ⎟⎠
γ−1
T2 ⎛ V1 ⎞
= = 220.4 = 3.443 : T2 = 1119 K
T1 ⎜⎝ V2 ⎟⎠
(b) Use gas tables for air, Table D.1, Appendix D:
T1 = 325 K u1 = 391.9 kJ/kg
47
v r1 = 960.6 p r1 = 97.13
960.6
at 2, v r2 = v r1 × (V2 / V1 ) = = 43.7
22
Table gives T2 = 1031 K
p r2 = 6779 → p 2 = 101.3 × 6779 / 97.13 = 7070 kPa
Table gives u2 = 944 kJ/kg
(c) Using model of (a)
u2 − u1 = cv(T2 − T1), cv = R/(γ-1)
287
u 2 − u1 = (1119 − 325) = 570 kJ/kg
0.4
Using model of (b)
u2 − u1= 944 − 392 = 552 kJ/kg
18
Difference is × 100 = 3.3%
552
(d) The fuel energy added per cycle = Ufuel
for diesel fuel QHV = 43 MJ/kg of fuel, (F/A)s = 0.0666
Ufuel = QHV × (F/A)s × ϕ
= 43 × 0.0666 × 0.75 = 2.19 MJ/kg of air
Using model of (a)
287
Q heat trans = ×100 = 71.8 kJ/kg. Thus Qht/Ufuel = 3.3%
0.4
Using model of (b)
Q heat trans = 944 − 859 = 85 kJ/kg. Thus Qht/Ufuel = 3.9%
4.13 Equation (2.6) gives the cylinder volume
V 1
= 1 + (rc − 1)[R + 1 − cos θ − (R 2 − sin 2 θ)1/ 2 ]
Vc 2
R = ℓ/a, assume = 3.5. Given rc = 22.
48
Find V/Vc at 150° (30° ABC) and 15° BTC:
At 150° V/Vc = 20.97; at 15° V/VC = 1.458.
Hence, actual volume ratio 150° to 15° = 20.97/1.458 = 14.4
Use relative volumes from Tables of Air Properties in Appendix D, Table D.1,
T1 = 325 K, which gives v r1 = 960.6
v r2 = v r1 × (V2 / V1 ) = 960.6 /14.4 = 66.8
Tables give T2 = 892 K
p 2 = p1 × (p r2 / p r1 ) = 1.013 × 3842 / 97.13 = 4010 kPa
These compare with 1031 K and 7070 kPa from Fig. 4.12(b) with compression through full
22:1 volume ratio. Differences are significant.
4.14 The purpose of this problem is to learn how to use an equilibrium computer program.
(a) Input data:
Number of carbon atoms in fuel: 8;
Number of hydrogen atoms in fuel: 18;
Molar N:O ratio for oxidizer; 3.773
Type of problem: assigned temperature and pressure
Input state variables are:
1. Temperature = 2500 K
2. Pressure =40.0 atm
3. Equivalence ratio = 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2, 1.4
The outputs of computer are shown in following figures:
49
50
(b) The enthalpy of the unburned mixture is the sum of the sensible enthalpy hs,u and
Δh Df ,u
the enthalpy of formation
h u = h s,u + Δh Df ,u
Similarly the internal energy uu is given by
u u = u s,u + Δu Df ,u
From the table:
hu = 27.02 − 53.37 = 26.55 kcal/mole
The ideal gas relations are used to find uu for the unburned mixture

u u = h u − pv = h u − RT
uu = −26.55 − 1.987 × 700 × 10−3 = 27.94 kcal/mole
The overall combustion equation for the isooctane is
1
C8 H18 + ×12.5 × (O 2 + 3.773 N 2 ) = products
φ
From the ideal gas equation
pv =
R
T, M =
∑n M i i
, v=
R
T
M n pM
114φ + 12.5 × 4.773 × 28.97 114φ + 1728

M= =
φ + 12.5 × 4.773 φ + 12.5 × 4.773
The calculations of the volume per unit mass of mixture for the different ϕ are listed below:
ϕ 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4

v(cm3/g) 98.2 97.3 96.3 95.4 94.6 93.7 92.9
Use the equilibrium program to calculate Tp = const, Tv = const and pv = const results.
The results are plotted below:
51
4.15
State 1: Unburned gas, p1 = 101.35 kPa, T1 = 25°C
Find mass m:
use p1V1 = m
R
T1 , M =
∑ ni Mi
M n
For ϕ = 1.0 .
C8H18 + 12.5 (O2 + 3.773 N2) → products
For unburned mixture
(114 ×1 + 12.5 × 32 + 3.773 ×12.5 × 28.16)

M= = 30.4
1 + 12.5 × 4.773
Thus: m = 101.35 × 103 × 103 × 30.4/8.314 × 103 × 298
m = 1.24 × 10−3 kg
At 298 K, the sensible internal energy of the unburnt mixture is zero. The internal energy of
formation of the unburned mixture is
Δu Df ,u = −118.2 − 2956 x b kJ/kg air
52
For constant volume adiabatic combustion:
u b = u s,u + Δu Df ,u = 0 − 118.2 = −118.2 kJ/kg air
Also, v2 = v1 and v1 = 10−3/1.24 × 10−3 = 0.80 m3/kg mixture
So, v2 = 0.80 × 1.066 = 0.86 m3/kg air
Use burned gas equilibrium chart, Fig. 4.8, to give:
T2 = 2680 K, p2 = 1000 kPa for this u b2 , v2.
53
Chapter 5
IDEAL MODELS OF ENGINE CYCLES
5.1 (a)
Given p1 = 1 bar, T1 = 289 K, rc = 15; assume average value for mol. wt = 29 which gives
R = 8314/29 = 287 J/kg·K
cv = R/(γ − 1) = 957 J/kg·K; cp = 1244 J/kg·K
Compression:
p 2 = p1rcγ = 1 × 151.3 = 33.8 bar
T2 = T1rcγ−1 = 289 × 150.3 = 651 K
Heat added during combustion per kg mixture is
43,000 × 0.045/(1 + 0.045) = 1852 kJ
Heat added at constant volume and heat added at constant pressure = 1852/2 = 926 kJ.
Constant volume combustion:
Q 2 −3a = mc v (T3a − T2 ); 926 × 103 = 1 × 957(T3a − 651) → T3a = 1618 K
Find α in Eq. (5.43), and p3:
α = p3a / p2 = T3a / T2 ) = 1618 / 651 = 2.49
p3 = 33.8 × 2.49 = 84 bar
54
Constant pressure combustion:
Q 3a −3b = mc p (T3b − T3a ); 926 × 103 = 1 × 1244(T3b − 1618) → T3b = 2362 K
Find β in Eq. (5.43):
β = V3b / V3a = T3b / T3a = 2362 / 1618 = 1.46
Find fuel conversion efficiency, Eq. (5.43):
1 ⎡ αβ γ − 1 ⎤
ηf = 1 − γ−1 ⎢ ⎥
rc ⎣ αγ (β − 1) + α − 1 ⎦
1 ⎡ 2.49 × 1.461.3 − 1 ⎤
= 1 − 0.3 ⎢ ⎥
15 ⎣ 2.49 × 1.3 × 0.46 + 2.49 − 1 ⎦
= 0.542 Ans.
(b) Constant volume cycle 1 − 2 − 3* − 4*:
Q 2 −3* = mc v (T3* − T2 ); 1852 × 10 3 = 1 × 957(T3* − 651) → T3* = 2586 K
p3* / p 2 = T3* / T2 → p3* = 33.8 × 2586 / 651 = 134 bar
Efficiency, Eq. (5.31).
1 1
ηf = 1 − γ−1
= 1− = 0.56
rc 150.3
Constant pressure cycle 1 − 2 − 3′ − 4′:
Q 2 −3′ = mc p (T3′ − T2 ); 1852 × 103 = 1 × 1244(T3′ − 651) → T3′ = 2140 K

α = 1; β = V3′ / V2 = T3′ / T2 = 2140 / 651 = 3.29
Efficiency, Eq. (5.43),
1 ⎡ βγ − 1 ⎤
ηf = 1 − ⎢ ⎥
γrcγ−1 ⎣ β − 1 ⎦
1 ⎡ 3.291.3 − 1 ⎤
= 1− ⎢ ⎥ = 0.45
1.3 × 150.3 ⎣ 3.29 − 1 ⎦
5.2 Base case: rc = 8 p1 = 1.0 atm
Case (1): rc′ = 10 p1′ = 1.0 atm
Case (2): rc′′ = 8 p1′′ = 1.5 atm
55
Compression process:
p 2 / p1 = (V1 / V2 ) γ = rcγ p2 = 1.0(8)1.3 = 14.9 atm
T2 / T1 = rcγ−1 p′2 = 1.0(10)1.3 = 20.0 atm
p′′2 = 1.5(8)1.3 = 22.4 atm
Combustion process:
Q 2 −3 = mc v (T3 − T2 ) with Q 2 −3 = m f Q HV
m f Q HV
Hence: T3 = T2 + ,
mc v
Since p3/p2 = T3/T2 for constant volume process:
p3 mQ mQ
= 1 + f HV = 1 + f HV p1rc
p2 mc v T2 mc v T1
m f Q HV r −1
Using the fact that: = 9.3 c
mc v T1 rc
⎛ r −1 ⎞
p3 = p2 + 9.3 ⎜ c ⎟ rc p1 = p2 + 9.3(rc − 1)p1
⎝ rc ⎠
(a) Base case: p3 = 14.9 + 9.3 (8 − 1) × 1.0 = 80 atm
Case (1): p′3 = 20.0 + 9.3(10 − 1) × 1.0 = 103.7 atm
Case (2): p′′3 = 22.4 + 9.3(8 − 1) × 1.5 = 120.1 atm
Case (2) gives the highest pressure.
(b) The fuel conversion efficiency depends on compression ratio:
1 1
ηf = 1 − γ−1
. So: ηf = 1 − = 0.464,
rc 80.3
1 1
η′f = 1 − = 0.499, η′′f = 1 − = 0.464.
100.3 80.3
Case (1) gives the highest efficiency.
(c) imep is given by,
Wc ηf Q 2 −3 ⎡ mRT1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤
imep = = = ηf Q 2 −3 / ⎢ ⎜1 − r ⎟⎥
V1 − V2 V1 (1 − V2 / V1 ) ⎣ p1 ⎝ c ⎠⎦
56
Since R = cv(γ−1)
ηf p Q rη p1 ⎛ r −1 ⎞
imep = ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2 −3 = c f 9.3 ⎜ c
1 − (1 / rc ) ( γ − 1) mc v T1 (rc − 1) ( γ − 1) ⎝ rc ⎟⎠
So: imep = 9.3ηfp1/(γ−1)
Thus: imep = 14.4 atm, imep′ = 15.5 atm, imep″ = 21.6 atm.
Case (2) gives the highest mep.
5.3
Given:
mf/m = 0.06
γ = 1.3
cv = 946 J/kg·K
QLHV = 44 MJ/kg
(a) At (1): p1 = 100 kPa, T1 = 320 K
At (2) following isentropic compression:
p 2 / p1 = (V1 / V2 )γ = 91.3 = 17.4 → p 2 = 1740 kPa
T2 / T1 = (V1 / V2 )γ−1 = 90.3 = 1.933 → T2 = 619 K
0.06 × 44 × 106
m f Q LHV = mc v (T2 − T1 ) → T3 − T2 = → T3 = 3410 K
946
p3 / p 2 = T3 / T2 = 3410 / 619 → p 3 = 9590 kPa
Isentropic expansion (3) - (4):
(p4/p3) = (V3/V4)γ = (1/9)1.3 = 0.0575 → p4 = 551 kPa
(T4/T3) = (V3/V4) γ −1 = (1/9)0.3 = 0.517 → T4 = 1760 K
Isentropic expansion (4) - (5):
p5 = 101 kPa;
T5/T4 = (p5/p4)(γ−1)/γ = (101/551 )0.3/1.3 = 0.676 → T5 = 1190 K
57
(b) Efficiency, Eq. (5.30):
T4 − T1 1760 − 320
ηf = 1 − = 1− = 0.48
T3 − T2 3410 − 619
1 1
or, ηf = 1 − γ−1
= 1− = 0.48
rc 90.3
Now: imep = ηfmfQLHV/Vd, Eq. (5.2)
Need mf/Vd. Given mf = 0.06m, m = pV/(RT), V = Vd/(1 + 1/rc). Combine these to obtain:
mf/Vd = 0.06[p/(RT)](1 + rc)/rc
Then:
10 5 1+ 9
imep = 0.6 × × × 44 × 106 × 0.483 = 1540 kPa
(8314 / 29) × 320 9
5.4
Fuel chemical energy released

per cycle mfQHV is
mfQHV = macv(T3 −T2)
since given mf << ma
Work for expansion and compression strokes is:
Wc,ig = cv(T3 − T4) − cv(T2 − T1)
Pumping work = (pa − p1) (V1 − V2)
Hence, net indicated fuel conversion efficiency is:
c v (T3 − T4 ) − c v (T2 − T1 ) (pa − p1 )(V1 − V 2 )

ηf ,in = −
c v (T3 − T2 ) c v (T3 − T2 )
1 (pa − p1 )(V1 − V2 )
= 1− γ−1
−
r c m f Q HV
58
The last term, the change in efficiency from the ideal unthrottled cycle value is,
⎛p ⎞ V ⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ ma ⎞
Δη = p1 ⎜ a − 1 ⎟ 1 ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝ p1 ⎠ m a ⎝ V1 ⎠⎝ m f Q HV ⎠
R
Now p1V1 = m a Ta if mf ma
M

RT ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ m a ⎞ ⎛ pa ⎞
Thus: Δη = a
⎜ 1 − r ⎟ ⎜ m Q ⎟ ⎜ p − 1⎟
M ⎝ c ⎠⎝ f HV ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
5.5 Fuel conversion efficiency of limited pressure cycle is
T4 − T1
ηf = 1 −
(T3a − T2 ) + γ (T3b − T3a )
T1 = 45 + 273 = 318 K; T2 = T1rcγ−1 = 318 × 150.3 = 717 K
m f Q LHV
T3a = x b + T2 from Eq. (5.41a),
m cv
xb = fraction of fuel burned at constant volume.
42.5 × 106
T3a = x b × 0.4 × + T2 = 1797x b + T2
946
m f Q LHV
T3b = (1 − x b ) + T3a from Eq. (5.41b)
m cp
42.5 × 106
T3b = (1 − x b ) × 0.04 × + T3a = 1379(1 − x b ) + T3a
1.3 × 946
T4 = T3b (V3b / V4 ) γ−1; need V3b / V4 .
Ideal gas law gives:
p3a V3a = RT3a ; p3b V3b = RT3b ;
Since p3a = p3b , V3a / V3b = T3a / T3b , and since
V4 / V3a = rc , then V3b / V4 = (T3b / T3a ) / rc
Thus: (from ideal-cycle software package, no longer available),
59
INITIAL TEMP T1 = 318.
COMPRESSION RATIO = 15.
LOWER HEATING VALUE = 0.43E+05
MF/M = 0.04
GAMMA = 1.30
CV = 946.
FRACTION BURNED AT CONSTANT VOLUME: 0.00

PRATIO = 33.80 T3A = 717. T3B = 2099. T4 = 1286. ETA = 0.461

PRATIO = 42.28 T3A = 896. T3B = 2140. T4 = 1233. ETA = 0.491

PRATIO = 50.75 T3A = 1076. T3B = 2182. T4 = 1197. ETA = 0.511

PRATIO = 59.23 T3A = 1256. T3B = 2223. T4 = 1171. ETA = 0.525

PRATIO = 67.71 T3A = 1435. T3B = 2265. T4 = 1152. ETA = 0.536

PRATIO = 76.18 T3A = 1615. T3B = 2306. T4 = 1139. ETA = 0.543

PRATIO = 84.66 T3A = 1795. T3B = 2348. T4 = 1129. ETA = 0.549

PRATIO = 93.14 T3A = 1974. T3B = 2389. T4 = 1123. ETA = 0.552

PRATIO = 101.61 T3A = 2154. T3B = 2431. T4 = 1118. ETA = 0.555

PRATIO = 110.09 T3A = 2334. T3B = 2472. T4 = 1116. ETA = 0.558

PRATIO = 118.57 T3A = 2514. T3B = 2514. T4 = 1115. ETA = 0.556
60
γ−1
⎛ 1 T3b ⎞
Note, T4 = T3b ⎜ ⎟
⎝ rc T3a ⎠
Since we want to plot fuel conversion efficiency versus p3/p1, we need the pressure ratio for a
given xb. This can be found from
p3 / p 2 = T3a / T2 , p 2 = p1rcγ = 33.8 p1 , p 3 / p1 = 33.8 (T3a / T2 )
The results below are calculated for xb = 0 (constant-pressure cycle) to
xb = 1 (constant-volume cycle).
5.6 With the constant volume cycle all of the combustion takes place at top center
providing optimal use of the expansion stroke for the conversion of the fuels chemical energy
to useful work. With constant pressure combustion, much of the fuel is burned after the
piston has begun to travel downward reducing the effective expansion ratio for mixture which
burned after top center. Reduced expansion ratio reduces the expansion work that is
extracted.
5.7 Spark-ignition engine:
imep(g) = bmep + rfmep + pmep
= 250 + 100 + (105 − 25) = 430 kPa
Compression-ignition engine:
imep(g) = 250 + 100 + (105 − 100) = 355 kPa
At these conditions, the CI engine has 7 percent lower imep(g) while producing the same
brake mep, due to its lower pumping mep.
61
5.8 (a) Equation (5.32) gives
imep(g) ⎛ Q * ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ rc ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1 − γ−1 ⎟
pi ⎝ c v T1 ⎠ ⎝ γ − 1 ⎠ ⎝ rc − 1 ⎠⎝ rc ⎠
Q* = 0.06 × 44 × 106 = 2.64 × 106 J/kg mixture
imep(g) ⎛ 2.64 × 106 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎛ 9.5 ⎞⎛ 1 ⎞

So: =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟⎜ 1 − 0.3 ⎟ = 16.3
pi ⎝ 946 × 313 ⎠⎝ 1.3 − 1 ⎠⎝ 9.5 − 1 ⎠⎝ 9.5 ⎠
Net imep is given by
imep(n) = 16.3pi − (100 − pi) 17.3pi − 100 kPa
(b) Torque T:
Work per cycle = 4πT = (imep)Vd, so displaced volume must be known.
N N
Power P: P = work per cycle × = (imep)Vd
2 2
so displaced volume and engine speed must be known.
5.9 (a)
62
(b) Assume γ = 1.3, cv = 946 J/kg·K, cp = 1233 J/kg·K.
State (1): p1 = 200 kPa, T1 = 325K
State (2): isentropic compression 1 → 2
p2/p1 = (V1/V2)γ = 141.3→ p2 = 6180 kPa
T2/T1 = (V1/V2)γ−1 = 140.3 → T2 = 717 K
State (3): constant pressure combustion:
m f Q LHV
m f Q LHV = mc p (T3 − T2 ) → T3 = T2 + ⋅
m cp
42.5 × 106
T3 = 717 + 0.03 × = 1750 K
1233
p3 = p2 = 6180 kPa
State (4): isentropic expansion 3 → 4:
p4/p3 = (V3/V4)γ = (1/5.74)1.3 → p4 = 638 kPa
T4/T3 = (V3/V4)γ−1 = (1/5.74)0.3 → T4 = 1036 K
State (5): isentropic expansion 4 → 5:
p5 = 100 kPa (given)
T5/T4 = (p5/p4)(γ−1)/γ = (100/638)0.3/1.3 → T5 = 676 K
Summary:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Pressure, kPa 200 6180 6180 638 100
Temperature, K 325 717 1750 1036 676
(c) Indicated fuel conversion efficiency:
T4 − T1 1036 − 325
ηf ,ig = 1 − = 1− = 0.47
γ (T3 − T2 ) 1.3(1750 − 717)
Indicated mean effective pressure (Eq. (5.44)):
Q* ⎛ rc ⎞
imep(g) = ηf ,ig p i
c v T1 ( γ − 1) ⎜⎝ rc − 1 ⎟⎠
Q* = (mf/m)QLHV = 0.03 × 42.5 = 1.28 MJ/kg
63
1.28 × 106 14
imep(g) = × × 0.47 × 200 × 103 = 1.405 MPa
946 × 325 × 0.3 13
imep(ρ) = 1405 − (100 − 200) = 1.505 MPa
imep(n) 1.505
ηf ,in = ηf ,ig × = 0.47 × = 0.50
imep(g) 1.405
Note that the work involved in supercharging the air to 200 kPa has not been included in
imep or nf,i.
5.10
(a) Shaded area is reduction in pumping work. Normal cycle pumping work is
(p e − p*i )(Vm − Vc ).
(b) Shaded area is a maximum when pi = pe. Then, 8 → 1, since adiabatic and
reversible, VEIVC = Vm (p*i / p e )1/ γ .
(c)
The reduction in pumping work, the shaded area,
1
= pe (VEIVC − Vc ) + ∫ pdV − p*i (Vm − Vc )
8
Vmconst
= pe (VEIVC − Vc ) − p*i (Vm − Vc ) + ∫ dV
VEIVC V γ
64
Since pVγ = constant along 8 → 1 (reversible, adiabatic)
Vm dV 1 ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
∫VEIVC V γ
= ⎢ γ−
− γ−1 ⎥
( γ − 1) ⎣ VEIVC Vm ⎦
1
So reduction in pumping work is
p i Vmγ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
pe (VEIVC − Vc ) − p (Vm − Vc ) +
*
⎢ γ−1
− γ−1 ⎥
( γ − 1) ⎣ VEIVC Vm ⎦
i
Now: VEIVC = Vm (p*i / p e )1/ γ . So reduction in pumping work is
p e [Vm (p*i / p e )1/ γ − Vc ] − p i (Vm − Vc ) + p*i Vm [(p e / p*i ) γ−1 − 1] Ans.
5.11
Constant volume fuel-air cycle calculation:
(a) Intake process:
For open system which consists of cylinder contents:
U1 − U 6 = m1u1 − m 6 u6
= p6 (V6 − V1 ) + (m1 − m 6 )h in
Rearrange:
m1h1 − m6h6 = (m1 − m6)hin
or h1 = hin (1 − xr) − xrh6
Given Tin = 300 K, then hs,i = 0 from unburned mixture chart. Use hint (residual mass fraction
xr = 0.03 and residual gas temperature = 1370 K) to find hs6 =1410 kJ/kg air from ϕ = 1 low
temperature burned gas chart (Fig. 4.10). Then
h1 = 0 + 0.03 × 1410 = 42.3 kJ/kg air
From unburned mixture chart (Fig. 4.3) for ϕ = 1 we find
65
T1 = 343 K, and us1 = 35 kJ/kg air
/p
Find v1 : v1 = nRT1 1
From Table 4.6 (unburned mixture composition for charts):
n = 0.0351 + 0.002 xb = 0.0352 moles/kg air
So v1 = 0.0352 × 8314.3 × 343/1.013 × 105 = 0.99 m3/kg air
Find v2: v2 = v1/rc = 0.988/8 = 0.124 m3/kg air
Use isentropic compression chart (Fig. 4.4) to find T2:
ψ(T2 ) = ψ(T1 ) − nR An(v 2 / v1 )

ψ(T2 ) = 140 − 292 An(1 / 8) = 747 J / kg air ⋅ K
which gives T2 = 675 K
Use ideal gas law to find p2:
(p2/p1) = (v1/v2)(T2/T1) = 8 × (675/343) = 15.8
Use unburned mixture chart (Fig. 4.3) to find us2:
at T2 = 675 K, us2 = 330 kJ/kg air
Combustion:
u b3 = u u2 = us,u2 + ΔuDf ,u = us,u2 + (−118.2 − 2956 x b )

= 330 + (−118.2 − 2956 × 0.03) = 123 kJ/kg air
Use equilibrium burned gas chart (Fig. 4.8) with ϕ = 1.0, u3 = 123 kJ/kg air, v3 = v2 = 0.124
m3/kg air to find T3 = 2920 K and p3 = 7300 kPa.
Expansion:
Expand at constant entropy to v4 = v1 = 0.99 m3/kg air to obtain
T4 = 1970 K, p4 = 600 kPa, u4 = −1390 kJ/kg air.
For point 5, which defines residual gas state, expand gas to p5 = 101.3 kPa (1 atm) to obtain
T5 = T6 = 1370 K, v5 = 4 m3/kg air.
(b) Find fuel conversion efficiency:
Wc = (u3 − u4) − (u2 − u1) = 123 − (−1390) − (330 − 35)
Wc = 1220 kJ/kg air
66
Wc 1220
Now: ηf ,i = = = 0.43
(1 − x r )m f Q HV (1 − 0.03)0.0685 × 43 × 103
(c) Find imep:
Wc 1220
imep= = = 1420 kPa, so imep/p1 = 14
v1 − v 2 0.99 − 0.124
(d) Find residual gas mass fraction, Eq. (5.17):
xr = v2/v5 = 0.124/4 = 0.031 (checks OK).
(e) Volumetric efficiency:
ηv = ma /(ρa,o Vd); use intake conditions of 300 K and 1 atm as reference conditions
(i.e., ρa,o = ρi)
ma = (1 − xr)V1/v1 (must allow for residual).
Vd = (V1 − V2). Hence:
V1 (1 − x r ) rc (1 − x r )
ηv = =
(V1 − V2 ) ρi v1 (rc − 1) ρi v1
1.013 × 10 × 29
5
ρi = p i / (RTi ) = p i M i / R i Ti ) = = 1.18 kg/m 3
8314 × 300
8 0.97
ηv = × = 0.95
7 1.18 × 0.988
5.12
Constant-pressure fuel-air cycle calculation (Fig. 5.2b). Solution parallels that of 5.11.
Intake: For an open system, the cylinder contents:
h1 = hin (1 − xr) − xrh6
67
Given that Tin = 300 K then hs,1 = 0 (Fig. 4.3)
Use hint, xr = 0.03 Tr = 900 K to find hs,6 = 705 kg/kg air, from ϕ = 0.6 line in burned gas
properties Fig. 4.10.
Then h1 = 0 + 0.03 × 705 = 21 kJ/kg air
From unburned mixture chart, Fig. 4.3, we find
T1 = 330 K and us,1 = 30 kJ/kg air
/ P ; for φ = 0.6,
Find v1 : V1 = nRT1 1
Table 4.6 gives n = 0.0349 + 0.00122xb, (xb = xr)
n = 0.0349 moles/kg air
So v1 = 0.0349 × 8314.3 × 330/1.013 × 105 = 0.946 m3/kg air
Use isentropic compression chart (Fig. 4.4) to find T2,
⎛v ⎞
ψ(T2 ) = ψ(T1 ) − n u R ln ⎜ 2 ⎟ = 100 − 0.0349 × 8314.3 ln(1 / 12)
⎝ v1 ⎠
ψ(T2) = 821 J/kg air·K which gives T2 = 865 K
Use ideal gas law to find p2:
(p2/p1) = (v1/v2)(T2/T1) = 12 × (821/330) = 30, p2 = 30 atm or 3 × 106 Pa
Use unburned mixture chart (Fig. 4.3) to find u2 and h2, at T2 = 865 K: hs,2 = 670, us,2 = 500
kJ/kg air
Combustion (at constant pressure): Follow calculation in Example 4.5:
h b = h u = h su + Δh Df ,u
For ϕ = 0.6, Δh Df ,u = −77.8 − 1771 x b = −77.8 − 53.1
Δh Df ,u = −131 kJ/kg air; so h b,3 = 670 − 131 = 539 kJ/kg air
Since hb,3 = 539 kJ/kg air, and p3 = 3000 kPa state 3 is defined. We need s3 for the expansion
process: Fig. 4.6 plots ub vs. sb : use
ub,3 = hb,3 − p3v3 = 539 − 3 × 103 vb,3 kJ/kg air
Since p3 = 3 × 103 kPa, a trial-and-error solution along the p3 line in Fig. 4.6 gives v3 = 0.22
m3/kg air, ub,3 = −121 kJ/kg air, sb,3 = 8.72 kJ/kg air·K
68
Follow isentropic from 3 to 4, to vb,4 = vu,1 = 0.95 m3/kg air
ub,4 = − 920 kJ/kg air, p4 = 400 kPa, T4 = 1400 K
Expand to 1 bar to get the residual gas state, 4′: T4′ = 800 K , v 4′ = 2.5 m 3 /kg air
Check residual gas fraction:
x r = v2 / v 4′ = (v1 / 12) ÷ v 4′ (0.95 / 12) ÷ 2.5 = 0.032
Close enough to initial assumption.
(b) Indicated fuel conversion efficiency
Wc = WE − WC = [p3 (v3 − v 2 ) + (u3 − u 4 )] − (u 2 − u1 )

Wc = [3 × 103 (0.22 − 0.95 / 12) + (−121 − 920)] − (500 − 30)
Wc = 752 kJ/kg air;
Wc 752
Now: ηf ,i = =
(1 − x r )m f Q LHV (1 − 0.03) × 0.6 × 0.069 × 43.2 × 103
ηf ,i = 0.43
(c) imep:
Wc 752
imep = = = 864 kPa
V1 − V2 0.95(1 − 1 / 12)
imep/p1 = 864 / 100 = 8.6
(d) residual fraction: expand from 4 to 4′; (see above) xr = 0.032
(e) Volumetric efficiency:
ηv = m a / (ρa,o Vd ); m a = (1 − x r )V1 / v1
Vd = (V1 − V2 ); ρa,0 = ρa (300 K, 1 atm) = 1.18 kg/m 3
V1 (1 − x r ) rc (1 − x r )
So ηv = ⋅ =
(V1 − V2 ) ρa,0 v1 (rc − 1) ρ1v1
12 (1 − 0.032)
ηv = ⋅ = 0.94
11 1.18 × 0.95
69
5.13 (a) Cycle 1-2-3-4-5-6-1.
Given At (1) T1 = 300 K, p1 = 105 Pa
v1 = 0.9 m3/kg air
xr = 0, ϕ = 1.0
At (2) v2 = v1/8
T2 = 600 K
Fuel-air cycle analysis:
Compression 1 → 2: use Fig. 4.3, us1 = 0; us2 = 270 kJ/kg air
So: WC = − (us2 − us1) = − 270 kJ/kg air.
Combustion 2 → 3: use approach of Section 4.5.3
ϕ = 1.0, so ΔuDf ,u = −118.2 − 2956 x b
xr = xb = 0, hence ΔuDf ,u = −118.2 kJ/kg air
u b3 = u u2 = us,u2 + ΔuDf ,u = 270 − 118.2 = 152 kJ/kg air
Use burned gas chart Fig. 4.8 with ub3, and v3 = 0.9/8 = 0.11 m3/kg air:
T3 = 2900 K, p3 = 9000 kPa, s3 = 9.63 kJ/kg air·K
Expansion 3 → 4: Expand gas at constant entropy to v4 = 0.9 m3/kg air.
T4 = 1750 K, p4 = 650 kPa, u4 = −1470 kJ/kg air
So: WE = 152 − (− 1470) = 1622 kJ/kg air
Work per cycle = WE + WC = 1622 − 270 = 1352 kJ/kg air
70
Indicated (gross) fuel conversion efficiency:
Wc 1352
ηf ,ig = = = 0.46
m f Q LHV 0.0661 × 44.4 × 103
Mean effective pressure
Wc 1352
imep(g) = = = 1720 kPa
Vd 0.9 × 7 / 8
(b) Cycle 1-2-3-4A-5A-6-1
State (3) same as in (a) above. To find (4A) follow s = s3 = 9.63 kJ/kg air·K on burned
gas chart Fig. 4.8 to v4A = v3re = 0.11 × 12 = 1.32 m3/kg air.
This gives: T4A = 1600 K, u4A = −1660 kJ/kg air
Hence: WE = 152 − (−1660) = 1812 kJ/kg air
Wc = WE + WC = 1812 − 270 = 1540 kJ/kg air
1540
ηf ,ig = = 0.53
0.0661× 44.4 × 103
The overexpanded cycle is more efficient than the normal cycle.
1540
imep(g) = = 1270 kPa
1.32 × 11 / 12
But imep is significantly lower.
5.14 (a) Consider unit mass of mixture: mass x is ethanol (1 − x) is gasoline.
Ethanol is C2H6O
16 atomic unit of oxygen

Then oxygen mass = x ×
(2 × 12 + 6 + 16) mol. wt of ethanol
This equals 0.02
46
So x = 0.02 × = 0.0575 = 5.75%
16
(b) Stoichiometric air/fuel ratio of mixture:
Unit mass of fuel: 0.0575 mass ethanol
0.9425 mass gasoline
71
Stoichiometric air = 9 × 0.0575 + 14.6 × 0.9425
= 14.278 per unit mass of fuel
Mixture stoichiometric A/F = 14.28
a
(c) Fixed mass flow rate of air, m
a / 14.6
mass flow rate of gasoline = m
mixed fuel = m
Since density is the same m gasoline
So for fuel mixture,
λ, the relative air/fuel ratio is :
m a /m
mixed fuel m
/ (m
a / 14.6)
λ mixed fuel = = a
14.278 14.278
14.6
= = 1.023
14.278
(d) Use Fig. 5.9 to estimate the effect of this shift lean on fuel conversion efficiency.
Effect is small
0.49 − 0.425 ⎛ 1 ⎞
Δηf ,i ≈ × ⎜1 − ⎟ = 0.0024
0.6
N ⎝ 1.023 ⎠
slope in units of [1/φ ]
1
Now bsfc =
ηf ,b Q HV
assume ηm same for both engines
bsfc (mixed fuel) η (gas) Q HV (gas)

= f ,i ⋅
bsfc (gasoline) ηf ,i (mixed) Q HV (mixed)
0.85 × 0.45 44
= ×
0.85 × (0.45 + 0.0024) (0.0575 × 26.9 + 0.9425 × 44)
real engine negligible

factor
= 1.017
1
Miles per gallon ratio = = 0.983
1.017
i.e. close to 2% loss in miles per gallon
72
5.15 (a) Use fact that uu = ub and vu = vb for constant volume adiabatic combustion. Use
charts, Figs. 4.3 and 4.8, for isooctane-air mixtures for thermodynamic properties. Given ϕ =
1.0.
For Tu = 700 K, Fig. 4.3 gives us,u = 375 kJ/kg air
Find uu from u u = us,u + ΔuDf ,u . For ϕ = 1.0, Section 4.5.3 gives:
ΔuDf ,u = −118.2 − 2956x b kJ/kg air
Then, with ub and vb determined, find Tb from u vs s equilibrium chart Fig. 4.8.
xb ΔuDf ,u kJ/kg air uu = ub chart→Tb, K
0.1 −414 −39 2780

0.3 −1005 −630 2480
where, vu = 0.2 m3/kg air = vb
The difference in burned gas temperature is 300 K
(b) Find expansion stroke work: expand each case at constant s on Fig. 4.8 chart to
v = 8 × vb = 1.6 m3/kg air.
Then work per cycle, Wc = WE + WC = WE − 300 kJ/kg air
kJ/kg air
xb u3 u4 WE Wc
0.1 −319 −1520 1481 1181
kJ/kg air Ans.
0.3 −630 −1880 1250 950
(c) To obtain equal indicated work per cycle from these two cases, inlet pressure and
end of compression pressure for xb = 0.3 would have to be increased (by approximately the
ratio 1181/950 = 1.24).
5.16 (a)
Model for cycle:
6-7 intake stroke

7-1-2 compression stroke
1-2 adiab. rev. compression
2-3 const. vol. combustion
3-4 expansion: adiab., rev.
4-5-6 exhaust process
73
V1/V2 = rc V4/V3 = re
(b) Carry out fuel-air cycle analysis per kg air in original mixture: at State 1.
⎛r ⎞
Compression stroke work = −p1v1 ⎜ e − 1 ⎟ + (u1 − u2 )
⎝ rc ⎠
Expansion stroke work = u3 − u4
Find v1 (ϕ = 1.0)
v1 = nRT1/p1 = 292 × 300/1.01 × 105 = 0.865 m3/kg air
Go through 8:1 compression ratio: use Eq. 4.25a and Fig. 4.4:
ψ(T1 ) = ψ(300) = 0. Δψ = nR An(V2 / V1 ) = 292 An8 = 607 J/kg air
Hence ψ(T2) = 607 which gives T2 = 585 K.
u1 = us,u(300) = 0; u2 = us,u2 (585) = 260 kJ/kg air
Combustion; use approach of Section 4.5.3:
u b = us,u + ΔuDf ,u = us,u − 118.2 − 2656 x b
Hence: u3 = ub3 = us,u2 − 118.2 − 2656 × 0.05 = 260 − 118 − 133
= 9 kJ/kg air
Locate 3 on burned chart (u vs s) Fig. 4.8:
(v3 = v2 =v1/rc = 0.865/8 = 0.108 m3/kg air; u3 = 18 kJ/kg air)
3-4 follows an isentropic to (1) v4 = 8v3 = 0.865 m3/kg or (2) v4 = 16 v3 = 1.73 m3/kg.
Hence:
re u4 WE ⎛r ⎞ (u2 − u1) WC Wc
p1v1 ⎜ e − 1⎟
⎝ rc ⎠
kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg
8 −1500 1510 0 260 −260 1250
16 −1950 1960 88 260 −348 1610
⎛r ⎞ ⎛ 16 ⎞
(for re =16, p1v1 ⎜ e − 1 ⎟ = 1.013 × 10 5 × 0.865 ⎜ − 1 ⎟ = 87.6 kJ / kg)
⎝ rc ⎠ ⎝8 ⎠
So: indicated work per cycle is (1) 1250 kJ/kg air; (2) 1610 kJ/kg air
Mean effective pressure:
imep = Wc/Vd = Wc/(v4 − v3) = Wc/0.108 (re − 1)
74
For re = 8: imep = 1650 kPa
For re = 16: imep = 990 kPa
(c) Indicated efficiency increases as re/rc increases (by the ratio of Wc, 1:1.29).
However, since imep decreases, by the ratio 1:0.6, the power density decreases.
5.17 (a)
Actual cycle
(b) Ideal cycle version of the real cycle
1-2 intake
2-3 const. vol. combustion
3-4 adiabatic expansion
4-5 exhaust blowdown
5-6 exhaust stroke
Use Figs. 4.3 and 4.8 to calculate 2-3-4. For gas in cylinder as system, first law gives:
u u2 = (us,u + ΔuDf ,u )2 = u b3
For ϕ = 1.0, Section 4.5.3 gives
ΔuDf ,u = −118.2 − 2956 x b (x b = 0, for Vc = 0)
Hence: ub3 = 118 kJ/kg air
Now v3b = v2u. Find v2, v3:

p(Pa)v(m 3 /kg air) = nR(J/kg air ⋅ K)T(K)
For ϕ = 1.0, nR = 292.0 J/kg air ⋅ K from Table 4.6.
Hence (p = 1 atm):
292 × 300 3
v u2 = m /kg air = 0.865 m 3 / kg air = v b3
1.013 × 10 5
75
Find State 3 on the burned gas properties chart for ϕ = 1, Fig. 4.8:
Tb3 = 2680 K, pb3 = 1000 kPa
Process 3 → 4: expand to twice the volume:
vb4 = 2vb3 = 1.73 m3/kg air; sb4 = sb3
Hence: Tb4 = 2380 K, p4 = 420 kPa, ub4 = −720 kJ/kg air
(u b3 − u b4 ) − p1 (v 4 − v 2 )
indicated fuel conversion efficiency =
m f Q LHV
−118 + 720 − 101× 0.865

ηf ,i = = 0.18 Ans.
0.0661× 44.4 × 103
(note the extra pΔv term in the efficiency expression!)
Indicated mean effective pressure:
(u b3 − u b4 ) − p1 (v 4 − v 2 ) 602 − 87
imep= = = 300 kPa
v4 1.73
(since Vc = 0, v4 = vdisplaced)
(c) Typical values for a constant volume fuel-air cycle calculation
(with rc = 8, ϕ = 1.0, pi = 1 atm) are:
ηf,i = 0.425, imep = 1200 kPa
The differences are due to:
(1) The low expansion ratio of the Lenoir engine (about 2) gives low expansion work.
(2) The absence of compression process prior to combustion with the Lenoir engine, and
the use of only half the displaced volume for the air intake process, result in much less
effective breathing for a given Vd.
(d) Reasons why brake thermal efficiency is ~5%:
(1) Heat transfer to walls
(2) Finite combustion time, so not constant volume combustion and actual expansion ratio
of some burned gases is less than 2.
(3) Friction, mechanical efficiency significantly lower than 1.0
76
5.18 Use results of fuel-air cycle calculations in Figs. 5.9 and 5.10 to estimate engine
performance. Graphs given nf,i and imep/p1. From Eqs. (2.10) and (2.25):
Pi(max) = (imep)engVdNmax/nR (nR = 2)
N max = Sp,max / (2L) = 15 / (2L) rev/s
where (imep)eng = 0.85 × (imep)fuel-air cycle
Engine 1: rc = 7, ϕ = 0.8, B = 0.092 m, L = 0.09 m, Vd = 3.6 dm3
Engine 2: rc = 10, ϕ = 1.1, B = 0.083 m, L = 0.08 m, Vd = 2.41 dm3
Engine nf,i imep/p1 Nmax imep Pi

rev/s kPa kW
1 0.45 10.3 83.3 1030 123
2 0.44 13.3 93.8 1330 120
Explanations:
(a) Increasing compression ratio improves efficiency; operating lean of stoichiometric

improves the thermal conversion efficiency and operating rich introduces a significant
combustion inefficiency.
(b) ϕ = 1.1 gives the maximum imep for a given compression ratio. Lean mixtures do
not fully utilize the air in the cylinder, so power is significantly reduced. Note: efficiency of
conversion of fuel energy of the smaller engine is about the same as for the larger engine.
5.19 (a) Find mass CO2 / mass fuel, then divide by fuel’s heating value:
fuel moles mass CO2/mass QHV MJ/kg g CO2/MJ

CO2/moles fuel fuel
CH4 1 44 50 55
= 2.75
12 + 4
CH4O 1 44 20 69
= 1.375
12 + 4 + 16
C7H13 7 7 × 44 44 72
= 3.175
7 × 12 + 13
Natural gas is better on this scale; methanol and gasoline are comparable.
(b) Assume best indicated fuel conversion efficiency of each engine/fuel is given by
0.85 × ηf,i of fuel-air cycle (see Fig. 5.9).
77
Compression ratio rc, given in problem; ϕ = 1.0
fuel rc ηf,i fuel-air ηf,i engine ηm ηb engine g CO2 / MJ ratio

cycle ηb
CH4 12 0.485 0.41 0.8 0.33 168 0.74
CH4O 10.5 0.46 0.39 0.83 0.32 213 0.94
C7H13 9 0.44 0.37 0.85 0.32 226 1.0
Could assume ηm same for all engines, about 0.85. It would be slightly lower, the higher the
compression ratio. Then want (g CO2/MJ) ÷ ηf,b which is proportional to the CO2 emissions
per unit power output.
Answer is: gasoline : methanol: methane

1: 0.94: 0.714
(c) Use fuel-air cycle results for imep/p1 (Fig 5.10). Correct for lower ηvol for natural
gas (methane), methanol, via Fig. 6.3, and can adjust for minor difference in mechanical
efficiency.
fuel imep/p pa,i* η*v effect η†m bmep kPa

pi (relative)
CH4 13 0.9 0.92 0.76 909

CH4O 12.5 0.88 0.9 0.79 889
C7H13 12.2 0.98 1.0 0.82 1000
*use pa,i/pi in Fig. 6.3 relative to pa,i/pi = 0.98 for gasoline. This corrects the isooctane fuel-air
cycle imep numbers for the volume occupied by the methane, and the methanol.
†
Use relation ηm = (1 – rc/50) to get these ηm at max. torque values. They are about what one
would get in practice, but the formula is purely empirical.
Note
bmep = ηm × imep(ηvol corrected) × 1 atm(≈100 kPa)
Note CH4, CH4O output down by about 10%

5.20 Use the graphs of fuel-air cycle results, Figs. 5.9 and 5.10, to estimate effect of
changes in compression ratio rc, equivalence ratio ϕ, and inlet pressure, pi.
(a) Fuel-air cycle results:
rc ϕ pi ηf,ig imep/pi imep(g)

atm kPa
diesel 16 0.4 1.0 0.59 6.2 620
SI engine 9 1.0 0.5 0.44 12.3 615
78
Now: ηb(engine) = ηm × 0.85 × ηf,ig (fuel-air cycle)
ηm = 1 - tfmep/imep(g)
where tfmep = mfmep + pmep
Given mfmep = 0.3 × imep(n), where imep(n) = imep(g) - pmep.
Thus:
imep (g) pmep imep(n) mfmep tfmep ηm ηb (eng)
kPa kPa kPa kPa kPa
diesel 620 0 620 186 186 0.7 0.35
SI engine 615 50 565 170 220 0.64 0.24
Hence: ηb (diesel)/ηb (SI) = 0.35/0.24 = 1.46
(b) Choose mean values for rc (12) and ϕ (0.7) to evaluate effects of Δϕ and Δrc on
ηf,ig, respectively, from fuel-air cycle results in Fig. 5.9:
At ϕ = 0.7: ηf,ig(rc = l6)/ηf, ig(rc = 9) = 0.557/0.472 = 1.18
At rc = 12: ηf,ig (ϕ = 0.4)/ηf,ig(ϕ = 1.0) = 0.55/0.485 = 1.13
pi effect: ηm(diesel)/ηm(SI) = 0.7/0.64 = 1.09
Combined effect is:
1.18 × 1.13 × 1.09 = 1.46 (agrees with answer in (a))
Relative contribution of (1) Δrc, (2) Δϕ, and (3) Δpi is:
18 13 9
Δrc : Δφ : Δp i = : : = 45 : 33 : 22%
40 40 40
79
Chapter 6
GAS EXCHANGE PROCESSES
6.1 Typical 4-stroke cycle valve timings:
IVO 15° BTC; IVC 50° ABC; EVO 55° BBC; EVC 10° ATC
(1) The intake valve closes well after BC to increase the mass of air inducted at
higher speeds. There is a loss of volumetric efficiency due to back flow at low engine speeds
but the benefit at higher speeds more than offsets this.
(2) The exhaust valve opens well before BC so that the blowdown process (where the
cylinder pressure drops to the exhaust pressure) is over before the exhaust stroke has
proceeded too far. This is done to reduce the pumping work. The loss in power at the end of
the expansion stroke is modest.
(3) To obtain the maximum valve lift close to the point of maximum piston velocity,
the inlet valve must be opened before TC and the exhaust valve closed after TC. This valve
overlap increases the amount of residual gas in the cylinder which, while undersirable for
combustion, reduces NOx emissions.
(4) An important design issue is wear between the cam and the tappet which slides on
the cam. Excessive acceleration of the tappet (and rest of the valve mechanism driven by the
tappet) causes excessive wear. Hence the rate of increase in valve lift is limited, requiring
relatively long opening and closing periods.
6.2
a) IVO – The valves open and close slowly to avoid impact forces. We want the
intake valve sufficiently open when the piston is moving with “significant”
velocity (it moves very slowly near TC). For this reason we start opening the
valve a little before TC and tolerate the increased residual fraction that results
from the overlap backflow at low speeds (note that neither valve is opened much
during valve overlap period).
IVC – The intake valve closes well after BC to increase the mass of air inducted
at higher speeds (via the ram effect). This does cause a loss of volumetric
efficiency due to backflow at lower speeds.
80
EVO – The exhaust valve opens well before BC so that the blowdown process
(where the cylinder pressure drops to the exhaust pressure) ends before the
exhaust stroke has proceeded too far. This reduces the pumping work. The loss in
power at the end of the expansion stroke is modest.
EVC– We close the exhaust valve slightly after TC to avoid a pressure rise in the
combustion chamber at the end of the exhaust stroke.
b) race car – these engines tend to run at higher speeds for higher power outputs.
Thus, one change would be to close the intake valve even later to take further
advantage of the ram effect
turbo-charged – the turbo-charger requires thermal energy in the exhaust. Thus,

one change would be to open the exhaust valve earlier to provide higher energy in
the exhaust (less work is extracted from the charge in the combustion chamber.)
low-speed – if the engine is operating at low-speed, we would want to close the

intake valve earlier to reduce the amount of backflow into the intake port.
c) With fully variable valve timing, the most significant impact would result from
changing the intake valve closing angle – to take better advantage of the ram
effect, to take better advantage of intake tuning, or to reduce backflow –
depending on engine speed.
6.3 (a) Stochiometric air/fuel ratio
(H 2 + C8 H18 ) + 13(O 2 + 3.773 N 2 ) → 8 CO 2 + 10 H 2 O + 49.0 N 2
(A / F)s = 13(32 + 3.773 × 28.16) / (2 + 114) = 15.5 Ans
(for C8H18 alone (A/F)s = 15.1)
(b) Heating value
for H2: Q LHV = 120 MJ/kg; for C8 H18 : Q LHV = 44.4 MJ / kg
for mixture: Q LHV = (2 × 120 + 114 × 44.4) / (2 + 114) = 45.7 MJ / kg Ans
(c) Find relation for bmep in terms of other variables we know.
imep(g) = Wc,ig/Vd = ηf,igmfQLHV/Vd also bmep = ηmimep(g)
81
so bmep = ηmηf,igma(F/A)QLHV/Vd. Since it is the same engine, Vd cancels out. We can relate
ηm to pi and pe:
bmep bmep 275

ηm = = =
imep(g) bmep + mfmep + pmep 275 + 138 + (p e − p i )
Assume that ma (mass of air) is proportional to pi via ideal gas law.
Then [ηm ηf ,ig m a (F / A)Q LHV ]isooctane = [ηm ηf ,ig m a (F / A)Q LHV ]hydrogen + isooctane
where ma is proportional to pi. Thus:
275
× 0.35 × 46 × 44.4 × 0.8 × 15.1
275 + 138 + 55
275
= × 0.4 × p i × 45.7 × 0.5 × 15.5
[275 + 138 + (101 − p i )]
Solve to find pi = 59 kPa, pmep = 42 kPa Ans.
So for leaner mixture, the pumping work is less.
6.4 (a) Calculate imep for each engine
Given information:
Standard Engine
Average required bmep = 250 kPa
IVC: 50 CAD ABC
p intake (pi) = 50 kPa
p exhaust (pe) = 105 kPa
Mechanical friction mep (mfmep)+ Accessory friction mep (afmep) = 90 kPa
Variable Valve Timing (VVT)

Average required bmep = 250 kPa
IVC: ?
p intake = 90 kPa
p exhaust= 105 kPa
Mechanical friction mep (mfmep)+ Accessory friction mep (afmep) = 90 kPa
82
Calculate imep
Note that bmep is what comes out of the engine:
bmep = imepg − pmep − mfmep − afmep
re-arranging:
imepg = bmep + pmep + mfmep + afmep
imepg = bmep + (pe − pi) + mfmep + afmep
Standard engine
imepg = 250 kPa + (105 − 50) kPa + 90 kPa = 395 kPa
VVT Engine
imepg = 250 kPa + (105 − 90) kPa + 90 kPa = 355 kPa
(b) See sketch below
(c) The ratio of cylinder volume at which each engine ends intake process:
mRT
From the ideal gas law V=
p
⎛ mRTi ⎞
⎜ p ⎟
VVVT ⎝ i ⎠ VVT
so =
VSTD ⎛ mRTi ⎞
⎜ p ⎟
⎝ i ⎠STD
83
Canceling R, and assuming that at intake valve close, the temperatures of the air are the same,
then
VVVT ⎛ m VVT ⎞ ⎛ p i,STD ⎞

= ⎟⎜ p ⎟
VSTD ⎜⎝ m STD ⎠ ⎝ i,VVT ⎠
Recognize that imep is proportional to the mass of air in the cylinder (remember this is
something that we covered in section 2.14, Eq. 2.48.)
imepg ∝ ma
VVVT ⎛ imep VVT ⎞ ⎛ pSTD ⎞

then, =
VSTD ⎜⎝ imepSTD ⎟⎠ ⎜⎝ p VVT ⎟⎠
VVVT ⎛ 355 ⎞⎛ 50 ⎞
Substituting values we get: =⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ = 0.50
VSTD ⎝ 395 ⎠⎝ 90 ⎠
Now calculate the IVC crank angle (approximately):
Note from the Figure below, that for the different engines, STD and VVT, the crank will see
a vertical displacement of 2X and X respectively. This must be true because as we have
already calculated, the ratio of the cylinder volumes for the different engines is one half; this
means that for the standard engine the piston will travel twice the vertical distance (X) of the
VVT engine.
Using trigonometry, we can solve for θ (the IVC for VVT):
Equating each vertical length X:
a sin(θ − 90°) + a sin(90° − 50°) ≈ a − a sin(θ − 90°)]
which simplifies to:
2 sin (θ − 90°) = 1 − sin(40°)
⎛ 1 − sin(40°) ⎞
⇒ θ = sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ + 90° ≈ 100.3°
⎝ 2 ⎠
So IVCVVT ≈ 100°
84
Figure of crankshaft, showing location of IVC for STD and VVT engines
6.5 (a) Pumping work (shaded area) in (B) for same pe, p1, V1, V6 is obviously less than
in (A).
(b) For conventional cycle (A):
Exhaust work (gas to piston) = pe(V6 − V1)
Intake work (gas to piston) = pi(V1 − V7)
Combine: Wp = −(pe − p1) (V1 − V2)
Rearrange: use p1V1 = mRT1 ; V1/V2 = rc ; cv = R(γ − 1)
Wp = −mcvT1[(pe/p1) − 1] [1 − (1/rc)](γ − 1)
For novel cycle (B):
Exhaust work (gas to piston) = pe(V6 − V1)
Intake work (gas to piston) = pe(V8 − V6) + W8−1
Combine:
Wp = −p e (V1 − V6 ) + W8−1 = −p e (V1 − V8 ) + (U8 − U1 )

= −p e (V1 − V8 ) + mc v (T8 − T1 ).
85
Now 8 → 1 is isentropic process with fixed mass, so
γ ( γ−1)/ γ
p1 ⎛ V8 ⎞ T1 ⎛ p1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ; = ; p8 = p e
p8 ⎝ V1 ⎠ T8 ⎜⎝ p8 ⎟⎠
Net pumping work:

γ−1
Wp = − p1V1 (p e / p1 )[1 − (p1 / pe )1/ γ ] + mc v T1[(pe / p1 ) γ

− 1]
Wp = −mc v T1{( γ − 1)(pe / p1 ) − ( γ − 1)(pe / p1 )1−1/ γ − (pe / p1 )( γ−1)/ γ + 1}
Wp = −mc v T1{( γ − 1)(pe / p1 ) − γ(pe / p1 )( γ−1)/ γ + 1}
For same T1,
Wp (B) [( γ − 1)(p e / p1 ) − γ(p e / p1 )( γ−1)/ γ + 1]

=
Wp (A) [(p e / p1 ) − 1][1 − (1 / rc )]( γ − 1)
Substitute numbers:
Wp (B) 0.3 × 2 − 1.3 × 2 0.3/1.3 + 1

= = 0.28
Wp (A) 1 × (1 − 1 / 8) × 0.3
So there is a substantial reduction in pumping work.
6.6 Valve and port is a flow restriction.
At 2500 and 5000 rev/min, the mean piston speed is 7 and 14 m/s; the maximum piston speed
is 1.6 Sp (Fig. 2.2) which is 11 and 22 m/s. The flow velocity through the valve is
vV = Sp,maxAp/Av,e
where Av,e is the effective flow area of the valve and port (= CDAv,ref).
The reference area can be the actual valve open area (when CD = 0.8) or the valve curtain area
AC, Eq. (6.15), when CD will be lower (Fig. 6.18 and 6.20).
At max. lift the actual minimum geometric valve and port area is (π/4) (D2p − Ds2 ) , Eq.
(6.11). It is easier to work with AC = πDVLV. Typical max. values are Div = 0.5B, Dev = 0.42B,
(Lv/Dv)max = 0.25 − 0.3, CD,iv = 0.5, CD,ev = 0.6. We then find Δp = po − pT from Eq. (6.13) or
Eq. (C.10).
1
= ρA v,e v v = A v,e [2ρ(po − p T )]2
m
86
1 1
or Δp = ρv2v = ρ[Sp,max (π / 4)B2 / (πDv L v CD )]2
2 2
Gas densities are: ρi = 1.1 kg/m3; ρe = 0.4 kg/m3
(Tc = 1000 K, Fig. 6.28)
Intake valve:
Δp = 0.5 × 1.1 × [11 × (π / 4) × B2 / (π× 0.5B × 0.25 × 0.5B × 0.5)]2

= 4.3 kPa at 2500 rev/min
= 17 kPa at 5000 rev/min
Exhaust valve:
Δp = 0.5 × 0.4 × [11 × (π / 4) × B2 / (π× 0.42B × 0.3 × 0.42B × 0.6)]2

= 1.5 kPa at 2500 rev/min
= 6 kPa at 5000 rev/min
One sees why Div > Dev.
6.7 Eq. (5.47) is:
−1
⎧⎪ T ⎡ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞( γ−1)/ γ ⎤ ⎫⎪
x r = ⎨1 + r ⎢ rc ⎜ i ⎟ − ⎜ i ⎟ ⎥⎬
⎪⎩ Ti ⎢⎣ ⎝ p e ⎠ ⎝ p e ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Assume (γ−1)/ γ = 0.24, Ti = 325 K (hence, Tr/Ti = 1400/325 = 4.3), rc = 8.5. Hence:
(pi/pe) 1.0 0.75 0.5 0.25

xr (Eq. 5.47) 0.030 0.041 0.064 0.142
The most significant difference is the valve overlap (27°) of the production engine.
Additional differences are the late intake valve closing which reduces the actual volumetric
efficiency, the pressure losses in the intake system (pi(max) < 1 atm: pe > 1 atm), and the
pressure drops across the valves.
6.8 (a) With the intake valve closing during the intake stroke (before BC), to maintain
constant load as the intake valve is opened earlier, the throttle must be opened and the inlet
manifold pressure must rise (see figure).
87
Because the intake pressure p*i is higher than it would be with normal intake valve closing,
the pumping work is less. The reduction in pumping work is the cross-hatched region in the
figure. Note it does not include the dotted area, since the density at state 1 must be the same
for all cycles, and the temperature at 1 (EIVC) is lower than in the normal cycle at 1(N)
because the cylinder mixture has been expanded from θ (EIVC) (density is proportional to
p/T).
(b) The two p-V diagrams illustrate the difference between EIVC and (late) LIVC.
Due to the pressure drop across the valve, to obtain the same mass in the cylinder at B as at
A, the in-cylinder pressure with LIVC during the intake stroke must be lower than with
EIVC. The net difference in areas on the p-V diagram is the cross hatched region, and the
counter clockwise direction around this area indicates that LIVC will be less efficient.
6.9 (a) Engine displaced volume:
π
Vd = 8 × × 0.1282 × 0.14 = 0.0144 m 3
4
a . Use Eq. 2.33a, the definition of volumetric efficiency:

Find air mass flow rate m
a = ηvρa,i Vd N / 2
m
88
Air density at compressor exit: use ideal gas law.
ρa,i = p/(RT) = 1.8 × 101,325/[(8314/29) × 325] = 1.95 kg/m3
a = 0.9 × 1.95 × 0.0144 × (2000 / 60) / 2 = 0.42 kg/s

Hence: m
Compressor work given by Eq. (6.46):
a c p,a
m ⎡⎛ p 02 ⎞( γ−1)/ γ ⎤
=
−W T01 ⎢⎜ − 1⎥
C
ηC ⎟
⎣⎢⎝ p 01 ⎠ ⎦⎥
0.42 × 1000 × 300
= [(1.8)0.4/1.4 − 1] = 33 kW Ans.
0.7
(b) The turbocharger turbine power equals the compressor power.
Use Eq. (6.52):
⎡ ⎛ p 04 ⎞( γe −1)/ γe ⎤

WT = m e c p,e ηT T03 ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎥
⎟
⎢⎣ ⎝ p 03 ⎠ ⎥⎦
e =m
m a (1 + F / A), F / A = 0.035; c p,e = 1250 J / kg ⋅ K; γ e = 1.31 from Figs. 4.17 and
4.18 at
Te = 650°C = 923 K.
Thus:
⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞0.31/1.31 ⎤
33 × 103 = 0.42 × 1.035 × 1250 × 0.65 × 923 × ⎢1 − ⎜ ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ p 03 ⎠ ⎥⎦
Solve for p03 = 1.57 atm Ans.
6.10 (a) From Fig. 4.22 with x CO2 = 0.072 and x O2 = 0.104 , the in-cylinder burned gas
equivalence ratio is 0.5.
f = 1.6 g/s per cylinder

m
60
m f = 1.6 × = 0.0533 g/cycle per cylinder
1800
Hence mass of air retained in the cylinder is
m a = m f / [φ(F / A)s ]
= 0.0533 / (0.5 × 0.0667) = 1.6 g/cycle per cylinder
89
Hence charging efficiency ηch is
ma 1.6 × 10 −3
ηch = = = 0.73 Ans.
Vd ρa,o (π / 4) × 0.1252 × 0.15 × 1.184
(ρa,o = 1.184 kg/m3 at 300 K and 1 atm)
(b) Delivery ratio Λ is
mass of air delivered

Λ=
reference mass
0.08(kg/s) × (60 / 1800)(sec)
= = 1.2 Ans
(π / 4) × 0.1252 × 0.15 × 1.184
Note: Engine needs an airflow rate of 80 g/s.
(c) ηtr = ηch/Λ = 0.73/1.2 = 0.61 Ans.
6.11
Two stroke cycle engine
From TC:
⎡ L L2C ⎤
s(α) = R ⋅ ⎢(1 − cos α) + C − − sin 2
α ⎥ c
⎣ R R2 ⎦
90
s(α) For “exhaust open” and “intake open”:
Δsex = L − sex = 202 mm
= Δsin = L − sin = 169 mm
⎡ s(α) L LC2 ⎤
with c α = arc cos ⎢1 − + C
− − sin 2
α ⎥ d
⎣ R R R2 ⎦
iterate d to find α(Δsex) and α(Δsin)
⇒ αex = 104° αin = 122°
Timing: EO = 76°CA BBC IO = 58° CA BBC
EC = 76°CA ABC IC = 58° CA ABC
b) Necessary for (A/F) sampling of cylinder gases: Sample valve operation during
“Blow down” ⇒ Δα = EO − IO =18° CA
Blow down period must not be shorter than minimum opening duration of sample valve
(Δtmin = 2.7 ms)
Δα 60
⇒ N max = ⋅ = 1110 rev/min
Δt min 360
i.e. Operation at 1000 rev/min
Mass of air delivered m m

c) Delivery Ratio: Λ = = del = del
amb
Displ. Vol × ambient density m amb m
⋅s
del = V
m in in
p in p + Δp
ρin = = amb ; R = R air = 287 J / kg ⋅ K
R ⋅ Tin R ⋅ Tin
= 1.46 kg/m 3
⇒m
del = 0.253 kg/s
π 2
Vd = B L = 0.0113 m 3
4
p
ρamb = amb = 1.17 kg/m 3
R ⋅ Tamb
91
del
m
⇒Λ= = 1.15
Vd ⋅ρamb ⋅ N
Mass of fresh charge retained after scavenging

Trapping Efficiency: ηtr =
Mass of delivered charge
m air cyl
=
m del
φcyl =
mf A
( )
m air cyl Fs
⇒ From sampling analysis
φdel =
mf A
m del
( )
Fs
⇒ From continuous exhaust analysis
m air cyl φdel

⇒ ηtr = = = 0.58
m del φcyl
Mass of fresh charge retained m air cyl

Charging efficiency: ηc = =
Displ.vol × ambient density m del
⇒ ηc = Λ ⋅ ηtr = 0.64
Fifteen percent more air is delivered than the amount required to fill the cylinder. The
trapping efficiency is ≈ 0.6 (as is the scavenging efficiency). Clearly about 40% of the
delivered fresh air short circuits the cylinders directly into the exhaust system.
92
Chapter 7
MIXTURE PREPARATION IN SI ENGINES
7.1 Two strategies for gasoline SI engine: (a) Stoichiometric (with EGR); (b) Slightly rich
at low load, lean mid load, transition to rich as full load approached.
See graphs. Base case λ = ϕ = 1 all loads
(a) Combustion efficiency:
ηc = 0.96 for ϕ < 1. ηc decreases as ϕ increases above 1.0 due to increasing

oxygen-deficiency. Note, at idle, ηc might decrease due to more difficult combustion
environment (higher residual).
(b) Gross indicated fuel conversion efficiency:
Will be a maximum for ϕ = 0.8. It will decrease as ϕ increases towards 1.0 at light load. At
high load it will decrease as ϕ → 1, then decrease more rapidly for ϕ > 1. Reason: for leaner
mixtures, the thermodynamic properties give greater expansion stroke work.
(c) Gross indicated mep:
This will increase steadily from an idle (no load) value equal to the friction mean effective
pressure, to the highest value at WOT.
(d) Brake mep:
This is [imep(g) − tfmep]. So the bmep curve is parallel to the imep curve since friction is
approximately constant, and bmep is zero at no-load.
(e) Mechanical efficiency: ηm = bmep/imep(g)
93
7.2
94
(a) Average flow time from injector to sensor has three parts:
τ = τintake + τengine + τexhaust
From the average volume flow rate in the intake and exhaust we can find the first and last of
these flow times.
(1) Intake:
Vol. flow rate in intake = ηv × (rate at which vol. is displaced in engine)

V int ake = ηv Vd N(rev/s) / 2
500 2000
= 0.85 × × = 8.3 × 103 cm 3 /s
2 60
π 2
Intake pipe area = × 4 = 12.6 cm 2
4
Intake flow velocity = 8.3 × 103 ÷ 12.6 = 6.6 m/s
Flow time = 0.1 ÷ 6.6 = 15 ms
(2) Engine flow time:
Mean engine transit time = 180 + 180 + 90 = 450°

450 60
So: τengine = × = 38 ms
360 2000
(3) Exhaust flow time:

Vol. flow rate in exhaust × ρexh = Vol. flow rate in intake × ρintake
Since p = 1 atm, ρ ∝ T−1

=V
So: Vexh intake × (Texh / Tint )
= 8.3 × 103 × 800 / 300 = 2.2 × 10 4 cm 3 /s
95
So: exhaust flow velocity = 2.2 × 104 ÷ 12.6 = 17 m/s
exhaust flow time = 0.2 ÷ 17 = 12 ms
Total flow time:
τ = 15 + 38 + 12 = 65 ms
(b) This is the time delay for a change at the injector to reach the sensor. Hence with
the linear equation for F/A
(F/A) = (F/A)t=0(1 + CVt)
with
the F/A variation at the injector and at the sensor are like this:
At A, sensor signal changes rich to lean (−Vs to + Vs). So injector is richened relative to its ϕ
at B, linearly with time. The change in dϕ/dt at the injector at B reaches the sensor a time τ
later at C, etc. For variations in (F/A) to be less than 10% of (F/A)stoich:
(CVt)A to C ≤ 0.1
Since V = Vs = 1 V and t = τ = 0.065 s
C ≤ 0.1/0.065 = 1.5 V−1 s−1 Ans
96
7.3 (a) 1.6-dm3 engine, 2500 rev/min, WOT, ηV = 0.85.
At WOT in a SI engine, the equivalence ratio ϕ = 1.1.
Sketch shows intake system; analyze flow through control volume shown. Apply steady flow
energy equation to control volume:
a h a1 + m
m =m
f h f1 + Q a ha 2 + m
f hf 2
Neglect enthalpy change of fuel while in vapor or liquid state. Then:
m −m
a c p,a (Ta 2 − Ta1 ) = Q f h fg
Q ⎛m ⎞ h fg
or Ta2 − Ta1 = −⎜ f ⎟
a c p,a ⎝ m
m a ⎠ c p,a
where hfg is the heat of vaporization of the fuel.

a:
Need to find m
2m a 0.85 103 2500

ηv = a =
→m × 1.06 × 1.6 × 6 × = 0.03 kg/s
ρa Vd N 2 10 60
1.4 × 103 350 × 103

So Ta 2 − Ta1 = − (0.067 × 1.1) × = 46.6 − 25.8
0.03 × 103 1 × 103
= 21°C. Hence Ta2 = 40 + 21 = 61°C
is now zero; 90% fuel is

(b) With EFI the fuel is injected just upstream of plane 2. Q
evaporated.

⎛m ⎞ h fg
Now Ta2 − Ta1 = −0.9 ⎜ f ⎟ c = −23°C
a
⎝m ⎠ p,a
∴ Ta2 = 40 − 23 = 17°C
(c), (d) With direct-injection of gasoline into the cylinder:

⎛m ⎞ h fg
ΔTair = −1.0 ⎜ f ⎟ c = −26°C
a
⎝m ⎠ p,a
The air temperature inside the cylinder is decreased by some 25°C by direct injection.
97
With a naturally-aspirated gasoline DI engine at WOT, pi = 1 atm, pmax = 60 atm
Take port injected charge temp. in cylinder as 375 K (~ 100°C). With direct injection it will
be 350 K.
End gas is isentropically (adiabatically) compressed. Thus during compression
( γ −1)/ γ
Tu (max) ⎛ p max ⎞ u u
= γ = 1.3
Tu (initial) ⎜⎝ p init ⎟⎠
= 60 0.3/1.3 = 2.57
For Tu,i = 375 K, Tu(max) = 965 K
Tu,i = 350 K, Tu(max) = 900 K
There is a substantial difference!
7.4 Mass of fuel injected per cylinder per cycle mf is proportional to pulse width τ.
ma ⎛F⎞
Now: ηv,i = → m f = ηv,iρa,i Vd ⎜ ⎟
ρa,i Vd ⎝A⎠
where ηv,i is based on air density in the intake manifold.
Δθ 1
Now: τ(sec) = × → Δθ ∝ Nτ ∝ Nm f
360 N
Δθ(idle) [N(F / A)ηv,iρa,i Vd ]idle

Thus: =
Δθ(5500) [N(F / A)ηv,iρa,i Vd ]5500
700 12 0.3
= × × 1× = 0.03
5500 14.6 1.0
(assuming the intake mixture temperature does not change significantly, and ηv,i ≈ constant)
Then: Δθ(idle) = 0.03 × 360 × 2 = 22°
(4-stroke cycle occupies 2 complete crankshaft revolutions, and given that at maximum
power, fuel is injected continuously, Δθ at max. power = 360°.)
7.5 The change in air temperature due to vaporization of the liquid gasoline is given by:
a +m
(m f )c p (T1 − T2 ) = m
f h fg
h fg ⎡ 1 ⎤
or T1 − T2 =
c p ⎣ (A / F) + 1 ⎥⎦
⎢
where hfg is the enthalpy of vaporization.

With (A/F) = 14.6, ϕ = 1.0, let T2 = T2′
98
With (A/F) = 12.2, ϕ = 14.6/12.2 = 1.2, let T2 = T2*
Then:
h fg ⎧ ⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤⎫
T2′ − T2* = ⎨⎢ −⎢ ⎬
c p ⎩ ⎣ (A / F) + 1 ⎦ ⎣ (A / F)′ + 1 ⎥⎦ ⎭
* ⎥
Use Table D.4 for hfg; cp ≈ 1 kJ/kg·K:
350 ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
T2′ − T2* = ⎜ − ⎟ = 4°C
1 ⎝ 12.2 + 1 14.6 + 1 ⎠
The change in the temperature rise during the compression process can be estimated
using the isentropic compression chart, Fig. 4.4. Equation (4.25b) gives
⎛ p ⎞
φ(T) = φ(To ) + n u R An ⎜ ⎟
⎝ po ⎠
Assume TO = 350 K so ϕ(TO) = 190 J/kg air·K. Table 4.6 gives n u R = 292 J/kg air ⋅ K for
ϕ = 1.0 and 1.2. Hence, for ϕ = 1.0 and 1.2:
φ(T) = 190 + 292 An 40 = 1267 J/kg air ⋅ K
Figure 4.4 then gives:

T = 829 K for ϕ = 1.2; T = 850 K for ϕ = 1.0
The richer unburned mixture has a 21°C lower temperature at peak pressure than the
stoichiometric mixture, for the same initial temperature. The effect of the 4°C difference in
inlet temperature due to additional fuel vaporization, on unburned gas temperature at peak
pressure, can be estimated from
T3 = T2 (p3 / p 2 )( γ−1)/ γ or ΔT3 = ΔT2 (p3 / p 2 )( γ−1)/ γ
ΔT3 = 4(40)0.3/1.3 = 9°C
The combined impact, additional evaporative cooling and smaller compression temperature
rise corresponds to a significant end-gas temperature difference (approximately 9 + 21 =
30°C) at time of peak cylinder pressure in terms of knock.
7.6 (a) Throttle plate open area given by Eq. (7.5):
4A th ⎛ cos ψ ⎞ 2 ⎡ a
= ⎜1 − ⎟ + ⎢ (cos2 ψ − a 2 cos2 ψ o )1/2
πD 2
⎝ cos ψ o ⎠ π ⎣ cos ψ
cos ψ ⎛ a cos ψ o ⎞ ⎤
+ sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ − a(1 − a 2 )1/2 − sin −1 a ⎥
cos ψ o ⎝ cos ψ ⎠ ⎦
99
where a = d/D, d = throttle body shaft diameter, D = throttle bore diameter, ψo is throttle
closed angle.
Here: D = 57 mm, d = 10.4 mm, so a = 0.1825; ψo = 10°, so cos ψo = 0.9848.
4A th ⎛ cos ψ ⎞ ⎡ 0.1825
Hence: = ⎜1 − ⎟ + 0.6366 ⎢ (cos2 ψ − 0.03229)1/2
πD 2
⎝ 0.9848 ⎠ ⎣ cos ψ
cos ψ ⎛ 0.1797 ⎞ ⎤
+ sin −1 ⎜ ⎟ − 0.004091⎥ (A)
0.9848 ⎝ cos ψ ⎠ ⎦
The throttle is fully open when ψ = cos−1(a cos ψo) which equals 80°, when the maximum
open area is πD2/4 −dD (there is no change in open area as ψ increases from 80 to 90°).
4A th (max) 4d
= 1− = 0.768
πD 2
πD
Use Eq. (A) above to solve for 4Ath/(πD2).
The throttle plate area is that of an ellipse
of major axis D/(2 cos ψo) and minor axis D/2
π D2 π 5.72
Hence: area of throttle plate = = × = 26 cm 2
4 cos ψ o 4 cos 10
100
(b) Use Eqs. (C.8) or (C.9) for mass flow rate of air, depending on whether unchoked
= ρAV to find
or choked flow. Then find ρ(p,T) at minimum area conditions, and use m
velocity V at throttle opening.
(1) ψ = 26° at 3000 rev/min: Fig. 7.18 gives pi = 31.5 cm Hg = 0.415 atm = 42 kPa.
Flow is choked: pi/p0 < 0.528 (see App. C). So Eq. (C.9) gives
( γ+1)/2( γ−1)
m C p γ1/2 ⎛ 2 ⎞
VT = real = D 0 ⎜ ⎟
ρT A T RT0 ρT ⎝ γ + 1 ⎠
where subscript T denotes “throat” or minimum-area value.

For air, ρ0 = 1.184 kg/m3; for choked flow pT/p0 = 0.528, TT/T0 = {1 + [(γ − 1)/2]M2}−1 = {1 +
[(1.4 − 1)/2]1}−1 = 0.833. Hence ρT = ρ0 × 0.528/0.833 = 0.75 kg/m3.
So:
(1.4 +1)/2(1.4 −1)
0.8 × 101.3 × 103 1.41/2 ⎛ 2 ⎞
VT = × ⎜ ⎟
(287 × 300)1/2 0.75 ⎝ 1.4 + 1 ⎠
= 252 m/s.
(2) ψ = 36° at 2000 rev/min: Fig. 7.22 gives pi = 62 cm Hg = 0.816 atm = 82.6 kPa.
Flow at throttle is not choked since pi/p0 > 0.528. So use Eq. (C.8):
1/2
CD p0 ⎛ p T ⎞ ⎧⎪ 2 γ ⎡ ⎛ p T ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
1/ γ ( γ−1)/ γ
m real
VT = = ⎨ ⎢1 − ⎥⎬
ρT A T ρT RT0 ⎝⎜ p0 ⎠⎟ ⎪ γ − 1 ⎣⎢ ⎝⎜ p0 ⎠⎟ ⎦⎥ ⎭⎪
⎩
With pT/p0 = 0.816, use TT/T0 = (pT/p0)(γ−1)/γ to obtain TT/T0 = 0.8160.4/1.4 = 0.944. Hence
ρT = ρ0 × 0.816/0.944 = 1.02 kg/m3.
So:
1/2
0.8 × 101.3 × 103 ⎧ 2.8 [ ⎫
VT = (0.816)1/1.4 ⎨ 1 − 0.816 0.4/1.4 ]⎬
1.02 × (287 × 300) 1/2
⎩ 0.4 ⎭
= 147 m/s
(c)
Total force F = (p0 − pi)A
Force perpendicular to axial flow direction is
F cos ψ. Force parallel to axial flow direction
is F sin ψ.
Use data from Fig. 7.18 at 2000 rev/min for pi; area throttle plate = 26 cm2; ψ at WOT = 80°
101
ψ pi (p0 − pi) F F cos ψ F sin ψ
deg cmHg kPa kPa N N N
10 11.5 15.4 85.9 223 210 39
18 23.0 30.7 70.6 184 175 57
21 30.1 40.2 61.1 159 148 57
26 43.7 58.3 43.0 112 100 49
36 61.8 82.4 18.9 49 40 29
80 71.8 95.7 5.6 14.6 2.5 14.4
200
F
Force
N Fcosψ
100
Fsinψ
0
0 20 40 60 80 ψ1 deg
7.7 Use Fig. 7.18 to estimate the intake manifold cross-section dimensions: they are
approximately 24 mm × 32 mm where manifold joins the cylinder head. Hence
manifold cross-sectional area 24 × 32 × 4
≈ = 0.12
πB2 / 4 π× 892
Flow path length, manifold entrance to intake valve is: port = 125 mm, manifold runner =
190 mm, manifold entrance to runner entrance = 90 mm. Hence:
Total entrance length/B = (125 + 190 + 90)/89 = 4.6
Intake port volume (approximately):
VIP = 2.4 × 3.2 × 12.5 = 96 cm3
Vd(per cylinder) = (π/4) × 8.92 × 8.9 = 554 cm3
102
So: VIP/Vd = 96/554 = 0.17
Intake manifold runner volume (approximately):
VIM = 2.4 × 3.2 × 19 = 146 cm3
So: VIM/Vd = 146/554 = 0.26
103
Chapter 8
CHARGE MOTION WITHIN THE CYLINDER
8.1 (a) Figure 8.1 gives (at 36° ATC during intake stroke):
vz (max) = 10.1Sp : v r (max) = 11.1Sp
So: v inlet (max) = (10.12 + 11.12 )1/2 Sp = 15Sp
(b) Figure 6.17 gives inlet-valve pseudo-flow velocity vps (at 36° ATC) = 0.53
cm/deg.
2 × 9.2
Now: Sp = 2LN = = 0.051 cm/deg.
360
(stroke for engine in Fig. 1.4 is 92 mm)
So: v ps = 10Sp
(c) The velocity in (a) is measured maximum velocity in inlet jet, and the effective
open area of the valve is less than the geometric open area (the discharge coefficient is less
than unity). The velocity in (b) is a mean jet velocity based on the geometric open area of the
valve. Thus one expects (a) to be larger than (b), and the two values are appropriate given the
fact that piston motion produces the flow through the intake valve.
8.2 (a) B = L = 86 mm, Sp = 2LN.
Hence, at 1000 rev/min:
Sp = 2 × 0.086 × 1000 / 60 = 2.9 m / s
From Problem 8.1 at 36° ATC during intake stroke (when Fig. 6.17 indicates valve pseudo
flow velocity is approximately constant at close to the maximum value):
v inlet (max) = 15Sp = 43 m/s
At 5000 rev/min:
Sp = 14.3 m/s and v inlet (max) = 215 m/s
104
(b) Equation (8.25) gives turbulence intensity at TC as:
u′T = (0.5 to 1.0) Sp
Figure 8.26 suggests use value of 0.7
So at 1000 rev/min: u′T = 2.0 m/s
At 5000 rev/min: u′T = 10 m/s
The integral length scale is 0.2 × clearance height. For 86 mm bore and stroke, and rc = 9, the
mean clearance height is
h = L / (rc − 1) = 86 / 8 = 11 mm
So integral scale will be 2-3 mm (maximum clearance height will be larger than the mean
value).
To find the micro and Kolmogorov length scales we need the turbulent Reynolds number
u′ ℓI/ν. Now ν = μ/ρ and μ (for air) is given by Eq. (4.49) as
μ(kg / m ⋅ s) = 3.3 × 10 −7 × T(K)0.7
Density at TC is about rc times initial density × volumetric efficiency:
ρTC = 9 × 0.85 × 1.184 = 9 kg/m3
Temperature at TC is approximately rcn −1 times temperature at BC where n is the polytropic

exponent for compression (n = 1.3); i.e.,
TTC = 325 × 90.3 = 630 K
Hence ν = 3.3 × 10−7 × 6300.7/9 = 3.3 × 10−6 m2/s
So turbulent Reynolds numbers are:
2.0 × 2.5 × 10 −3
At 1000 rev/min: Re T = = 1520
3.3 × 10 −6
At 5000 rev/min: ReT= 7576
Hence microscales ℓm are, using Eq. (8.15):
At 1000 rev/min: ℓM/ℓI = 150.5/15200.5 = 0.099; ℓM = 0.25 mm
At 5000 rev/min: ℓM/ℓI = 150.5/75760.5 = 0.044; ℓM = 0.11 mm
105
Kolmogorov scales are given by Eq. (8.14):
At 1000 rev/min: ℓK/ℓI = 1520−0.75 = 0.0041; ℓK = 0.010 mm
At 5000 rev/min: ℓK/ℓI = 7576−0.75 = 0.0012; ℓK = 0.0031 mm
8.3 The swirl ratio RS is the angular velocity of the solid-body rotating flow ωS which has
the same angular momentum to the actual flow, divided by the angular velocity of the
crankshaft, Eq. (8.30). Hence
2000
ωS = 2 πNR S = 2 π× × 4 = 838 rad/s
60
For the inlet flow to have the same

angular momentum as this solid-body
rotating flow (see figure):
π B/2
m i ri v θ,i = ρ B2 Lri v θ,i = ρ ∫ (r 2 ωs )L2 πrdr
4 0
where mi is the in-cylinder mass, ρ is the in-cylinder gas density, B = bore, L = stroke.
Simplying this equation gives
v θ,i = ωS B2 / (8ri )
For ri = B/4 (see sketch), this gives:
vθ,i = ωS B / 2 = 838 × 0.1 / 2 = 42 m/s
Mean piston speed Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.1× 2000 / 60 = 6.7 m/s. Hence
v θ,i / Sp = 42 / 6.7 = 6.3
Write approximate mass conservation equation to find the mean flow velocity through the
inlet valve. The mass of air entering the cylinder m is given by:
Δθ
m = (C D πD v L v )vi ρa,i = ρa,i ηv Vd
360N
106
where the bars denote average values, the term in ( ) denotes the mean effective valve open
area (based on valve curtain area) and Δθ is the valve open time in degrees. Chapter 6 gives
appropriate values for the valve parameters as:
CD = 0.6 (Fig. 6-18); Dv = 0.44B (Table 6.1);
L v = 0.2Dv ; Δθ = 220°; ηv = 0.9.
0.9 × (π / 4) × 0.13 × 360 × 2000

So vi = = 53 m/s
0.6 × π× (0.44 × 0.1)2 × 0.2 × 220 × 60
Hence vθ,i / vi = 42 / 53 = 0.8
8.4 (a)
π 2 π V π B2 L
Clearance volume Vc = D B h B + B2 c = d =
4 4 rc − 1 4 (rc − 1)
B2 ⎛ L ⎞
Solve to obtain h B = 2 ⎜
−c⎟
D B ⎝ rc − 1 ⎠
Substitute numbers:
1 ⎛ 100 ⎞
hB = 2 ⎜
− 1 ⎟ = 22.7 mm
0.5 ⎝ 16 − 1 ⎠
Fraction of air mass within the bowl at TC:
π 2 (rc − 1) ⎛ D B ⎞ 2 h B
m a,B = DB h B =⎜ ⎟ (rc − 1)
4 Vd ⎝ B ⎠ L
22.7
= 0.52 × × 15 = 0.85
100
(b) Given that Rs = ωs/(2πN), Eq. (8.30), equals 3 at the end of induction (BC):
ωs,BC = 3 × 2π × 2500/60 = 785 rad/s
107
Swirl ratio at TC: Rs,TC = 2.65 × 3 = 7.9
Tangential velocity at the bowl edge:
⎛ D ⎞ D
vθ ⎜ r = B ⎟ = B ωs,TC = 0.025 × 2080 = 52 m/s
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
⎛ D ⎞
Hence vθ ⎜ r = B ⎟ / Sp = 52 / (2 × 0.1× 2500 / 60) = 6.2
⎝ 2 ⎠
(c) If c = 0, calculate new bowl height.
hB = 26.7 mm
Equation (8.25) now gives:
Rs,TC = 3.8 Rs,BC
Angular momentum is conserved. Hence:
ωs,BC Ic,BC = ωs,TC Ic,TC
where Ic is the moment of inertia of the cylinder gases. Equation (8.37) for Ic for disc-shaped
bowl with clearance z is
m c B2 [(z / h B ) + (D B / B)4 ]
Ic =
8 [(z / h B ) + (D B / B)2 ]
At TC, z = c = 1 mm; at BC, z = L + c = 101 mm.
ωs,TC I c,BC [(101 / 22.7) + 0.54 ] [(1 / 22.7) + 0.54 ]

So: = = ÷
ωs,BC I c,TC [(101 / 22.7) + 0.52 ] [(1 / 22.7) + 0.52 ]
which gives ωs,TC = 2.65 ωs,BC = 2080 rad/s
8.5 Equation (8.43) for the squish velocity in a simple wedge-shaped chamber is:
vsq As ⎛ c + cc ⎞
= ⎜1 − ⎟
Sp b(c + c c ) ⎝ C+c ⎠
where As is the squish area, b is the width of the squish region.
Z = ℓ + a − s (see Fig. 2.1), and C = c/(rc − 1) evaluated at the end of induction (assumed at
BC).
108
The squish region is a segment of a
circle. The area of the squish segment
(shaded in the figure) is
1
A s = (R 2 φ − bd)
2
where ϕ = 2 sin−1 (b/2R) and

1 φ
d= b cot .
2 2
As φ 2bd
Hence: = −
(πB / 4) 2π πB2
2
For As/(πB2/4) = 0.5, b = B, ϕ = 180°; for As /(πB2/4) = 0, b = 0, ϕ = 0.
b/B ϕ deg d/b As/(πB2/4)

0 0 ∞ 0
0.4 47 1.15 0.013
0.6 74 0.66 0.054
0.8 106 0.377 0.141
0.9 128 0.244 0.230
0.95 144 0.164 0.306
1.0 180 0 0.50
Rearrange the equation for the squish velocity:
vsq⎛ Sp ⎞ As ⎛ π ⎞ B2 ⎛ c + c c ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟
Sp ⎝⎜ Sp ⎠⎟ (πB2 / 4) ⎝ 4 ⎠ b(c + c c ) ⎝ C + c ⎠
Use engine geometry relations to find Sp / Sp , Z at crank angle θ = 10°, and C at BC.
From Eq. (2.12): Sp / Sp = 0.35.
From Eq. (2.6):
c/a = ℓ/a + 1 − s/a = ℓ/a + 1 − cosθ − [(ℓ/a)2 − sin2θ]1/2
c/a = 3.5 + 1 − cos 10° − (3.52 − sin210°)1/2 = 0.0195
B/a = 2B/L = 2
cc/a = (c/B)(B/a) = 2c/B = 0.02
109
At end of induction (BC):
C/a = (c/a)/(rc − 1) = 2/(rc − 1) = 2/9 = 0.222
vsq As ⎛ π ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ 2 ⎛ 0.0195 + 0.02 ⎞

So: = 0.35 ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜1 − ⎟
Sp (πB / 4) ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ b ⎠ (0.0195 + 0.02) ⎝ 0.222 + 0.0195 ⎠
2
vsq As ⎛ B ⎞
or = 11.6 ⎜ ⎟
Sp (πB2 / 4) ⎝ b ⎠
b/B As/(πB2/4) vsq / Sp
0 0 0
0.4 0.013 0.061
0.6 0.054 0.38
0.8 0.141 1.31
0.9 0.230 2.41
0.95 0.306 3.38
1.0 0.5 5.8
An interesting result is the linear relationship between vsq and As, except near the origin of the
graph.
8.6 Ratio of mass in crevice regions mcr to total cylinder mass mcyl is given by:
m cr Vcr ρcr V pM
= = cr
m cyl m cyl
m cyl RTcr
110
Estimate the mass in the cylinder. Assume compression starts about halfway between BC and
inlet valve close, i.e., at 25° ABC. Assume Vd = 500 cm3 (it will cancel out), p = 0.67 atm, T
= 350 K, molecular weight = 30 (see Fig. 4.1).
Then:
pVM 0.67 × 1.01× 10 5 × 500 × 10 −6 × 30

m cyl = = = 0.35 g

RT 8314 × 350
(There are other ways to find mcyl, but this is straightforward.)
Note: Vcr = 0.03Vc =0.03Vd/(rc − 1) = 0.03 × 500/8 = 1.9 cm3
m cr 1.9 × 10 −6 × 30 × p(Pa)
Hence: = −3
= 4.4 × 10 −8 p(Pa)
m cyl 0.35 × 10 × 8314 × 450
Find pressures at given angles from Fig. 1.9.
crank angle p(Pa) mcr/mcyl

IVC 50° ABC 8 × 104 0.0035
spark 30° BTC 5.7 × 105 0.025
θpmax 15° ATC 1.9 × 106 0.084
EVO 60° BBC 2.7 ×105 0.012
EVC TC 7 × 104 0.0031
The value at θpmax, 8.4 percent, is significant.
8.7 Determine cylinder volume and mass in cylinder:
π 2 1
Displacement = B L = π× 0.0862 × 0.086
4 4
−4
= 4.99 × 10 m 3
m a = ηv ρa Vd = 0.85 × 1.18 × 4.99 × 10 −4

= 5 × 10 −4 kg
m total = m a (1 + F / A) / (1 − x r )
= 5 × 10 −4 (1 + 0.0661) / (1 − 0.08)
= 5.79 × 10 −4 kg = 0.579 g
111
(1) Cold condition
π
Crevice Vol. = (0.0862 − 0.08532 ) × 0.008
4
= 7.53 × 10 −7 m 3 = 0.753 cm 3
m crev = ρcrev. ⋅ Vcrev

Ta,o pmax
ρcrev. = ρa,o ⋅ × × (1 + F / A)
Tgas patm
300 35
= 1.18 × × × (1 + 0.0661)
300 1
= 44 kg/m 3 .
m crev = 44 × 7.53 × 10 −7 = 3.32 × 10 −5 kg
m crev 3.32 × 10 −5
mass fraction = = = 0.057
m total 5.79 × 10 −4
(2) Fully warmed-up condition
Piston Diameter = D(1 + αΔt)

= 0.0853(1 + 2.41 × 10 −5 (460 − 300)) = 0.08563 m
Bore = B ⋅ (1 + α′Δt)
= 0.086(1 + 1.29 × 10 −5 (360 − 300))
= 0.086066 m
π
Vcrev = (0.0860662 − 0.085632 ) × 0.008
4
= 4.7 × 10 −7 m 3
300 35
ρcrev = 1.18 × × × (1 + 0.0661)
410 1
= 32.2 kg/m 3
m crev = Vcrev ⋅ρcrev. = 1.51× 10 −5 kg
1.51× 10 −5
mass fraction = = 0.026
5.79 × 10 −4
112
Chapter 9
COMBUSTION IN SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
9.1 Evaluate the knock-limited compression ratio for each fuel. For gasoline rc = 9, given.
For methanol the Research Octane Number is 10 higher than gasoline, so rc = 11. For
methane RON is 25 higher than gasoline, so rc = 14.
(a) Part-load operation:.
rc ϕlean ηf,i 0.85 ηf,i QLHV, MJ/kg isfc, g/kW·h

CH4 14 0.7 0.54 0.46 50 167
CH3OH 11 0.8 0.495 0.42 20 456
gasoline 9 0.9 0.455 0.39 44 225
From definition of specific fuel consumption:

3600
sfc = g / kW ⋅ h
ηf × Q LHV (MJ / kg)
Answers are:
CH4 CH3OH gasoline

ηf,ig 0.46 0.42 0.39
isfcg, g/kW·h 157 429 210
Note, since we assumed pintake fixed, pumping work is the same. At fixed load, however,
pumping work would vary for each engine since pi would be different for each fuel.
(b) Maximum imep is obtained at ϕ = 1.1 (see fuel-air cycle results in Fig. 5.10).
Volumetric efficiency is affected by volume occupied by fuel vapor (see Fig. 6.5 or Eq. 6.3)
in the intake manifold. Figure 6.5 gives effect of fuel vapor pressure. Hence:
p a ,i ratio ηv ratio
pi
CH4 0.9 0.92 0.78 0.92
CH3OH 0.87 0.89 0.75 0.88
gasoline 0.98 1 0.85 1
This is the explanation of the ηv data given in the problem.
113
(c) To find imep ratios, use the relation
imep = ηf,iηvQLHVρa,i(F/A)
Now ρa,i is the same for all fuels (reference air density). Hence:
ϕ rc fuel-air ηv QLHV (F/A) ηfηvQHV(F/A) ratio

cycle ηf MJ/kg
CH4 1.1 14 0.46 0.78 50 0.064 1.148 1.03
CH3OH 1.1 11 0.43 0.75 20 0.172 1.109 0.99
gasoline 1.1 9 0.405 0.85 44 0.0738 1.118 1.0
Despite the higher efficiency of the engines with the higher compression ratios which use of
CH4 and CH3OH permits, the lower volumetric efficiencies cancel out most of the higher
compression-ratio power gain.
(d) Figure shows spark timing, θpmax, and end-of-combustion for methane (CH4) with
its higher compression ratio, lower volumetric efficiency, and 3% higher imep, with its 1/3
faster burning process relative to gasoline.
9.2
Flame propagates radially outward,

approximately linearly with time, as
shown. Total volume is fixed. Initial
mixture temperature ≈ 300 K. Final
burned gas temperature ≈ 2600 K.
114
(a)
R R
Note: p0 V = m T0 pf V = m Tf
M0 Mf
M 0 M f → pf / p0 Tf / T0 = 8
For unburned gas: pvγ constant during compression; or p ∝ ρuγ , ρu ∝ p1/γ and γ = 1.35.
Approximately, ρb/ρu = 1/4, so ρb/ρ0 = (ρu/ρ0) × (1/4)
Note that the gas ahead of the flame is uniform (except for a thin thermal boundary layer
adjacent to the wall) since it is compressed isentropically. The gas behind the flame is
non-uniform due to the fact that parts of it burn earlier and are then compressed as products;
parts of it burn later and are mainly compressed as reactants.
115
(b) end of combustion
Particles (except at r/Ro = 0 and 1) move outwards before they burn, and move inwards after
they burn.
9.3 (a)
(b)
Use ideal gas law:

R R
pVb = m b Tb ; pVu = m u Tu ; M b = M u (molecular weights).
Mb Mu
Vb m b Tb
Hence: = ; at x b = 0.5, m b = m u
Vu m u Tu
So Vb/Vu = Tb/Tu. Many sources of information on Tb/Tu (e.g., Fig. 3.13, Example 4.5, Figs.
9.8, 9.11). Typical values are Tb = 2700 K, Tu = 850 K. Hence Vb/Vu = 2700/850 = 3.
So at 50 percent mass burned:
Vb/V = Vb/(Vb + Vu) = 3/4 = 0.75
116
(c)
At 50% mass burned for A:

Vb =3Vu → Vb/V = 3/4 = 0.75
Hence: πrf2 h = 0.75V = 0.75πR 2 h → rf = 0.87R.
Thus: Af = 2πrfh = 5.4Rh

For B, Vb is the same as in A. Approximately, the flame area is given by 2Rh < Af < πRh.
Note Af(A) = 2 times Af(B). Hence burning rate will be about twice as fast. Note the flame
travel path in A is about half the length in B. Hence Δθb for A is less than for B.
(d)
117
(1) The flame area in C initially is greater than in A because the flame area is larger.
(2) Towards the end of the burning process, the reverse is true because the flame area
for C becomes smaller than in A:
(3) Spark timing for A is more advanced because combustion rate during the first half
of the burning process is slower and crank angle location of 50 percent burned point is
essentially the same for A and C at MBT timing.
9.4 (a)
Flame envelope area Af = 2πrfh
Af r
So = f
2πr0 h r0
For two plug, draw several sketches.

In 2, flames just touch and rf = 0.43 r0
118
Af 1 1
In 4, rf = r0, so A f ~ r0 h → ~ ~
2πr0 h 2π 6
Combustion is “complete” when flame reaches B in 4th sketch. Then lf is given by
2
⎛5 ⎞ ⎛ 3 ⎞
2
lf = ⎜ r0 ⎟ + ⎜ r0 ⎟
⎝4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
28
= r0 = 1.32r0
16
(b) Graph in (a) shows two plug burns much faster initially but much slower finally.
Note, to burn half the mixture, with ρu/ρb = 4, then
Vb m b ρu 0.5 V 4
= ⋅ = × 4 → b = = 0.8
Vu ρb m u 0.5 Vtotal 5
For center plug, Vb / Vtot = 0.8 → rf = 0.8 r0 or flame has gone 90% of way to wall. So since
dm b
= A f ρu ST then m b ≈ ∫ A f ρu ST dt graph shows two plug version will burn first half of
dt
charge faster. So spark timing will be closer to TC than with one center plug. But end of
combustion will be later.
119
9.5
rd = ρu/ρb
Regard the flame as a cylindrical surface of radius rf, height h.
Now mb = Vbρb and mu = Vuρu. Want xb = mb/mtot = mb/(mu+mb). Simplify algebra:
mu Vu π(r02 − rf2 )h (r02 − rf2 )

= rd = rd = rd
mb Vb πrf2 h rf2
mu + mb mu 1 rd (r02 − rf2 ) + rf2
= +1 = = .
mb mb xb rf2
1
Hence x b = Ans
rd [(r / rf2 ) − 1] + 1
2
0
Typical value for rd = 4
(rf/r0) r02 / rf2 xb
0 ∞ 0
0.2 25 0.01
0.4 6.25 0.046
0.6 2.78 0.123
0.8 1.56 0.31
0.9 1.23 0.52
1.0 1 1.0
(b) Key points on xb versus θ curve:

θspark = −30°, xb = 0; at θ = 8° ATC, xb = 0.5; pmax at 15°ATC; end of combustion about 30°
ATC for total burn duration of 60°.
120
Fraction burned at TC? Use part(a) results at TC, about half way in time: if flame speed
about constant, then rf ≈ 12 ro (roughly). Then xb is about 0.1.
(c) At θpmax (15° ATC) xb = 0.75. Using cylinder average numbers:

pmax Vpmax = mRTpmax; pIVC VIVC = mRTIVC
where IVC = intake valve close values. Intake valve closes at 50°ABC. pIVC = 0.5 bar,
TIVC ≃ 330 K.
Max. burned gas temp ≈ 2800 K; max. unburned gas temp ≈ 1000 K. So mean T at
pmax ≈ 0.75 × 2800 + 0.25 × 1000 = 2350 K
p max Vp max Tp max p 2350

Now use: ⋅ = → max = × 7.3 = 52
p IVC VIVC TIVC p IVC 330
So pmax ≈ 26 bar (or atmosphere)
9.6 (a) One needs to draw flames at different flame radii, centered on the plug locations,
to sort out flame areas.
Central plug (C):
Af r
Af = 2πrfh, so = f , max. flame radius is r0.
2πr0 h r0
Single plug (A): for rf < r0/2 same as (C) above. For second flame boundary shown,
121
rf = r02 − r02 / 4
r0 3
= = 0.866
2
Af 1
× 2πrf h rf
=2 = = 0.433
2πr0 h 2πr0 h 2r0
r0 5 1 Af 1
For this curve rf = r02 + r02 / 4 = = 1.12r0 and 2r0h < Af < πr0h, i.e. < <
2 π 2πr0 h 2
Max. flame radius is 3r0/2.

For plugs at A and B:
for rf < r0/2, Af will be twice cases A and C. i.e. Af/(2πr0h) = 2rf/r0
5 r0
Then area will decrease: Af goes to zero at rf = r02 + r02 / 4 = = 1.12 r0
2
(b) The burn rate is proportional to flame area. Flame travel length also determines
the end of combustion.
A & B (two plugs) will burn fastest so has much less advanced spark timing than A.
C will be next fastest so less advanced spark timing than A.
A will be slowest burn rate so its 30° spark timing will be the most advanced.
122
9.7 To estimate the temperature of the unburned fuel-air mixture (reactants) assume the
mixture is compressed isentropically through the given pressure ratio from the given initial
conditions. Use isentropic compression chart of Fig. 4.4. (Or could use (T/T0) = (p/po)(γ−1)/ γ.)
Method: Given = ϕ1 = ϕ (TIVC = 333 K) = 130 J/kg·K; then
φi (Ti ) = φ1 + Δφ = φ1 + n u R ln(pi / p1 ), with n u R = 292 J/kg ⋅ K from Table 4.6 Set up table:
θ p p/pIVC n u R ln(pi / p IVC ) ϕ(Ti) Ti

deg kPa J/kg·K J/kg·K K
IVC 101 1.0 0 130 333
−30 615 6.1 528 658 528
−20 770 7.62 593 723 560
−10 1,120 11.1 702 832 610
0 1,630 16.1 811 941 665
10 2,310 22.9 914 1,044 720
20 2,650 26.2 954 1,084 742
30 2,310 22.9 914 1,044 720
9.8 As each small element of unburned mixture burns, the pressure only changes a small
amount. So we can assume each element burns at constant pressure. For an adiabatic
constant-pressure combustion process:
h b = h u = h s,u + Δh Df ,u
For ϕ = 1.0, Eq. (4.32) gives:
Δh Df ,u = −129.7 − 2951 x b kJ/kg air
Assume a value for xb = 0.1, then Δh Df ,u = −425 kJ/kg air
(Note your choice of xb will affect your answer.)
123
Method: For element which burns at θi we know Tu (θi) and p(θi), e.g., from Problem 9.7.
Find hs,u from unburned mixture chart, Fig. 4.3. Find hu. Use trial and error with burned gas
u-s chart, Fig. 4.8, to find the burned gas state. Then (1) either know p, so find v and u
to evaluate
consistent with h (known) = u + pv, or (2) (easier) use u b = h b − pv = h b − n b RTb
n b R at appropriate point on chart e.g., p = 1000 kPa, T = 2400 K, v = 0.7 m3/kg, which gives
n b R = 1000 × 0.7 / 2400 = 0.292 kJ / kg ⋅ K . Find consistent ub and Tb, given hb and p.
Results:
θ −30 0 30
p, kPa 615 1,630 2,310
Tu, K 528 665 720
hs,u, kJ/kg air 260 435 505
hu, kJ/kg air −157 18 88
u *b kJ/kg air −828 −690 −636
Tb*K 2,300 2,425 2,480
*From burned gas u-s chart by trial and error.
124
To find the temperature of the elements that burned at −30 and 0° at 30°, follow an
isentropic compression to p(30°) = 2310 kPa:
element which burned at −30° is

compressed to 2810 K.
element which burned at 0° is

compressed to 2600 K.
9.9 The combustion process takes a finite crank angle interval, from start to finish. If the
spark is too far advanced, combustion starts too early and the cylinder pressure before TC
will be higher than it need be; the compression work (done by the piston on the gas) will then
be higher than necessary. If the spark is excessively retarded, combustion starts too late and
the cylinder pressure early in the expansion stroke (after TC) will be lower than it could be,
thereby decreasing expansion stroke work. Another way to say this is that more mixture
burns later with retarded timing; the volume ratio this gas expands through before exhaust is
therefore reduced, decreasing expansion stroke work.
The best spark timing, which gives maximum brake torque (MBT), “centers” the
burning process (50 percent burned) at about 8° ATC. This is the compromise between “too
early” and “too late”; the “best” location of the 50 percent burned point is affected by the
amount of heat transfer to the wall which is largely from the burned gases.
MBT timing depends on the rate of flame development and propagation. Slower
flames need more spark advance to keep the 50 percent burned point at about 8° ATC; faster
flames need less spark advance. Increasing engine speed lengthens the flame development
period Δθd (in crank angle degrees) and, to a lessor extent, lengthens the rapid burning period
Δθb. Hence the spark must be advanced to maintain MBT timing. Decreasing engine load
increases the residual gas fraction. This reduces the laminar flame speed and lengthens the
flame development angle; it also lengthens the rapid burning period. So as load is decreased,
spark timing must be advanced to maintain MBT.
9.10 (a) Cycle-by-cycle variations in cylinder pressure and imep are caused by
cycle-by-cycle variations in the combustion process. Major causes of cycle-by-cycle
combustion variations are thought to be: (1) Variations in gas motion near the spark plug at
time of ignition from one cycle to the next; (2) Variations in mixture composition near the
125
plug at time of ignition, cycle-by-cycle; (3) Variations in overall fuel/air ratio in the cylinder,
cycle-by-cycle.
Mixture motion variations lead to different movement of the flame center from the
spark plug each cycle. This changes the geometry of the flame interaction with the chamber
walls, changing flame front area and thereby changing the mixture burning rate. (If the flame
center moves towards the cylinder wall it interacts with the cylinder wall sooner, losing area
earlier; if it moves towards the cylinder axis, the reverse is true.)
Local mixture composition variations, fuel/air equivalence ratio and residual gas
fraction, affect the local laminar flame speed. Variation in laminar flame speed near the spark
plug will affect the initial rate of flame development from the spark discharge.
Overall variations in fuel/air equivalence ratio (due primarily to variations in amount of fuel
which enters the cylinder each cycle) will affect the overall burn duration.
(b) Faster than average cycles will have, effectively, overadvanced spark timing;
slower than average cycles will have retarded timing. Hence non-average cycles will have
lower torque. Thus, cycle-by-cycle variations in combustion result in a reduction in torque
and increase in fuel consumption. Slower burning cycles are more likely to become partial
burning cycles, which cause driveability problems and higher HC emissions. The fastest
cycles, since they are substantially overadvanced, will be the cycles which determine the
knock limit of the engine.
9.11 (a) “Knock” occurs when the unburned mixture ahead of the flame towards the end of
the combustion process (the end-gas), spontaneously ignites (in part or whole) before the
flame front can propagate through it. This results in high local pressures in this end-gas
region, which set up strong pressure waves within the cylinder. These pressure waves, and
subsequent motion of the piston and cylinder block, cause a “knocking” sound.
(b) The induction period, or time required to autoignite the fuel, air, residual, end-gas
mixture depends on mixture pressure and temperature. These variables have their highest
values in the end-gas region at wide-open-throttle resulting in the shortest induction times
and greatest tendency to knock.
(c) Retarding the spark timing from MBT timing reduces the peak cylinder pressure.
This reduces the peak end-gas temperature, and therefore reduces the tendency to knock.
Modest spark retard has only a small effect on engine torque. Thus spark retard gives
substantial knock relief with only a small decrease in output. Spark retard can be effected
rapidly. Other control variables take longer to implement and have a greater impact on power.
126
(d) The substantial variation cycle-by-cycle in when knock occurs, and in the pressure
oscillations or knock intensity which result (see Fig. 9.54) are thought to be due to variation
in temperature and pressure of the end-gas due to different burning rates cycle-by-cycle. It is
also believed that variations in shape of the end-gas region cycle-by-cycle, due to differences
in the flame front shape, contribute to variations in pressure oscillations and knock intensity
even when the flame propagation rates are similar.
9.12 The autoignition “induction period” τ usually has the form:
τ ∝ p−n exp (E/RT)
where n is a positive exponent of order 1 (which depends on the fuel), p is the charge
pressure, E is the activation energy (positive), R is the gas constant, and T is the temperature
of the unburned charge.
Table and Explanations follow :
(1) As speed increases flame speed increases due to the higher turbulence within the
cylinder. So the time of exposure of unburned mixture to conditions conducive to
autoignition (in other words the time available for preflame reactions) is reduced. So
knocking tendency is decreased.
(2) A compression ratio increase, increases the pressure and temperature of the end
gas, and so reduces the induction time. This increases the tendency to knock. (That there is
less residual gas in higher compression ratio engines, also helps to increase the flame speed,
which reduces the tendency to knock slightly.)
(3) The higher the surface to volume ratio the more heat transfer and the less the
tendency to knock.
(4) The farther away the end gas is from the spark plug, the more time is available for
preflame chemistry prior to flame arrival. Thus the tendency to knock increases. Hence, the
spark plug should be located to provide least flame, travel distance from plug to end-gas
location. Also, contact between end-gas unburned mixture and hot spots like exhaust valve
should be avoided.
(5) Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) increases the heat capacity of the charge and so
reduces the unburned gas temperature. Thus, the tendency to knock is reduced. The flame
speed is also reduced by addition of EGR, but not to a sufficient extent to overcome the
induction period increase.
127
(6,7) Increases in Ti or pi cause the temperature or pressure of the end-gas during
combustion to increase. Thus, the induction period is decreased, and the tendency to knock is
increased.
(8) Fuel/air ratio. The minimum induction period occurs with slightly rich mixtures
(ϕ = 1.1). Also, the cylinder pressure is a maximum for ϕ = 1.1, which results in maximum
end-gas pressure and temperature at these conditions. (These effects are slightly offset by the
higher flame speed at ϕ = 1.1). Thus knock is most likely for ϕ = 1.1. For richer mixtures
(ϕ > 1.1) the tendency to knock decreases because the vaporization of the additional fuel
cools the incoming charge, and the value of γu(= cp/cv) for richer mixture is lower so the
compression stroke end-gas temperature rise is lower. Thus end-gas temperatures go down
even though maximum cylinder pressure does not decrease significantly. Hence the induction
period increases. For leaner mixtures, the maximum cylinder pressure decreases because the
heating value per unit mass of mixture decreases. Hence, end-gas temperatures and pressures
decrease, increasing the induction period and decreasing the tendency to knock.
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Effect of Increase in Cylinder Cylinder Flame Total burn Induction Tendency Explanation
Engine Independent press temp speed time period to knock
Variable
Speed, rev/min + − − note 1

Compression ratio + + − + 2
Surface/volume − + − 3
Spark plug distance + + 4
from cylinder axis
% EGR − − + + − 5
Ti + − + 6
pi + − + 7
F − − + + − 8
: ϕ > 1.1
A
ϕ < 1.1 − − + + −
TW + − + 9
Charge motion − + − + − 10
(swirl, tumble, squish)
Fuel octane no. + − 11
+ for increase, − for decrease, 0 for no change in dependent variable.
128
(9) Wall temperature. Hotter walls increase the heat transfer to the unburned mixture
during intake, and decrease the heat transfer from the end-gas later in the compression
process. So end-gas temperatures increase. Thus, induction period decreases and tendency to
knock increases.
(10) Increases in charge motion reduce the tendency to knock. This is due to faster
flame propagation (enhanced by increased charge motion), and due to increased heat transfer
from the end-gas to the walls during the latter part of the compression process.
(11) The fuel’s octane number defines its resistance to knock. The higher the octane
number the better the fuel-air mixture resists knock.
9.13 Figure 9.39 and accompanying text give typical voltage levels for different phases of
the spark discharge. The glow discharge voltage is about 300 – 500 V. Since most of the 50
mJ coil energy is transferred during the glow discharge phase:
50 mJ = 400 × I(A) × 2(ms)
which gives the glow discharge current as 60 mA.
(b) If the total supplied electrical energy is 50 mJ, and most of this is transferred
during the glow discharge, Fig. 9.39 indicates that the glow discharge voltage and current are
about 300 V and 65 mA. Duration is about 2 ms. So the glow discharge spark energy is
EG = 300 × 65 × 10−3 × 2 × 10−3 = 39 mJ
If the total spark energy is 50 mJ, then
EG /Etotal = 39/50 ≈ 0.8 or 80%.
From Table 9.5, 30% goes into heating the plasma : i.e. 0.3 × 39 = 12 mJ
The breakdown energy can be estimated from the voltage and current values in
Fig. 9.39: voltage = 3 kV, current = 30 A, time = 3 ns. Thus
EBD = 3 × 103 × 30 × 3 × 10−9 = 0.27 mJ
About 0.23 mJ (80 – 90 percent of this energy) will be transferred to the plasma.
(c) One-tenth of the coil energy is 5 mJ. Find the chemical energy in 500 cm3 of
stoichiometric mixture at 0.5 atm and a temperature of about 325 K. Use ideal gas law:
R 0.5 × 105 × 500 × 10−6

pV = π T→m= = 0.3 g
M (8314 / 30) × 325
Mass of fuel in 0.3 g of stoichiometric mixture is 0.3 × 0.067/(1 + 0.067) = 0.02 g. Gasoline
heating value is 44 MJ/kg, so cylinder mixture energy content is 0.02 × 10−3 × 44 × 106 = 830 J.
129
Ratio of electrical energy delivered to plasma (5 mJ) to cylinder mixture energy is
5 × l0−3/830 = 6 × 10−6.
Let radius of flame kernel with fuel chemical energy equal to 5 mJ be r. Then:
4 3
mass of burned gas in kernel m b = πr ρb
3
p 6 ×105
density ρb = = = 0.56 kg/m3
R b Tb (8314 / 27)3500
4 3 (F / A)
mass of fuel in kernel m f = πr ρb
3 1 + (F / A)
4 3 (F / A)
chemical energy of kernel = m f Q LHV = πr ρb Q LHV
3 1 + (F / A)
Equate this chemical energy to 5 mJ:

4 3 0.067
5 ×10−3 = πr × 0.56 × × 44 ×106
3 1.067
which gives r = 0.9 mm
9.14 We assume that knock occurs throughout the end-gas at 10° ATC. At this θ, unburned
mixture (end-gas) conditions are:
p = 2310 kPa, Tu = 720 K
Assume all end-gas burns adiabatically at constant volume. Then:
ub = uu and vb = vu
Now: u u = u s,u + Δu Df ,u ; us,u at 720 K = 380 kJ/kg air
From Eq. (4.32), for ϕ = 1, Δu Df ,u = −118.2 − 2956x b kJ/kg air
So: ub = uu = 380 − 118.2 − 295.6 = 34 kJ/kg air

n u RT 292 × 720
Also: v u = u
= 3
= 0.09 = 0.1 m3 /kg
p 2310 × 10
Find ub = −34 kJ/kg air and vb = 0.1 m3/kg on u-s burned gas chart, Fig. 4.8.
This gives:
Tb = 2800 K, p = 8700 kPa
Now calculate the volume fraction just before onset of knock. Use the relation
130

Vu m u v u m u n u RT
= = u
since p is uniform.

Vb m b v b m b n b RTb
mu 1 − x
= , x at 10° ATC = 0.55
mb x
n u R = n b R
Vu 1 − 0.55 Tu
so = ×
Vb 0.55 Tb
Tu = 720 K and Tb varies between 2450 − 2800 K. Assume Tb = 2600 K. Then:

Vu 0.45 720
= × = 0.23
Vb 0.55 2600
Vu 0.23
So = = 0.18
VT 1.23
9.15 (a) Mean piston speed Sp :
Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.085 × 2000 / 60 = 5.7 m/s
(b) Average flame travel speed given by distance travelled ÷ time of flame travel:
flame travel (0.085 / 2 + 0.015) 2000
uf = = = 20 m/s
(Δθb / 360N) (35 / 360) 60
(c) Turbulence intensity at TC given by Eq. (8.25) as:
u ′T = (0.5 − 1)Sp (use 0.7) = 0.7 × 5.7 = 4 m/s
(d) Laminar flame speed given by Eqs. (9.36), (9.38), (9.39), and (9.41). First find SL,0
using Eq. (9.38) and Table 9.2:
SL,0 = 30.5 − 54.9(1.0 − 1.21) 2 = 28 cm/s
Find αg and β3 for Eq. (9.36) from Eq. (9.39):

αg = 2.4 − 0.271 × 1.03.51 = 2.13
βg = −0.357 + 0.14 × 1.02.77 = −0.22
Now find SL(xb = 0) from Eq. (9.36):
α β 2.13 −0.22
⎛T ⎞ ⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 650 ⎞ ⎛ 7.5 ⎞
g g
SL = SL,0 ⎜ u ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 28 ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 95 cm/s
⎝ T0 ⎠ ⎝ p0 ⎠ ⎝ 298 ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
131
Now allow for residual fraction of 0.08 (assume mole fraction and mass fraction are
essentially the same since Mb = Mu) using Eq. (9.41):
SL (0.08) = SL (0)(1 − 2.06x 0.77

b ) = 95(1 − 2.06 × 0.08
0.77
) = 67 cm/s
(e) Turbulent burning speed Sb at TC:

Use Eqs. (9.56) and (9.58),
Sb ≈ u T + SL and u T ≈ u′
From (c) u′ = 4 m/s; from (d) SL = 0.67 m/s

So Sb = 4 + 0.67 = 4.7 m/s
and
Sb/SL = 4.7/0.67 = 7
(f) The mean expansion speed ub is given by Eq. (9.49) as:

ub (ρu / ρb ) 4
= = = 2.5
Sb [(ρu / ρb ) − 1]x b + 1 (4 − 1)0.2 + 1
where we have assumed xb = 0.2 at TC. Thus:

ub = 2.5 Sb = 16 m/s
Summary: Velocities (in m/s) are:
Sp uf u′TC SL,spk Sb,TC ub,TC
5.7 20 4.0 0.67 4.7 12
Note that u f = u b,TC (they are approximately the same parameter)
Sb >> SL, Sb ≈ u′ ~ Sp.
The expansion speeds ( u f and ub) are approximately (ρu/ρb) times the turbulent flame speed
Sb (but less because a significant fraction of the mixture has burned at TC).
9.16 (a) Reducing the amount of EGR reduces the burned gas fraction in the in-cylinder
unburned mixture. This increases the laminar flame speed (see Fig. 9–26) and thus increases
the local diffusion of the thin wrinkled flame sheet (important while the flame is small), and
decreases the characteristic burning time τb in Eq. (9.53) of each “lump” of unburned mixture
entrained within the flame front (important when the flame is larger and turbulent). Thus the
burning process is “faster”.
132
(b) Use of two spark plugs instead of one effectively doubles the flame area during
the early stages of flame development (see Fig. 9.20). So, until the flames meet, the burning
rate is faster. Two plugs also reduces the variability cycle-to-cycle in the early stages of flame
development (because two flames are developing in parallel) which improves engine
stability.
(c) The generation of swirl within the cylinder increases the burning rate. Swirl is
thought to increase the turbulence intensity in the flame front. Whether this is because the
swirling flow is more stable and persists within the cylinder longer during compression than
normal intake-generated flow patterns (which swirl does), and therefore when it does break
up before combustion gives higher turbulence, or whether the gas expansion on combustion
in the swirling flow creates high shear (or due to both these effects) is unclear.
(d) Higher clearance height near the plug results in larger flame surface area while the
flame is small, permitting more rapid initial flame growth. More central plug location allows
the flame to grow to a larger size before the flame front contacts the periphery (cylinder liner)
thereby losing flame area. Thus a more central plug location leads to a faster mass burning
rate due to larger flame area.
9.17 A useful relationship for explaining how cyclic variations in these several factors
cause cycle-by-cycle combustion variations, and hence pressure variations (and cyclic torque
dm b
fluctuations) is = ρu A f Sb (and relationships like Eq. (9.8) that link xb and p).
dt
1. Flame kernel motion: As the flame kernel moves away from the spark plug electrodes
location, the geometry of the flame front interaction with the combustion chamber walls
changes, thus changing Af(θ).
2. Electrical energy in the spark-generated kernel:
As the amount of energy from the spark discharge that heats the small flame kernel varies
(primarily due to flow variations around the electrodes that connects and stretches the
discharge differently each cycle), and thus changes the temperature of this plasma kernel
version time (or crank angle). Thus the duration of the flame development varies, thereby
effectively advancing or retarding the flame’s rapid burning phase (and also impacting the
flame area versus time evolution).
3. Heat losses – kernel to plug electrodes: Figures 9.24a and b show the cycle-by-cycle flame
kernel variations in size, geometry, and location in relation to the spark plug electrodes and
insulator. The contact surface area, hot plasma/small flame with the much cooler electrode
133
and insulator surfaces, and the local plasma velocity affect the kernels heat losses to these
surfaces (see also Fig. 9.44) cycle-by-cycle, thus causing variations in the early stage of the
flame’s development and mixture mass burning rate.
4. Turbulence characteristics in vicinity of spark plug: The turbulent flame speed in the mass
burning rate equation above is given, approximately, by Sb ≈ u′ + SL. Thus as u′ in the
mixture near the spark plug varies, cycle-by-cycle, so does the turbulent burning velocity, Sb.
Thus during the flame development process, variations in local turbulence cause variations in
the rate of transition from the initial laminar flame kernel to a growing turbulent premixed
flame. Hence mass-burning-rate variations result.
5 and 6. Cylinder average, and local (near spark plug) mixture variations: Mixture
composition affects the burning velocity through the laminar flame speed SL (both through
the detailed chemistry of the fuel/air/burned gas mixture as it combusts, and through changes
in the unburned mixture temperature and pressure during compression. Thus cyclic variation
in the average composition of the mixture in each cylinder (#5) results in cyclic variation in
both the flame development and flame propagation processes. Variations in mixture
composition near the spark plug affect the flame kernel ignition process and its early laminar
flame growth phase (#6).
7. Large scale in-cylinder flow features: Such flow features (e.g., tumble) are generated
during intake, and are then modified (and may breakup) during compression. Both the details
of these flows can vary cycle-by-cycle, as can how they break up. Thus how the in-cylinder
flow convects the flame kernel (and thus the flame center), and how at larger scale the flame
area is convected and distorted, will affect the combustion process (flame development stage)
and flame propagation (rapid burning stage) through both Sb and Af. Such in-cylinder flow
variations affects the mixture mass-burning rate, and thus the pressure development.
8. Average turbulence levels in the cylinder: The average turbulence level in the cylinder
(characterized by u′, or uT) impacts the turbulent flame speed, Sb, and thus the mixture
burning rate and cylinder pressure evolution, cycle-by-cycle.
(Note: there are variations cylinder-to-cylinder, as well as cycle-by-cycle.)
134
Chapter 10
COMBUSTION IN COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
10.1 Sequence of processes which must occur in a direct-injection compression-ignition

engine before the fuel in the fuel system is fully burned is:
(1) Liquid fuel injected through the fuel nozzle orifices at high velocity as a result of
large pressure drop across the orifice.
(2) Atomization of liquid fuel, rapidly, into small (~ 20 − 40 μm diameter) droplets to

form “sprays”.
(3) Entrainment of compressed high-pressure high-temperature air into each high

velocity fuel droplet spray.
(4) Evaporation of the fuel from the droplet surfaces, and mixing of this fuel vapor
with air within these sprays.
(5) Spontaneous ignition of the fuel-air mixture within the developing fuel sprays and
its partial reaction in the spray to form products of very rich combustion.
(6) Once this rich “premixed” fuel-air mixture has burned, the incomplete combustion
products within the spray burn with air as they mix in unsteady diffusion flames surrounding
each spray.
(7) As excess air mixes with gases which burned early in the expansion stroke,
combustion (of CO, unburned HC, soot) goes closer to completion due to availability of
excess oxygen and (with CO) due to recombination to CO2 at lower burned gas temperatures.
10.2 Small high-swirl DI diesel engines are about 10 percent more efficient than equivalent
prechamber IDI diesel engines for the following reasons:
(1) The combustion “heat” or chemical energy release profile for the DI engine is
shorter in duration, and has a higher initial rate near TC than does the profile for an IDI
engine. This results in higher efficiency.
(2) The pre-chamber surface area, plus the nozzle surface area, of the IDI engine
results in a larger chamber surface area than for the DI engine. Thus the IDI engine heat
losses are larger, which lowers efficiency.
135
(3) The use of a prechamber results in increased compression stroke work since gas
must be forced through the passageway into the prechamber. After TC, since highest
pressures occur in the prechamber, and not above the piston, the expansion-stroke
work-transfer to the piston (for the same peak pressure) in the IDI engine is lower. Thus
efficiency is reduced.
(4) The higher compression ratio of the IDI engine (used to offset higher heat losses
during compression when starting the engine) reduces efficiency slightly due to higher
surface/volume ratio and increased impact of crevices.
10.3 Given isooctane/air elements at 1000 K and 6.5 MPa at top center with ϕ = 0.4, 0.6,
0.8, 1.0 and 1.2, find the burned gas temperature of each element after constant pressure
combustion. Use the unburned and burned gas charts, Figs. 4.3 and 4.5 to 4.9. Find hs,u from
Fig. 4–3 at 1000 K:
ϕ = 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

hsu 813 840 860 893 917 kJ/kg air
Find h b = h u = h s,u + Δh Df ,u . Values of Δh Df ,u are given by Eq. (4.32), with xb = 0 in kJ/kg air as:
ϕ = 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

Δh Df ,u −51.9 −77.8 −103.8 −129.7 −155.6
hs,u 813 840 860 893 917
hb 761 762 756 763 761
that is, hb = 760 kJ/kg air, essentially constant. Now find the value of Tb from the data in Figs.
4–5 to 4–9 which gives
8.314
u b (Tb ) = h b (Tb ) − R b Tb = 760 − Tb kJ/kg air
M b (Tb )
Using Fig. 4–14 to find Mb(Tb) (approximately):
(1) For ϕ = 0.4, Mb = 28.75; → Tb = 1900 K
(2) For ϕ = 0.6, Mb = 28.7; → Tb = 2275 K
(3) For ϕ = 0.8, Mb = 28.4; → Tb = 2580 K
(4) For ϕ = 1.0, Mb = 28.05; → Tb = 2775 K
(5) For ϕ = 1.2, Mb = 27.45; → Tb = 2765 K
136
10.4 Use Eq. (4.67) to calculate the combustion inefficiency from measured amounts of
HC (0.8 g/kW·h), CO (3 g/kW·h), and particulates (0.7 g carbon/kW·h), and bsfc (210
g/kW·h). Equation (4.67) can be written
1 − ηc =
∑ m Q
i LHVi
.
f Q LHVf
m
are in g/kW·h. Then

where m
0.8 × 42.5 + 3 × 10.1 + 0.7 × 33.8

1 − ηc =
210 × 42.5
= 0.01 → ηc = 99%
(The values for Q LHVi are taken from Table D.4 in Appendix D.)
10.5 Details of turbocharged DI diesel engine in Fig. 15.34 are : 6 cylinders, 8 liter
displacement, bore = 114 mm, stroke = 130 mm, rc = 16.5, max. power = 210 kW at 2500
rev/min.
(a) Mass of air in each cylinder per cycle
ma
Use Eq. (2.33): ηv = , so m a = ηvρa,i Vd
ρa ,i Vd
Need to find ρa,i, air density at compressor exit/engine intake. One way: use the fuel-air cycle
results for imep/p1, with imep estimated from bmep to get p1: with estimate of T1, then find
ρa,1.
P(kW)n R ×103
Eq. (2.25b) gives mep =
Vd (dm3 )N(rev/s)
210 × 2 × 103
So bmep = = 1260 kPa
8 × (2500 / 60)
137
Use Fig. 5.10 Fuel-Air cycle results for imep/p1
Given ϕ = 0.7, rc = 16.5, get imep/p1 = 10.5
Now bmep = ηmech imep; imep (engine) ≈ 0.85 imep for Fuel-Air cycle.
imep eng bmepeng / ηm

So imep FA,cycle =
0.85 0.85
At max. power, ηm ≈ 0.75 (from Fig. 2.8b)
1260 / 0.75
imep FA cycle = = 1976 kPa.
0.85
So p1 = 1976 ÷ 10.5 = 188 kPa (approaching 2 bar).
Now find T1: use isentropic adiabatic compression relationship across the compressor,
(T1/T0) = (p1/p0)(γ−1)/ γ; (T1/T0) = (188/100)0.35/1.35
So Tl = 1.18 × 310(K) = 365 K
ρa,1 p1 T0
Thus = × with ρa,0 the air density at standard pressure and temp.
ρa,0 p0 T1
Thus ρa,1 = 1.18 (kg/m2) × (188/100) × (300/365)
ρa,1 = 1.82 kg/m3
Thus ma (mass of air/cylinder, cycle)
ma = 0.9 × 1.82 × (8/6) × 10−3 = 2.2 g air assuming ηv ≈ 0.9
Mass of fuel:
mf = ϕ (F/A)stoich × ma = 0.7 × 0.069 × 2.2 = 0.11 g fuel
Volume of liquid fuel: Vf = mf / ρf = 0.11 g ÷ 0.82 g/cm3 = 0.13 cm3 = 130 mm3
(b) Assume fuel injection pressure is 1000 bar, pcyl at time of injection is 50 bar.
Find spray penetration, etc.
Data in Fig. 10.29 gives spray penetration under combusting conditions. Need gas density at
time of injection (≈ TC): ρa (end of compression) ≈ rc × ρa (at start of compression). So
ρa,injection ≈ 16.5 × 1.82 = 30 kg/m3
138
Estimate spray tip penetration 10 CA degrees after start of injection. At 2500 rev/min,
10 deg. CA ≡ (60/2500) × (10/360) = 0.67 ms
Figure 10.29 (combusting sprays) with ambient gas density of 30 kg/m3 at 0.67 ms gives
spray penetration of about 50 mm which is consistent with a bore of 114 mm.
Figure 10.40a gives the liquid core length at these conditions (and 1000 K) as 20 mm.
Figure 10.50 gives the flame lift-off length at these conditions of about 10 mm
Average drop size: use Eq. (10.28) for Sauter Mean diameter,
DSM(μm) = AΔp (mPa)−0.135 ρa(kg/m3)0.121 Vf(mm3/stroke)0.131
So, DSM = 23.9 (950 × 10−1)−0.135 (1.82 × 16.5)0.121 (130)0.131
DSM = 36 μm
(c) Number of drops per injection (n):
3
4 ⎛D ⎞
Use Vf = n π ⎜ SM ⎟
3 ⎝ 2 ⎠
So n = (130 × 10−9)/[(4π/3) × (36 × 10−6/2)3]
n = 5.3 × 106 drops
Drop spacing: each drop at center of cube of side h; Va is vol of air in each cylinder at TC.
Va (= Vc ) = nh 3 = (π / 4)B2 L / (rc − 1)
So h3 = [(π/4) × 1142 × 130 ÷ 15.7] ÷ 5.3 × 106
h3 = 1.6 × 10−2 mm3 → h = 0.25 mm
(drop spacing is some 7 times drop diam.)
10.6 (a) For incompressible flow through an orifice, the mass flow rate is given by Eq.
(10.14) or (C.2)
= ρAV = CD A[2ρ(p1 − p 2 )]1/2

m
where A2/A1 « 1. Hence
V = CD [2(p1 − p 2 ) / ρ]1/2
= 0.8[2(500 − 50) × 105 / 0.86 ×103 ]1/2 = 180 m/s
139
With a multihole nozzle on the cylinder axis, the distance to the wall is B/2 = 62.5 mm.
Time to reach the wall is 62.5 × 10−3/180 = 0.3 ms
(b) Figure 10.26 gives the spray angle for Ln/dn =4. Find the density ratio ρg/ ρℓ.
Use pvn= p/ρn = constant, with n obtained from Fig. 10.48:
ρinjection/ρ0 = 501/1.33 = 19
so ρinjection = 1.18 × 19 = 22 kg/m3
and ρg/ρℓ = 22/(0.86 × 103) = 0.026
Thus, from Fig. 10.26b, tan (θ/2) = 0.13, spray angle θ = 15° (see Fig. 10.20b)
Spray penetration is given in Fig. 10.29 with ρ(injection) = 22 kg/m3. Data from figure
plotted in figure below.
Liquid spray length (Fig. 10.38) also shown ( at T = 1000 K).
The graph shows penetration as a function of time for the models in (a) and (b):
spray liquid-core penetration (c), from Fig. 10.38.
(c) Equation (10.28) gives the Sauter Mean droplet diameter as
DSM = A(Δp) −0.135 ρa0.121Vf0.131
where A = 23.9 for hole nozzles. Units are: Δp(MPa), ρa(kg/m3), Vf (vol. of fuel per stroke,
m3).
140
Find Vf: mf (for one nozzle, cycle)
given by f Δt = ρf CD A n VΔt
mf = m
π
m f = 0.82 × 103 (kg / m3 ) × (0.34 ×10−3 , m) 2 × 0.8 ×180 (m / s) ×1×10−3 (s)
4
= 1.1×10 kg = 1.1× 10−2 g
−5
So Vf (per nozzle hole per stroke) = mf/ρf

= (1.1 × 10−2)/0.82 = 1.3 × 10−2 cm3 = 13 mm3
Thus DSM = 23.9(450 ×10−1 ) −0.135 (1.18 × 2 ×17)0.121 × (13)0.131 = 31 μm
We’ve assumed ρa (engine intake) is twice ρa,0 (at STP) for turbocharged diesel engine:
ρa,TC = ρa,eng.int. × rc (equals 17)
10.7 Carry out a sensible energy balance for air and fuel system at constant volume and
neglecting heat losses (see Eq. (5.53)):
U 2 − U1 = m a c v,a (T2 − Ta1 ) + m f [u fg,f + c v,f (T2 − Tf 1 )] = 0
where ma is mass of air, mf is mass of fuel, cv,a is specific heat at constant volume for air, cv,f
is specific heat at constant volume for fuel vapor, ufg is the heat of vaporization of the fuel,
and T2 is the final mixture temperature.
From Table D.4, cp,f = 1.7 kJ/kg·K, so cv,f =1.67; and ufg = 270 kJ/kg. From Fig. 4.17, cp,a =
1.1 kJ/kg·K so cv,a = 0.81 kJ/kg·K. Since ϕ = 0.7, ma/mf = 14.5/0.7 = 20.7. Substitute numbers
into energy balance:
20.7 × 0.81 × (T2 − 800) + 1 × [270 + 1.67(T2 − 300)] = 0
Solve: T2 = 740 K → Ta1 − T2 = 60 K
10.8 Equation (10.35) is
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 21.2 ⎞ ⎤
0.63
τid (CA) = (0.36 + 0.22 Sp ) exp ⎢ E A ⎜ − ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎥

⎣ ⎝ RT 17,190 ⎠ ⎝ p − 12.4 ⎠ ⎦
where T is in K, p in bar, EA is given by Eq. (10.36)
EA = 618,840/(CN + 25)
For fuel cetane number CN = 45, EA = 8,840 J/mol (or kJ/kmol).
141
Also, R = 8.314 J/mol ⋅ K (or kJ/kmol ⋅ K)
Use conditions from Table 10.3:

speed Sp p T τid
engine rev/min m/s bar K CA ms
HD diesel 600 2.8 68 886 3.4 0.93
LD diesel 1500 4.3 69 900 3.3 0.36
Approach
Heavy duty DI TC engine: bore = 135 mm, stroke = 140 mm; speed 600 rev/min, engine
intake pi = 2 bar, Ti = 120°C; rc = 15
Light duty DI TC engine: bore = 80 mm, stroke = 85 mm; speed 1500 rev/min, engine intake
pi = 1.5 bar, Ti = 100°C; rc = 19
Equations used: Sp = 2 LN :
Compression, BC to TC (approx.)
γ γ−1
pTC ⎛ VBC ⎞ TTC ⎛ VBC ⎞
=⎜ ⎟ = rcγ ; = = rcγ−1
pi ⎝ VTC ⎠ Ti ⎜⎝ VTC ⎟⎠
with γ = 1.3.
10.9 Relevant equations (10.35) to (10.37) for predicting ignition delay are
⎡ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ ⎛ 21.2 ⎞ ⎤
0.63
τid (CA) = (0.36 + 0.22 Sp ) exp ⎢ E A ⎜ − +

⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎥

⎣ ⎝ RT 17,190 ⎠ ⎝ p − 12.4 ⎠ ⎦
E A = 618,840 / (CN + 25) = 618,840 / 70 = 8141 J/mol ⋅ K
TTC = Ti rcn −1 ; pTC = pi rcn
Given N = 100 rev/min, L = 120 mm; so Sp = 2 × 0.12 ×100 / 60 = 0.4 m/s.
n = 1.13, so n − 1 = 0.13. R = 8.3143 J/mol ⋅ K . Find pTC and TTC; substitute numbers to
obtain:
rc pTC, bar TTC, K τid, CA

14 19.7 359 37
16 22.9 366 14
18 26.2 371 7.7
20 29.5 376 5.1
142
Plot τid versus rc. A compression of about 16 or more is required to start the engine (τid < 20°)
for this value of Ti.
10.10 The rate of heat release vs crank angle in a DI diesel engine has a “spike” (referred to
as the premixed burn phase) followed by a longer duration, more rounded, burning rate
profile that is several times longer than the premixed phase (see Fig. 10.8).
The longer the ignition delay, the more fuel is injected during this phase, prior to start of
combustion. This fuel mixes with (some) air within the individual fuel sprays, so “becomes
ready to burn” once spontaneous ignition of this (rich) fuel-air mixture occurs. The more fuel
that becomes ready to burn, the larger the subsequent premixed burning “spike,” the higher
the rate of pressure rise, and the noisier the combustion process (see Fig. 10.53a).
In turbocharged diesel engines, the end of compression/start of injection pressures and

temperatures into which the fuel is injected are higher because the air entering the engine has
been compressed. So the ignition delay (Eq. 10.35), is shorter than in naturally-aspirated
engines, less fuel is injected during the delay, so once combustion starts the rate of burning in
the premixed phase is lower as is the rate of pressure rise. Equation 10.35 indicates that,
through its p and T dependence, the shorter delays should be expected.
This is advantageous: lower rate of pressure rise, and thus less noisy. Also,
mixing-controlled burning phase is more “controllable”.
143
Chapter 11
POLLUTANT FORMATION AND CONTROL
11.1 Explain SI engine emission trends (in ppm) as relative air/fuel ratio λ or equivalence
ratio ϕ is first made richer than 1.0, then made leaner than 1.0.
(a) Increasing ϕ above 1:
NO: NO concentration decreases due to decreasing oxygen concentration in the burned gases,
and (after about ϕ = 1.1) decreasing burned gas temperature. Both these changes decrease the
NO formation rate.
CO: CO concentration increases because the oxygen deficiency steadily increases resulting in
an increasing fraction of the fuel carbon which cannot be fully burned (the combustion
inefficiency increases).
HC: HC concentration increase primarily due to less and less oxidation within the cylinder
and the exhaust port as the mixture is richened. The amount of HC which escapes the primary
combustion process in crevices and oil layers also increases as ϕ increases because the fuel
mass fraction increases.
(b) Decreasing ϕ below 1:
NO: Increasing oxygen concentration in the burned gases initially causes the NO formation
rate to increase, despite the steadily decreasing burned gas temperature. For ϕ ≤ 0.9 the
temperature effect on formation rate dominates and NO levels fall.
CO: CO levels become low for ϕ ≤ 0.95 since there is excess oxygen and mixture fuel/air
ratio nonuniformities no longer cause some fuel-rich regions.
HC: HC emissions initially decrease as ϕ decreases due to decreasing fuel/air ratio in crevices
and lower fuel vapor concentration in unburned mixture for absorption into the oil and
deposits. Eventually HC emissions go up again due to poor combustion and increasing
number of partial burning cycles.
11.2 Qualitative graph of NO, CO and HC emissions versus fuel/air equivalence ratio ϕ for
four-stroke cycle DI diesel engine: ϕ range: 0.2 to 0.8.
144
NOX: NO emissions will steadily increase as ϕ increases due to increasing fraction of the
cylinder contents being burned gases close to stoichiometric during combustion, and due to
higher peak temperatures and pressures (see Fig. 11.16).
CO: CO emissions will be low at all equivalence ratios since excess air is always available.
HC: Will decrease slightly with increasing ϕ due to higher cylinder temperatures making it
easier to burn up any overmixed (very lean) or undermixed (rich) fuel-air mixture. At high
loads, however, HC may increase again if the amount of fuel in regions too rich to burn
during the primary combustion process increases rapidly.
11.3 Given m NOX , m

f , and m HC , and m
CO . Concentration of each pollutant in mole
fractions in the exhaust gases given by:
NOX
m 1 Me
x NOX =
f
m [1 + (A/ F)] M NOX
1.5 1 28.7
= × × = 5 × 10 −4
120 (1 + 14.6) 46
where (A/F) = 14.6 is for ϕ = 1, Me = Mb from Fig. 4.1, and M NOX = M NO2 = 46. Similarly:
2 1 28.7
x HC = × × = 2.2 × 10 −3
120 15.6 14
2 1 28.7
x CO = × × = 0.011
120 15.6 28
So concentrations in ppm are:
NOX(as NO2) 500; HC (as C1 2200; CO 11,000 (or 1.1%).
145
11.4 Use Eq. (4.67) to calculate the combustion inefficiency. Use Fig. 4.21 to estimate the
H2 concentration. For 1.1% (by volume or mole percent) CO, x H2 = 0.3% .
The mass flow rate of H2 is:
H2 = m
m f x H2 [1 + (A/ F)]M H2 / M e
= 120 × 3 × 10 −3 [1 + 14.6]2 / 28.7 = 0.4 g/ mile
where Me/Mb = 28.7 for ϕ = 1 from Fig. 4.1.
Then the combustion inefficiency (1 – ηc) is:
1 − ηc =
∑ m Q
i LHVi
=
2 × 44 + 20 × 10.1 + 0.4 × 120
f Q LHVf
m 120 × 44
= 0.064 = 6.4% → ηc = 93.6%
11.5 Engine emissions for vehicle in Problem 11.3 are:
NOX 1.5 g/mile; HC 2 g/mile; CO 20 g/mile
Warmed-up catalyst efficiencies from Fig. 11.62 are (for ϕ = 1.0):
NOX 98%; HC 91%; CO 98%
Since catalyst is efficient for 90 percent of the driving time, but has zero efficiency for 10
percent of the time, average emissions levels are:
NOX: 1.5 × 0.1 + 1.5 × 0.9 (1 – 0.98) = 0.177 g/mile
HC: 2 × 0.1 + 2 × 0.9 (1 – 0.91) = 0.362 g/mile
CO: 20 × 0.1 + 20 × 0.9 (1 – 0.98) = 2.36 g/mile
Note the importance of the time when the catalyst is not effective, even though it is only 10
percent the total driving time.
11.6 Data from Fig. 15.18 are:
(a) At 379 kPa imep
speed (rev/min) 1000 1400 1800

HC (ppm) 1750 1400 1300
NO (ppm) 2400 2600 2850
146
(b) At 1250 rev/min
imep(kPa) 300 500 700

HC (ppm) 1750 1650 1500
NO (ppm) 1500 3100 4400
Conversion from ppm to g/kW ∙ h:
NO / P
specific emissions = m
Now:
NO = x NO (M NO / M b )(m
m a+m
f)
Pi = imep × v d × (N/ 2)
a = ηv Vd ρa,0 (N/ 2)
m
Hence:
sNO = x NO ηvρa,o (M NO / M b )[1 + (F/ A)] / imep
Given that ηv = imep (Pa) × 10−3:
sNO = x NOρa,0 (M NO / M b )[1 + (F / A)] × 10 −6 kg / J

= x NO × 1.184(30 / 28.7)[1 + 0.9 × 0.0685] × 10 −6 × 106 × 3600, g / kW ⋅ h
= 4.7 × 10 −3 x NO (ppm), g/ kW⋅ h
and
sHC = x HC × 1.184(14 / 28.7)[1 + 0.9 × 0.0685] × 10 −6 × 106 × 3600, g / kW ⋅ h

= 2.2 × 10 −3 x HC (ppm C1 ), g/ kW⋅ h
So ppm data becomes:
speed (rev/min) 1000 1400 1800
HC (g/kW∙h) 3.9 3.1 2.9
NO (g/kW∙h) 11.3 12.2 13.4
imep (kPa) 300 500 700
HC (g/kW∙h) 3.9 3.6 3.3
NO (g/kW∙h) 7.1 14.6 20.7
147
11.7 Use data in the figure on diesel engine particulate emissions:
(a) The lower graph in the figure gives the volume of soot (cm3) per unit volume (m3)
of exhaust at standard temperature and pressure. Hence the exhaust particulate mass or
volume as a fraction of the maximum particulate mass or volume loading is the ratio of
exhaust to maximum values: i.e., 0.18/0.58 = 0.3
(b) The maximum soot loading is 0.58 cm3/m3 exhaust at STP. Find the mass of fuel
carbon per m3 exhaust at STP.
mC mf 12 F/A 12
= × = ×
m exh (m f + m a ) 14 (F/ A) + 1 14
since typical fuel formula is (CH2)n. ϕ = 0.32, so F/A = 0.32 × 0.069 = 0.022. Hence mC/mexh
= 0.0185. Find the density of exhaust gases at STP;
= 1.013 × 105 × 28.9 / 8314 × 300 = 1.17 kg/ m 3

ρ = pM / (RT)
So maximum soot loading as mass fraction of fuel carbon is
0.58(cm 3 ) × 2(g/ cm 3 ) × 10 −3 kg soot

= = 0.054
1(m ) × 1.17(kg/ m ) × 0.0185 kg fuel C
3 3
Exhaust mass loading as mass fraction of fuel carbon is 0.3 × 0.054 = 0.016
(c) At the number density peak (22° ATC) N is 2.5 × 109 particles/cm3. Now if the
average spherical particle radius is r(cm).
4 3
πr N = Fv × 10 −6 = 0.58 × 10 −6
3
which gives r = 3.8 × 10−6 cm = 38 nm
148
11.8 (a) Plot data from Figs. 11.8 and 11.16 on same graph.
Discussion:
(a)
NO forms fastest in combustion products

which are 10% lean of stoichioimetric.
Burned gas temperature is the most
important variable. Oxygen availability is the
second important variable. See Fig. 11.4.
SI engine burns premixed fuel-air mixture. Maximum NO formation rate occurs 10% lean of
the stoichiometric point, and decreases as the mixture becomes leaner and cooler. At ϕ ≤ 0.75
burned gases are sufficiently cool for NO formation to be negligible. In the diesel, the
mixture in the sprays (rich partial-reaction products of premixed fuel combustion completes
is oxidation at the stoichiometric condiction in the diffusion flame surrounding each spray. At
higher load, more fuel burns at these condictions so NO emissions rise as ϕ increases from
light to full load.
(b) Exhaust gas for SI engine is fully burned (ϕ = 1). Exhaust gas for diesel (at ϕ =
0.5) is “half air”. So impact of EGR as a “diluent” that reduces the burned gas temperatures
in the diesel is less effective in reducing NO, at this ϕ, since “half” of the EGR acts like the
air it has displaced.
(c) Particulates emissions are high for diesels because they have very fuel-rich
regions (where soot forms) in each fuel jet within its enveloping flame due to the nature of
149
the diesel combustion process. SI engine fuel-air mixture is premixed, and never richer than if
ϕ = 1.3, so it forms no soot.
(d) Diesels always lean overall, so little CO survives the expansion process without
finding the air needed for complete oxidation. SI engine almost always operate at
stoichiometric. They may operate rich when cold, warming up, and when accelerating: these
operating modes produce high concentrations of CO. Even at ϕ = 1 CO is significant (~1%).
Hence SI engine has, on average, substantial CO emissions.
11.9 Mass of air drawn into the cylinder per cycle is
m a = ηv Vd ρa,0
πB2 L π
Now Vd = = × 852 × 85 = 482 cm 3
4 4
So
m a = 0.8 × 0.482 × 10 −3 × 1.184 = 0.46 g
Mass of fuel/air/residual mixture in cylinder is
= 0.46 (1 + 0.067) × 1.05 = 0.51 g
Volume of crevice Vcrev
= π × 85(85 – 84.4) × 10
= 800 m3
Mass in crevice
= vcrevρcrev
ρa,0 = 1.18 kg/m3
Ta,0 p max 300 3 × 106

ρcrev = ρa,0 × × [1 + F/ A] = 1.18 × × × 1.067
Tw patm 400 10 5
ρcrev = 28.3 kg / m 3
So mass in crevice = 800 × 10−9 × 28.3 × 103 = 0.023 g
mass in crevice 0.023

Ratio : = = 0.045
mass in cylinder 0.51 × 10 −3
150
(b) Calculate exhaust HC
2/3 of crevice mass is unburned, 1/2 oxidizes in cylinder, 1/3 oxidizes in exhaust. So
mass-fraction unburned mixture in exhaust is
0.045 × 2/3 × 1/2 × 2/3 = 1.0 × 10−2
mass-fraction unburned hydrocarbons in the exhaust is
1.0 × 10−2 × 0.067/(1 + 0.067) = 6.2 × 10−4
mole fraction unburned hydrocarbons (as C1) in the exhaust is
6.2 × 10−4 × 28.7/14 = 1.3 × 10−3 or 1300 ppm C1
(14 is the molecular weight of CH2; 28.7 is the molecular weight of exhaust gas).
(c) Brake specific HC/brake specific fuel consumption
x HC +m
(m f)
= = x HC a = x HC [(A/ F) + 1] = 6.2 × 10 −4 × 15.6 = 9.7 × 10 −3
xf f
m
(d) Brake specific HC:
bsHC = bsfc × 9.7 × 10−3 = 300 × 9.7 × 10−3 = 2.9 g/kW∙h
(e) Vehicle HC emissions = 0.1 gHC/mile
1 liters
Fuel consumed/mile = × × ρfuel
25 gal
= 3.785 × 0.75 × 10 −3 / 25 = 114 g fuel/mile
So total engine out HC/fuel consumed
= [0.1/(1 – 0.96)]/114 = 2.5/114 = 2.2%
Crevice HC/fuel (in g/kW∙h) = 2.9/300 = 0.97%
So crevice HC/total (engine) HC = 0.97/2.2 = 0.44
11.10 (a) Given mole fractions: concentrations [ ] in gmol/cm3 are found from
[I] gmole/cm 3 = x iρ(g/cm 3 ) / M
where x i is the mole fraction of species i, ρ is the burned gas density and M is the molecular
weight of the burned gases.
Use Fig. 4.8 to find ρ at 3000 K and 5.5 MPa: v = 0.17 m3/kg air.
151
Hence
1
ρ= × 1.0661× 10 −3 = 6.3 × 10 −3 g / cm 3
0.17
Mb = 28 from Fig. 4.14. Assume same values for ϕ = 0.9 and 1.1: difference is small.
6.3 × 10 −3
Hence: [ I] gmole / cm 3 = x i × = 2.2 × 10 −4 x i
28
Find NO formation rate:
d[NO]
= 2k1+ [N 2 ]e [O]e
dt
= 2 × 7.6 × 1013 exp(−38,000 / T) x N2 x 0 (2.2 × 10 −4 )2
= 23x N2 x 0 , gmol / cm 3 ⋅ s
Tabulate; at 3000 K, 5.5 MPa:
ϕ x N2 x 0 d[NO]/dt (gmol/cm3 ∙ s)
0.9 0.73 2.1 × 10−3 3.6 × 10−2

1.0 0.73 1.5 × 10−3 2.5 × 10−2
1.1 0.73 1.0 × 10−3 1.7 × 10−2
Modest change in d[NO]/dt with

equivalence ratio ϕ at constant T
= 3000 K and p = 5.5 MPa
At ϕ = 1.0, p = 5.5 MPa:
T ρ/M x 0 d[NO]/dt
K gmol/cm3 gmol/cm3∙s
2500 2.7 × 10−4 6 × 10−5 1.2 × 10−4
2750 2.4 × 10−4 5 × 10−4 3.2 × 10−3
3000 2.2 × 10−4 1.5 × 10−3 2.5 × 10−2
152
Note there is a large change in
d[NO]/dt with temperature at
fixed ϕ and p.
(b) Estimate time τ to reach equilibrium NO levels at 2750 and 3000 K. Use
approximate relation:
d[NO]
τ× = [NO]equil
dt
At 2750 K:
τ × 3.2 × 10−3 = 4 × 10−3 × 2.4 × 10−4
which gives τ = 0.3 ms
At 3000 K:
τ × 2.5 × 10−2 = 8 × 10−3 × 2.2 × 10−4
τ = 0.07 ms
So τ decreases substantially as T increases.
(c) We need a factor of four reduction in d[NO]/dt from 2.5 × 10−2 to 6.25 × 10−3. The
second graph above indicates that we need to reduce Tb from 3000 K to 2800 K. Use burned
gas charts for ϕ = 1, Fig. 4.8, to find the change in burned gas fraction xb in fresh mixture
required to reduce Tb from 3000 K to 2800 K, at constant pressure.
At 3000 K, 5.5 MPa (State 1), ubl = 440 kJ/kg air. At 2800 K, 5.5 MPa (State 2), ub2 = −30
kJ/kg air. Since u b = u u = us,u + Δu°f ,u , and us,u1 = us,u2 ,
u b1 − u b2 = Δu°f ,u1 − Δu°f ,u2 = −2956(x b1 − x b2 )
from Eq. (4.32). So Δxb = xb2 – xb1 = (440 + 30)/2956 = 0.16
153
11.11 Problem statement says gasoline engine operating stoichiometric. Check
air / m
m fuel = 42 / 2.8 = 15 : could be stoichiometric, depending on fuel composition. Given
mole fractions in the exhaust (measurements are molar).
CO2; 0.114; CO, 0.0114; H2O, 0.120; H2, 0.0057, O2, 0.0142; CH2(HC), 0.0038;
N2, 0.731.
Carbon mole fraction is 0.114 + 0.0114 + 0.0038 = 0.129
hydrogen mole fraction is (0.120 + 0.0059 + 0.0038) × 2 = 0.259
H:C ratio is 0.259 ÷ 0.129 = 2 which from Fig. 3.5 gives (A/F)stoich of 14.85 (close).
So there is enough oxygen if stoichiometric. Check from exhaust composition: oxygen atom
(mole fraction) required for complete oxidation is
(CO) 0.0114 + (H2) 0.0057 + (CH2) 0.0038 × 3 = 0.0285
Oxygen atom available is 2 × 0.0142 = 0.0284, OK.
For steady flow through the catalyst.
Now do energy balance on control vol. around the catalyst.
exh h 2 − m
m exh h1 = Q chem.energy release
exh c p (T2 − T1 ) = (x CO × M CO × Q HV1CO + x H2 × M H2 × Q HV1H2 +

m
exh / Mexh )
x CH2 × MCH2 × Q HV1CH2 ) × (m
Mi = mol. weight species i.
exh cancels
Substitute numbers: m
1.28 (T2 – 700 K) = (0.0114 × 28 × 10.1 × 103 +
kJ/kg K K 0.0057 × 2 × 120 × 103 +
0.0038 × 14 × 44 × 103)/29
mol. wt. exhaust
gives T2 = 887 K, a temperature rise of 187 K.
154
Chapter 12
ENGINE HEAT TRANSFER
l2.1 Equations for heat flux through cylinder wall are (see Fig. 12.1):
Gas side convection: q = h c,g (Tg − Tw,g ) (12.5) without radiation
Conduction: q = k(Tw,g − Tw,c ) / t w (12.6)
Coolant convection: q = h c,c (Tw,c − Tc ) (12.7)
Rearrange:
q / h c,g = Tg − Tw,g ; t w q / k = Tw,g − Tw,c ; q / h c,c = Tw,c − Tc
Combining above three equations, and noting that q is the same for all three:
⎛ 1 tw 1 ⎞
⎜h + k +h ⎟ q = (Tg − Tc )
⎝ c,g c,c ⎠
−1
⎛ 1 t 1 ⎞
q = ⎜ + w+ ⎟ (Tg − Tc )
⎝ h c,g k h c,c ⎠
−1
⎛ 1 t 1 ⎞
So: h c,o =⎜ + w+ ⎟
⎝ h c,g k h c,c ⎠
12.2 Given:
q = 0.2 MW/m 2 , t w = 1 cm, Tc = 85°C, h c,c = 7500 W/m 2 ⋅ K.
Find Tw,g and Tw,c: use Eq. (12.7).
q = h c,c (Tw,c − Tc ), or 0.2 × 106 = 7500(Tw,c − 85)
Tw,c = 112 °C
For cast iron, k = 54 W/m·K. Use Eq. (12.6):
k 54
q = (Tw,g − Tw,c ), or 0.2 × 106 = (Tw,g − 112)
tw 0.01
Tw,g = 149°C
155
12.3 Typical gas temperatures are:
(a) intake, Tg = 90°C = 363 K ; (b) just prior to combustion, Tg = 500°C = 773 K ;
(c) just after combustion, Tg = 2000 °C = 2273 K ; (d) during the exhaust stroke,
Tg = 1000 °C = 1273 K.
The temperature profile in the wall only changes in the outer few millimeters (the skin
depth, see Table 12.3); the temperature profile in the rest of the wall is set by the average heat
flux.
12.4 Use Eq. (12.13) as basic engine heat transfer relationship:
m
hB ⎛ ρS B ⎞
N u = c = a Re m Pr n = a ⎜ p ⎟ Pr n
k ⎝ μ ⎠
where m = 0.7 to 0.8. Use m = 0.75.
If engine A has twice the displacement of engine B, engine B must be running at twice the
speed of engine A to provide the same power output at the same imep.
From Eq. (12.13) above:

0.75 0.75
h c,A BA ⎛ ρSp,A BA ⎞ h c,B BB ⎛ ρSp,BBB ⎞
= a⎜ ⎟
n
Pr ; = a⎜ ⎟ Pr n
k ⎝ μ ⎠ k ⎝ μ ⎠
156
0.75
h c,A ⎛B ⎞
0.25
⎛ Sp,A ⎞
Hence: =⎜ B ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
h c,B ⎝ BA ⎠ ⎝ Sp,B ⎠
BA and BB are related by Vd,A = 2Vd,B, and geometric similarity requires
BB/BA = 1/21/3
Mean piston speed relation Sp = 2LN requires that
Sp,A LA NA
= = 21/3 / 2 = 1 / 22/3
Sp,B LB NB
0.25 0.75
h c,A ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
Hence: = ⎜ 1/3 ⎟ ⎜ 2/3 ⎟ = 0.67
h c,B ⎝2 ⎠ ⎝2 ⎠
The larger engine (A) has a lower heat transfer coefficient than (B) due to its lower mean
piston speed. Heat transfer rate is given by
= h A(T − T )
Q c g w
Now AA/AB = 22/3 = 1.59. Hence heat transfer ratio (for Tg,A = Tg,B and Tw,A = Tw,B) is

Q A
= 0.67 × 1.59 = 1.06

Q B
Change in total heat transfer rate is modest.
12.5 (a) Woshni’s frequently used engine heat transfer correlation is given by Eqs. (12.2),
(12.20) and (12.21). The heat transfer coefficient with swirl hc,s relative to the heat transfer
coefficient without swirl hc,o is given by (Eq. (12.21)):
h c,s / h c,o = (wS / w 0 )0.8
where the velocity w is given by w = C1Sp .
With swirl: C1,s = [6.18 + 0.417 vs / Sp ]
Without swirl: C1,0 = 6.18
Now vs = Bωp/2 where ωp is the rotation speed of the paddle wheel used to determine swirl.
The swirl ratio Rs (Eq. (8.30)) is ωs/(2πN). For a swirl ratio of 5:
vs = πBRsN = π × 0.15 × 5 × 2000/60 = 79 m/s
157
Hence: C1,s = 6.18 + 0.417 × 79/10 = 9.46
Then:
h c,s / h c,o = (ws / w 0 )0.8 = (C1,s / C1,0 )0.8 = (9.46 / 6.18)0.8 = 1.4
Assuming the gas and wall temperatures do not change, swirl at this level will increase the
heat transfer rate by 40%.
(b) Generation of swirl requires that the inlet flow velocities go up, or the effective
inlet valve open area goes down, or both these changes. This will reduce volumetric
efficiency. Increased heat transfer from the walls to the gas during intake with swirl (usually
the average wall temperature is higher than the gas temperature during most of the intake
process) will decrease the in-cylinder gas density. This will also reduce volumetric efficiency.
12.6 (a)
The heat flux per unit area to the wall is
⎛ dT ⎞
q = ⎜ k ⎟
⎝ dx ⎠ wall
This can be approximated by
q = k(Tg − Tw )δ T
where k is the mean thermal conductivity of the gas in the boundary layer.
(b) Just after completion of combustion Tg = 2400 K (Fig. 9.11); TW = 400 K; q just
after combustion, from Fig. 12.12, is about 1.5 MW/m2.
Find k for combustion products at the mean temperature from Section 4.8. Figure 4.8a
gives γb at 1500 K as 1.26 for ϕ =1.0. Equation (4.52) then gives Prandtl No. (= μcp/k) as
0.69. Equations (4.49) and (4.50) give μ at 1500 K and ϕ = 1.0 as 5.4 × 10−5 kg/m·s, and Fig.
4.17a gives cp = 1500 J/kg·K. Hence:
k = 5.4 × 10 −5 × 1500 / 0.69 = 0.12 J/m ⋅ s ⋅ K
The boundary layer thickness is (approximately):
δ T = k(Tg − Tw ) / q = 0.12 (2400 − 400) / 1.5 × 106 = 0.2 mm
158
Mass in boundary layer:
Assume thin layer around the outside of the combustion chamber. At 30° ATC, Eq. (2.7)
gives V/Vc = 1.68 for rc = 9, R = 3.5. For B = L = 85 mm, piston area = 56.7 cm2, Vd = 482
cm3, Vc = Vd/(rc − 1) = 60.3 cm3, mean clearance height h = V/Ap = 1.8 cm. Volume of
boundary layer Vbℓ is given by:
VbA δ T (2A p + πBh)

=
V Aph
= 0.2 × 10 −1 (2 × 56.7 + π× 8.5 × 1.8) / 56.7 × 1.8 = 0.03
Density ratio boundary layer gas to bulk gas is
ρbA / ρ = T / TbA = 2400 / 1400 = 1.7
Hence: mbℓ/m = 1.7 × 0.03 = 0.05
12.7 (a) Equation (12.38) gives the wall temperature as a function of distance x from the
surface. The amplitude of each of the oscillating components attenuates by exp (−ϕnx).
Consider the lowest frequency oscillation, the firing frequency ω = 2πN/nR = 2π ×
(2500/60)/2 = 131 Hz. Now ϕn = (nω/2α)1/2; n = 1, and α = k/(ρc). For aluminum α = 6.2 ×
10−5m2/s (from Table 12.3).
Hence: ϕ = [131/(2 × 6.2 × 10−5)]1/2 = 1.03 × 103m
Given: exp(− ϕx) = 0.01
Hence: ϕx = 4.6 → x = 4.5 mm
(b) At N = 5000 rev/min, ω increases by a factor of 2. Since φ ∝ ω , and x ∝ 1/ϕ, x
will decrease by 2 to 3.2 mm
(c) For constant material properties there is no dependence of x on amplitude of the

temperature fluctuations.
12.8 (a) Find the average gas temperature in the cylinder. Method: determine p(θ) from
Fig. 12.22; estimate total mass in cylinder; use ideal gas law to find average gas temperature.
From Fig. 12.22
θ (CA) −180 −90 0 20 40 90 150

p(kPa) 95 175 2300 3900 2600 750 360
159
Mass of air: ma = ηvVdρa,i
pM 95 × 103 × 29
ρa,i = = = 1.07 kg/m 3

RT 8314 × 310
Find Vd:
π 2 π
Vd = B L = × 10.22 × 8.8 = 719 cm 3
4 4
So ma = 0.85 × 719 × 10−6 × 1.07 = 6.5 × 10−4 kg = 0.65 g
Total cylinder mass = ma + mf + mr
Given ϕ = 1.1, (F/A)s = 0.0685, xr = 0.07 (Fig. 6.26)
mtotal = 0.65 ( 1 + 1.1 × 0.0685) (1 + 0.07/0.93) = 0.75 g
Then:
pVM 28
T= = pV × = p(kPa)V(cm 3 ) × 4.5 × 10 −3

mR −3
0.75 × 10 × 8314
Find V from Eq. (2.7) with rc = 9 and R = 3.5. Thus:
θ p V T ρ
CA kPa cm3 K kg/m3
−180 95 809 346 0.93
−90 175 502 395 1.49
0 2300 90 932 8.3
20 3900 118 2071 6.4
40 2400 196 2117 3.83
90 750 502 1694 1.49
150 360 774 1254 0.97
(b) Instantaneous heat transfer rate given by
= h A(T − T )
Q c g w
Find area of disc-shaped combustion chamber:
π π 4V
A = 2 B2 + πBh = B2 + = 0.0163 + 3.92 × 10 −5 V(cm 3 ), m 2
4 2 B
160
See Table. Now find hc from
hB
Nu = = 0.4 Re 0.75 Pr 0.4
k
Reynolds number Re = ρ Sp B / μ :
Re = ρ× 2 × 0.088 × (2500 / 60) × 0.102 / 7 × 10 −5 = ρ (kg/m 3 ) × 1.07 × 10 4
See Table. Now find hc. Pr = 0.8
Nu = 0.4 × 0.80.4 Re 0.75 = 0.366 Re 0.75
Hence:
h c = (1.5 × 10 −1 / 0.102) × 0.366 Re 0.75 = 0.54 Re 0.75 J/m 2 ⋅ s ⋅ K
θ Re Nu hc A ΔT
Q
CA J/m2·s·K m2 K kW
−180 9,950 365 538 0.048 −54 −1.4
−90 15,900 519 766 0.036 −5 −0.1
0 88,800 1880 2780 0.0198 532 29.3
20 68,500 1550 2290 0.0209 1671 80.1
40 41,000 1050 1560 0.024 1717 64.2
90 15,900 519 766 0.036 1294 35.7
150 10,400 376 556 0.047 854 22.2
versus θ:
Plot Q
161
(c) Fuel chemical energy input is
Q ch = m f Q LHV = 0.65 × 10 −3 × 1.1× 0.0685 × 44 × 106 = 2.16 kJ
Total heat transfer equals area under the graph in (b) from −180 to + 180 degrees. This area is
0.5 kJ.
Hence:
Qht/Qch = 0.5/2.16 = 0.23
162
Chapter 13
ENGINE FRICTION AND LUBRICATION
13.1 (a) From Eq. 13.2:
tfmep = pmep + mfmep + amep = imep(g) − bmep
Now bmep = Pb(nR/N)/Vd
and imep(g) = (∫C,EpdV)/Vd
So, tfmep = (∫C,E pdV − PbnR/N)/Vd
(b) pmep =
1
Vd (∫
C,E
pdV − ∫ pdV )
1800
(c) Brake power: Pb = Tb × (2 πN) = 32 × 2π× = 6.03 kW
60
Total friction power: Ptf = Pi,g − Pb
Pi = imep × Vd × N / n R
= 933 × 103 × 0.496 × 10 −3 × 30 / 2 = 6.94 kW
Hence, Pf = 6.94 − 6.03 = 0.91 kW
Total friction mep:
tfmep = (0.91 × 2)/(0.496 × 10−3 × 30) = 123 kPa
Pumping mep:
pmep = imep(g) − imep(n) = 933 − 922 = 11 kPa
13.2 The dependence on speed N of the work per cycle or mep for each of the three friction
categories is:
(1) boundary friction : constant
(2) hydrodynamic friction ∝ N
(3) turbulent dissipation ∝ N2
Total fmep for 4-cylinder 4-stroke SI engines is, Eq. (13.6),
163
2
⎛ N ⎞ ⎛ N ⎞
tfmep = 57 + 15 ⎜ ⎟ + 5.5 ⎜ ⎟ (kPa)
⎝ 1000 ⎠ ⎝ 1000 ⎠
At 3000 rev/min
tfmep(kPa) = 57 + 15 × 3 + 5.5 × 9 = 152
Relative proportions are:
57 45 50
(1) : (2) : (3) = : :
152 152 152
Or, approx:
boundary friction work: 37%
hydrodynamic friction work: 30%
turbulent dissipation work: 33%
13.3 Useful figures are: 13.7, 13.8, 13.11, 13.12, 13.13, 13.30, 13.34, 13.35. Review these
first.
Spark-ignition engine:
At WoT, 2000 rev/min.: pmep = 25 kPa (Fig. 13.30); bmep ≈ 1100 kPa; amep = 15 kPa;
tfmep = 110 kPa (Fig. 13.35). Use
tfmep = pmep + mfmep (or rfmep) + amep, Eq. (13.2),
to find rfmep = 70 kPa
At one-third load: bmep = 370 kPa, MAP ≈ 40 kPa, so Fig. 13.30 gives pmep ≈ 62 kPa; amep
= 15 kPa (same as full load); rfmep (mfmep) ≈ 80 kPa (Fig. 13.8), then Eq. (13.2) gives tfmep
≈ 160 kPa.
Thus:
pmep rfmep amep tfmep

Full load, kPa 25 70 15 110
% 23 64 14 100
One-third load, kPa 62 80 15 157
% 39 51 10 100
164
(accessories include water pump, oil pump, generator, fan; minimum required to operate
free-standing engine).
DI diesel engine:
Figure 13.11 gives pumping mep as 0.4 Sp2 , for nat. asp. diesels.
So pmep = 0.4 × (2 × 0.085 × 2000/60)2 = 13 kPa
Figure 13.13 gives accessories (water pump, oil pump, fuel pump) as about 30 kPa. Figures
13.10 and 13.13 give tfmep ≈ 200 kPa.
Thus (essentially independent of load):
pmep rfmep amep tfmep

Full and 1/3 load, kPa 13 157 30 200
% 7 79 15 100
These percentages and magnitudes are in reasonable agreement with the data in Fig. 13.2.
13.4 Spark-ignition engine at fixed part-load throttle setting. Start cycle at EVO:
1. When exhaust valve opens, cylinder pressure under motoring conditions will be below
exhaust system pressure so gas flows into the cylinder from the exhaust manifold. Work
from EVO to BC will be different.
2. During the exhaust stroke the cylinder gas under motoring conditions is ambient density
air and not lower density burned gases. The pressure drop across the exhaust valve and
port is therefore substantially higher.
3. The back flow into the intake after IVO, under motoring conditions, will be air and not
residual gas (though the pumping work effect of this is small).
4. The intake valve, piston, cylinder head and liner will be cooler under motored conditions
so airflow during intake will be higher and pressure within the cylinder slightly lower
than under firing conditions.
5. Overall, the pumping work in an SI engine is larger under motored than firing conditions.
165
13.5
Pressure forces: pcAp (downwards), pccAp (upwards)
Friction force: Ff, always opposes motion
Inertia force: mpa, direction depends on whether piston is accelerating or decelerating.
Connecting rod force: Fcr, direction is governed by direction of piston acceleration except
when cylinder pressure is high. [Equation (13.9) is helpful in sorting out the directions of
these forces at various points in the cycle. See also Fig. 2.3 and Eq. (2.15)]
13.6 (a) Piston area = (π/4)B2 = (π/4) × 0.1372 = 1.47 × 10−2m2.
Hence:
max. piston pressure force = 75 × 105 × 1.47 × 10−2N = 1.1 × 10−5N
Magnitude of piston acceleration = Sp × (N / 4)
= 2 × 0.135 × (1200/60) × 1200/(4 × 60) = 27 m/s2
Inertia force = mpa = 7 × 27 = 190 N
Friction force at time of peak pressure = 250 N
Pressure force is ≈ 400 times this; inertia force is comparable to friction force.
(b) Figure 2.2 gives the piston velocity Sp and acceleration variation with crank angle.
The acceleration of the piston can be obtained from Fig. 2.2 or Eq.(2.14).
166
1. During intake and exhaust, pressure forces are low (pc (gauge) is « 1 atm) and friction
force is essentially proportional to piston velocity. It is the ring tension that primarily
causes piston friction on these strokes until speed is high enough for inertia to contribute.
2. Towards the end of compression, the gas pressure becomes high enough to increase the
outward force on the rings, and the connecting rod force becomes large enough for the
transverse component of the rod force to contribute to friction.
3. The even higher cylinder pressures during the earlier part of the expansion stroke increase
the gas pressure behind the rings, and increases the transverse force on the piston,
increasing friction even further.
13.7 (a) The dimensions (m,L,t) of the journal bearing variables are:
Ff (mL / t 2 ); D b , L b , h(L); μ(m / Lt)
Form these dimensionless groups:
Ff L h
, b,
μD b N D b Db
2
Ff ⎛L h ⎞
Thus: =f⎜ b , ⎟
μD b N
2
⎝ Db Db ⎠
167
Additional assumptions:
Friction force must increase linearly with Lb; if bearing fully supported by oil film, Ff
must be inversely proportional to h .
Ff L D
Thus: = C b b → Ff = CμD2b L b N / h
μD b N
2
Db h
where C is a constant.
(b) By definition: fmep = Wf/Vd ; Vd = (π/4)B2L
Now Wf = Ff (2πDb)
Hence for single journal bearing:
2πD b Ff 2 ⎛ Db ⎞ ⎛ B ⎞ ⎛ Db Lb ⎞
2
fmep = = 8π μ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟N
(π / 4)B2 L ⎝ h ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠⎝ B3 ⎠
With Ff given by Eq. (13.11) the above equation indicates fmep is proportional to (B/L), N,
and the sum of terms like D2b L b / B3 for each bearing per cylinder.
13.8 Key question is whether rotating shaft (at engine speed, or driven by crankshaft) or
linear motion of piston is cause of friction.
Summary:
Friction component N Sp Comments
Crankshaft bearings X Rotary motion

Con rod bearings X X Rotating and oscillating
motion
Valve train X X Rotating and linear motion
Piston rings X Piston motion
Piston skirt X Piston motion
Water pump X Driven off crank
Fan X Driven off crank
Valve flow loss X Piston motion produces
velocity
There are no problems at the end of Chapter 14.
168
Chapter 15
ENGINE OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS
15.1 (a) Volumetric efficiency will be proportional to inlet valve open area. Valve curtain
area is πDvLv. Assume valve lifts are comparable (set by clearance height).
Valve circumferences:
= π × 43 = 135 mm 2-valve (A,B)
= π × 30 × 2 = 188 mm 4-valve (C)
So 4-valve engine will have highest volumetric efficiency.
Helical port will impair breathing. So the 2-valve engine with helical inlet port will
have worst volumetric efficiency.
(b) Given mass fraction burned = 0.2
Volume of burned gas = shaded area ×

clearance height.
Also, ρu/ρb = 4
With total mass m,
mb = 0.2 m
mu = 0.8 m
0.2
Vb / Vu = (m b / m u )(ρu / ρb ) = ×4 =1
0.8
So evaluate flame area when shaded area in the sketch is about 1/2 of total cylinder
cross section.
The center plug (C) will have the largest flame area since none of the circumferential
flame front will have touched the wall. The closer-to-center plug (B) will be next. The side
plug will be lowest in flame area since about half the flame circumference will be cut off by
the cylinder wall.
169
(c) The helical port will generate swirl and higher inlet velocities. This will increase
the burning rate in B since turbulence levels will be higher. Cannot tell whether B will burn
faster than C: it might well do so.
(d) Knocking tendency will primarily be controlled by maximum flame travel length
(other factors being equal). Longest flame travel with (A), will have worst knock. Swirling
flow (B) will increase heat transfer which will reduce knock. Center plug (C) probably has
lowest octane requirement.
15.2 Use Figs. 15.5 (for SI engine) and 15.6 (for HSDI turbocharged diesel engine) for
bsfc values:
(1) SI engine (full load)
speed, rev/min 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

bsfc, g/kW·h 250 237 245 300 350
nf,b,% 33 35 34 28 24
HSDI diesel (full load)
speed, rev/min 1000 2000 3000 4000 4500

bsfc, g/kW·h 230 204 224 255 270
nf,b,% 36 41 37 33 31
(2) SI engine (2500 rev/min)
bmep, kPa 100 200 400 600 800

bsfc, g/kW·h 600 420 285 253 240
nf,b,% 14 20 29 33 35
HSDI diesel (2500 rev/min)
bmep, kPa 100 200 400 600 800

bsfc, g/kW·h 600 350 250 225 215
nf,b,% 14 24 33 37 39
Use Eq. (2.30c) to convert bsfc in g/kW·h to nf,b:
3600 × 100
ηf ,b (%) =
bsfc(g / kW ⋅ h)Q LHV (MJ / kg)
For diesel fuel, QLHV = 43.2 MJ/kg; for gasoline QLHV = 43 MJ/kg (from Table D.4)
170
Figure shows ηf,b versus speed (at full load) and versus load (at 2500 rev/min)
(a) Major factors that affect brake fuel conversion efficiency: fuel, fuel/air
equivalence ratio, EGR, compression ratio, combustion chamber surface area, load, speed,
cylinder displacement, spark or injection advance relative to MBT, factors affecting friction.
(b) At full load: ηf,b does not vary that much; it decreases at high speed due to
increasing impact of friction; it decreases at low speed due to increasing relative importance
of heat losses. Diesel ηf,b higher because diesel operates lean (ϕ < 0.75) rather than
stoichiometric (ϕ = 1.0) as does the SI engine, and the diesel has a higher compression ratio.
At 2500 rev/min: ηf,b increases with load at decreasing rate: diesel because of slower
burning and closer to stoichiometric operation; SI engine ηf,b falls off more rapidly. ηf,b falls
off at lower load due to increasing importance of friction (in the SI engine which is throttled,
the pumping friction term increases substantially), and increasing importance of heat losses
per cycle.
(c) Power given by P = 2πNT = NVd(bmep)/2
Pdiesel 2500 2.5 13.4

Hence: = ⋅ ⋅ = 1.0
PSI 2500 3 10.8
The Diesel is turbo-charged which offsets the fact that it operates lean, as also does its higher
efficiency.
171
15.3 (a) Find turbocharger turbine power:
compressor power = turbocharger turbine power
C c p (T2 − T1 ) = m
m T c p (T5 − T4 ) = PT
0.53 × 1.2 × (430 − 300) = (0.53 + 0.018) × 1.2(850 − T5 )
T5 = 724 K; PT = 82.7 kW
(b) Power turbine power:
PP = 0.548 × 1.2 × (724 − 675) = 32.2 kW
(c)
Work with sensible
enthalpies and
heating value.
First law for control volume shown:
a c p (320 − 300) + m
m f × Q LHV = (m
f +m
a )c p (850 − 300) + P + 0.15 × m
f × Q LHV
0.53 × 1.2 × 20 + 0.018 × 42 × 103 = 0.548 × 1.2 × 550 + P + 0.15 × 0.018 × 42 × 103
which gives, engine power P = 294 kW
Total system power = Pengine + Ppower turbine = 326 kW
326
Brake fuel conversion efficiency for system = = 0.43
0.018 × 42 × 103
15.4 (a) Indicated fuel conversion efficiency ηf,i, is ratio of indicated work per cycle to fuel
energy supplied. Indicated thermal conversion
efficiency ηt,i is ratio of indicated work per cycle to fuel
chemical energy converted to thermal energy.
Combustion efficiency ηc links them:
ηt,i = ηcηf,i
172
N
(b) For 4-stroke cycle, P = Wc ×
2
N N
Hence: Pi = ηf ,i m f Q LHV = ηc ηt,i m a (F / A)Q LHV
2 2
N
and Pb = ηm Pi = ηm ηc ηt,i ηv Vd ρa,0 (F / A)Q LHV
2
(c) ηv is almost constant. Increases for lean mixtures are due to lower wall
temperatures due to lower burned gas temperatures causing less heat transfer.
ηm is almost constant. It decreases for lean mixtures because the indicated mep
decreases and friction mep stays the same.
ηm is almost constant. It decreases for lean mixtures because the indicated mep
decreases and friction mep stays the same.
ηc ≈ 0.95 where there is sufficient oxygen for complete combustion. ηc decreases

approximately as 1/ϕ as mixture richens due to insufficient oxygen for complete combustion.
ηf,i almost constant for lean mixtures. Decreases for richer mixtures mainly due to
decrease in combustion efficiency as mixture ϕ increase above 1.0.
ηt,i rises slightly as mixture becomes richer. This is due to increasing value of γ in
burned gases for richer mixtures (less CO2, H2O; more CO, H2 — diatomic gases). This
increases the expansion work for a given expansion volume ratio.
15.5 Combustion model: see Section 14.4.2, Eqs. (14.33) and (14.34). The entrainment rate
is:
dm e
= ρu A f (u′ + SA ) + ρu A f SA
dt
turbulent laminar
intensity flame
(velocity) speed
The burning rate is:
dm b m − mb A
= ρu A f SA + e ; τb = T
dt τb SA
173
where τb is a characteristic burning time and A T is a turbulence length scale. The burnrate
depends on Af and u′ + SA (u′ >> SA ) and τb. Flame development time Δθd depends primarily
on τb (for mb = 0, dmb/dt ∝ 1/τb).
(a) Effect of increasing EGR.
Fundamental effect is that SA decreases: hence Δθd (∝ Tb) increases significantly; rapid
burning angle, Δθb also increases but less substantially.
COVimep increases because with a longer delay, cycle-by-cycle combustion variations

have a more significant impact on engine operation. As the flame development and rapid
burning angles become longer, we eventually get cycles where the flame cannot fully burn
the mixture (partial burning); then an occasional misfire will occur. With incomplete burning
and then misfire HC emissions will rise as shown in Fig. 9.36.
(b) With the faster burning engine geometry: We have intake-generated swirl which
gives higher u′. Two plugs gives twice the flame area in the initial stages of combustion. Two
plugs gives shorter flame travel. Hence would expect both a shorter flame development angle
(mass entrained in initial stages of combustion is higher with faster burn) and a shorter rapid
burning period. The table of data in the problem shows this.
A shorter flame development period (and to a lesser degree) a faster rapid burning period
gives lower COVimep at same EGR level. bsfc is lower with faster burning engine due to (1)
the faster burn (closer to constant volume combustion); (2) the fact that with lower COVimep
the timing of each cycle is closer to the optimum (which is set by the average cycle); and (3)
the lower HC emissions — no partial burning cycles at high EGR with faster burning engine.
HC emissions are lower with faster burning engine since partial burning cycles are
eliminated (other HC mechanisms — crevices and oil films probably not changed
significantly).
NOX trends are similar for the two engines because EGR is the primary variable. NOX not
that much influenced by the burn rate.
15.6 (a) Stoichiometric mixture of each fuel (vapor) with air. Ideal gas law for mixture:
/ M ; for unit volume, m = p M

pV = m mixt RT mixt
RT
174
1.013 × 10 5 × Mmixt
or m mixt = = 0.0348 Mmixt
8314 × 350
m mixt
m mixt = m f + m a → m f =
⎛ ma ⎞
⎜1 + m ⎟
⎝ f ⎠
M mmixt ⎛ ma ⎞ mf QLHV
fuel stoich. mixt. kg ⎜m ⎟ kg MJ/kg (E/V)s MJ/m3
⎝ f⎠
C8H18 30.3 1.055 15.1 0.0655 44.4 2.91
CH3OH 29.4 1.024 6.45 0.137 20.0 2.74
H2 21.0 0.731 34.2 0.0208 120.1 2.50
Implications for maximum power with ϕ = 1 and engine geometry fixed: energy per unit
volume of stoichiometric mixture in ratio 1:0.94:0.86.
(b) Effect of compression ratio. Use fuel-air cycle results and then scale by E/V
values (since these indicate the fuel chemical energy inducted).
Find imep/p1 for different compression ratios from fuel-air cycle results in Fig. 5.10.
Knock imep (E/V)s imep ⎛ E ⎞ ratio

Fuel limited rc MJ/m3 ⎜ ⎟
p1 p1 ⎝ V ⎠s
C8H18 9 12.3 2.91 35.8 1
CH3OH 12 13 2.74 35.6 0.99 Ans. (b)
H2 8 12 2.50 30.0 0.84
ϕlean rc ηf,ig ratio ηf,ig(E/V)s ϕ[1 + ϕ(F/A)s]

Fuel limit value ratio
C8H18 0.9 9 0.45 1 11.1 1
CH3OH 0.8 12 0.51 1.13 0.99 0.89
H2 0.6 8 0.465 1.03 0.69 0.62
Ans. Ans.
If inlet pressure is the same, power is proportional to ηf,ig(E/V)s ϕ[1 + ϕ(F/A)s].
Table shows ranking is: gasoline: methanol: hydrogen.
15.7 (a) The two basic design parameters are: (1) maximum mean piston speed is in 8 to
15 m/s range with small engines at the high end of the range; use a value of 12 m/s; (2) brake
175
mean effective pressure for a naturally-aspirated diesel engine is in the 700 – 800 kPa range;
use a value of 750 kPa.
Equations are:
maximum mean piston speed Sp max = 2LN max , (L = stroke)
mep (kPa) = (P(kW) × nR × 103)/Vd(dm3) × N(rev/s))
where nR = 2 for 4-stroke cycle engines
π
Vd (dm 3 ) = n cyl. × × B2 × L × 103 (dimensions in m)
4
Hence:
Vd(dm3)N(rev/s) = 200 kW × 2 × 103/750 = 533
π Sp
or n cyl × B2 L × 103 × = 533
4 2L
or n cyl × B2 = 8 × 533 × 103 / πSp max = 0.11 with Sp max = 12 m/s
With 6 cylinders: B = 0.137 m = 137 mm
With 8 cylinders: B = 0.119 m = 119 mm
Suitable design would be:
8 cylinders, bore = 119 mm
stroke (longer than bore) = 130 mm
compression ratio about 17
Spmax 12
maximum rated speed = = = 46 rev/s = 2800 rev/min
2L 2 × 0.13
(b) Figure 15.4 indicates the bsfc of this type of diesel at its maximum power point to
be about; bsfc = 235 g/kW·h.
(c) Turbocharging would increase the maximum bmep to about 1200 kPa range. So
power would increase by about:
1200
= 1.6, an increase of 60%.
750
176
15.8 (a) Volumetric efficiency affected by the volume occupied by fuel vapor in the intake
(a substantial effect for CH4) and by compression ratio (a more modest effect). Other
variables which effect affect ηv are the same for both fuels.
(1) Effect of gas volume:
pair n na 1
= a = = (n = no. of moles)
p intake n n a + n f 1 + (n f / n a )
0.0581
for methane, (F / A)stoich = 0.0581 → (n f / n a )stoich = × 29 = 0.11
16
0.0665
for isooctane, (F / A)stoich = 0.0665 → (n f / n a )stoich = × 29 = 0.017
114
(2) Effect of compression ratio. In practice this is small (could be neglected), or can
use ideal cycle results, Eq. 6.2 in Sect. 6.2.1. ηv increases by about 1% as rc increases from 8
to 14.
(3) Combined effect:
ηv (m) 1(1 + 0.017 × 1.2) × 1.01

= = 0.92
ηv (g) (1 + 0.11 × 1.1)
(b) Develop an expression for power with the appropriate variables in the equation:
N ⎛m ⎞ N
Pi = ηf ,i m f Q LHV = ηf ,i ⎜ f ⎟ ηvρa,0 Vd Q LHV 2
2 ⎝ ma ⎠
N
Pi = ηf ,i φ(F / A)st ηv ρa,0 Vd Q LHV
2
Variables which change with fuel are: ηf,i, ϕ, ηv, QLHV, (F/A)st.
Pi (m) ηf ,i (m) φ(m) (F / A)st.m Q LHV,m ηv (m)

So: = ×
Pi (g) ηf ,i (g) φ(g) (F / A)st.g Q LHV,g ηv (g)
Pi (m) 0.46 1.1 0.0580 50

Hence: = × × × × 0.92 = 1.04
Pi (g) 0.355 1.2 0.069 44.3
177
(c) Inlet pressure has little effect on gross indicated fuel conversion efficiency (see
fuel-air cycle results, Fig. 5.9).
ηf ,ig (m; φ = 0.6, rc = 14) 0.55

So = = 1.28
ηf ,ig (g; φ = 0.9, rc = 8) 0.43
(d) Comparison of emissions at part-load.
Methane Gasoline
NO ϕ = 0.6: lower burned gas temp., much ϕ = 0.9: peak NO formation rate since high
lower NO formation rates. burned gas T and plenty of O2.
CO lean operation, yet away from misfire Somewhat higher since the equivalence
limit gives low CO. ratio is closer to stoichiometric.
Distributing fuel uniformly may be
problem.
HC At higher rc and leaner mixture, low Close to ϕ = 1 but enough O2 for oxidation
exhaust temp.; so less HC oxidation of HC. Good conditions for afterburning.
(increases HC). Higher rc and raised But gasoline harder to burn than methane
piston crown increases importance of which increases HC formation.
crevices (increases HC). Methane easier
to burn (leaner lean limit) so less HC.
Comparison on HC: not conclusive.
15.9 (a) By definition, mep = (work per cycle)/Vd
Indicated work/cycle = mfηf,iQLHV, and mf = ma (F/A) = ηvρa,0Vd (F/A)
Hence: imep = ηvηf,iρa,0(F/A) QLHV: bmep = ηmηvηf,i(F/A)ρa,0QLHV
Since ρa,0 and QLHV are constant, bmep ∝ ηmηvηf,i(F/A)
178
(b)
ηm decreases as N increases because
friction increases with N.
ηf,i increases slightly with N due to the

decreasing importance of heat transfer
per cycle at higher N.
ηv has a maximum in the mid-speed

range. At higher N the flow resistance
increases. At lower N, late intake valve
closing decreases ma.
NA engine: pressure drops increase

with N. TC engine: get higher boost as
N increases.
Fuel-air equivalence ratio at max. load

essentially constant (particulate
threshold).
(c) The best bsfc point is in the mid-speed, mid-load region for the following reasons:
mass fuel/cycle 1
bsfc = =
brake work/cycle ηm ηf ,i Q LHV
(1) Increasing speed at constant load decreases the mechanical efficiency faster than it
increases the indicated fuel conversion efficiency.
(2) Increasing bmep at constant speed decreases the fuel conversion efficiency
because the fuel/air ratio becomes closer to stoichiometric and the effective value of γ (=
cp/cv) decreases. Also the burning process takes a longer crank angle interval because the fuel
injection process is longer. While the mechanical efficiency does increase somewhat, it is not
enough to offset the other effects.
179
(3) Decreasing bmep at constant speed increases bsfc because imep decreases but
fmep remains essentially constant; thus ηm decreases and bsfc goes up. ηf,i increases
somewhat as ϕ decreases, but not enough to offset the change in ηm.
15.10 We are focussing on Fig. 15.7.
This sketch defines the framework:
gases in cylinder – system
indicated work Wc,i – transferred from gas in

cylinder to piston
frictional losses, three components:
(i) mechanical / rubbing friction
(ii) pumping work friction
(iii) (essential) accessory friction.
All these dissipate part of the indicated Wc.
These definitions: mep = Wc/Vd, the normalized work per cycle.

Wc,b
Efficiencies ηf ,b = = ηm ηf ,i
m f Q HV
Wc,b bmep tfmep

where ηm = = = 1−
Wc,i imep imep
pmep + mfmep + afmep

= 1−
imep
are important.
(i) Processes and Variables:
(a) Indicated performance (gross – excludes the exhaust and intake strokes)
Energy conversion process
compression ratio,
relative A/F,
air-fuel mixture heating value,
180
Combustion process
phasing relative to piston motion (spark timing relative to MBT); combustion

completeness (ηcomb); burn rate (primarily Δθ10–90%)
Heat losses to walls
burned gas temperatures, Tb
wall temperatures, Tw
engine speed, N – affects heat-transfer coefficient.
These affect indicated efficiency and imep. In addition, the chemical energy of the mass in
the cylinder directly affects the indicated output:
Gas exchange process (through pi and Ti – hence ρi; and pe which with pi affects
the residual).
Mass of fuel in cylinder per unit displaced vol.; heating value of fuel (these are
already included at top of page)
(b) Mechanical efficiency
pumping “loop” — exhaust and intake strokes: pi, pe, (Vd cancels out in tfmep),
pmep
mechanical/rubbing friction (piston ring, skirt details, bearings, seals, moving

valve train components) accessory friction (coolant pump, oil pump, fuel pump
(small for PFI engine), fan and generator not usually included but could be).
(c) Brake efficiency and bmep.
These are determined by (a) and (b) above:
ηf ,b = ηm ηf ,i ; bmep = ηm imep.
Engine processes do not directly affect the brake performance: they directly affect the
indicated performance!
181
(ii) Engine improvements: naturally aspirated.
Improvement area approx % light load change in max.

ηf,b bmep.
4 valve per cylinder ~0 10%
variable valve timing 10% 10%
reduced mech. friction (by 10%) 4% 2%
increase rc (from 10 to 11) 2% 2%
then downsize engine (by ~ 20%), 10% —
to keep max output constant
Total +28% +26%
Multiply to get total impact (eg. max bmep 1.1 × 1.1 × 1.02 × 1.02 = 1.26)
On needs to be careful about “double counting” benefits. Especially about changes in
pumping work. These number may be a bit optimistic.
15.11 Start with the diesel: Since rc, ϕ and pi are variables, use Fuel Air Cycle data scaled by
0.85 for actual engine.
Diesel: rc = 16, ϕ = 0.4, pi = 1.5 bar, pe = 1.5 bar, ηm = 0.7
Figs. 5.9 and 5.10 give:
imep
ηf ,i = 0.59, = 6.2
p1
So engine imep
engine compared to FA cycle
imep (gross) = 0.85 × 6.2 × 1.5 bar

= 7.91 bar = 791 kPa
So bmep = ηmimep(g) = 0.7 × 791 = 554 kPa.
and ηf,b = 0.7 × 0.85 × 0.59 = 0.351

tfmep
Friction: ηm = 1 −
imep(g)
tfmep = (1 − 0.7) × 791 = 237 kPa

note since pi = pe, pmep = 0.
182
1 1 1 1
bsfc = ⋅ = × = 0.0659 kg fuel/MJ
ηf ,b Q HV 0.351 43.2
allow for 6% penalty, emission control

kg fuel
bsfc engine = 0.0659 × 1.06 = 0.070
MJ
convert to units of g/kW-hr to check
bsfc = 0.070 × 103 ÷ 103 × 60 × 60

kg MJ s
g / kg
MJ kJ hr
= 251 gfuel / kW-hr − reasonable for part load
CO2:

wt CO2
(12 + 32)
bsCO2 = 0.070 × = 0.223 kgCO2 / MJ
(12
+ 1.8)

wt fuel
Natural Gas Engine:
rc = 12, ϕ = 1.0, pi = 0.8 bar, p exh = 1.05 bar.
Fuel air cycle gives, Figs. 5.9, 5.10

imep(g)
ηf ,ig = 0.485, = 13
p1
So engine imep(g)
nat gas displaces air
= 0.85 × 13 × 0.8 × 0.9 = 8 bar
from diesel calculation
Find ηm: tfmep = 237 kPa + pmep
=237 kPa + 25 kPa = 262 kPa
262
So ηm = 1 − = 0.671
796
So bmep = ηm imep = 0.671 × 796 = 534 kPa
(close to diesel bmep of 554 kPa).
183
Now ηf,b = 0.85 × 0.671 × 0.485 = 0.277
ηm
1 1
So bsfc = × = 0.0803 kg fuel/MJ
0.277 45
QHV nat. gas
We need C:H of natural gas fuel
Composition is 0.9 CH4 + 0.1 C2H6
H 0.9 × 4 + 0.1 × 6
= = 3.8
C 0.9 × 1 + 0.1 × 2
CO2
44
Hence bsCO2 = 0.0803 × = 0.224 kg CO2 / MJ
12 + 3.8
CO 2 nat. gas
Ratio ≈ 1. (It depends on the details.)
CO2 diesel
15.12 (a)
Note: pi(a) < pi(b) ; p1(c) = pi(a) (IVC at end of intake stroke)
pe(a) = patm = p0 = pe(b)
p2(a) = p2(c); p2(b) > p2(a); pmax,3 (a) < pmax,3 (b)
Ideal cycle has adiabatic processes, valves open/close at BC and TC. 4 cylinders in (b) are
less throttled than in (a). The compression/expansion in (c) follow the same pVγ = constant
line.
184
(b) 4 liter engine, 80 N·m torque, find bmep
4π× torque 4π× 80

bmep = = = 251 kPa
Vd 4
For standard 8-cylinder engine operation
imep = bmep + tfmep

N
mfmep + afmep + pmep
So imep = 251 + 120 + (100 − 45) kPa
pe pi
imep = 426.3 kPa
With 4 cylinders firing and 4 cylinders deactivated, the brake torque or work per cycle must
be the same. So
cylinders cylinders cylinders
4 × Wc,i,4 – 8 × Wc,mf – 4 × Wc,p,4

work per cycle per cylinder rubbing friction + access friction
= 8 × Wc,b,8 (all the Wc are per cylinder with Vd = 0.5 liter)
All the Wc per cylinder are proportional to mep
Hence
imep 4 − 2(mfmep + afmep) − (100 kPa − p i,4 )

= 2 × bmep = 2 × 251 = 502 kPa
Use fuel-air cycle results, Fig. 5.10; at rc = 10, ϕ = 1.0, imep/p1 = 12.5
Hence imep4 (engine) = 0.85 × 12.5 × pi
0.85 × 12.5 × pi,4 − 2 × 120 − 100 + pi,4 = 502 kPa
Solve for pi,4 = 72.4 kPa
and imep4 = 0.85 × 12.5 × 72.4 = 770 kPa
185
(c) Find ratio of brake fuel conversion efficiencies
Wc V ⋅ imep
ηf ,i = = d and
m f Q HV m f Q HV
indicated efficiencies of two engines are the same, since rc = 10 and ϕ = 1.
Hence. imep/pi pi
(2 liters × 12.5 × 0.85 × 72.4) (4 liters × 12.5 × 0.85 × 45)

=
m f ,4 × Q HV m f ,8 Q HV
Since the engine’s brake torque is the same for both engines
ηf ,b (4) / ηf ,b (8) = m f (8) / m f (4) = 1.25 Ans.
15.13 (a) Free body diagram for the piston:
πB2 L
Vcyl = ; (L = B), so L = (4Vcyl / π)1/3 , L = 80 mm
4
(b) Maximum inertial and pressure forces:
At θ = 0, acceleration is max (when cos θ and cos 2θ are 1) (see Eq. 2.14)
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1⎞
a p = π2 Sp N ⎜ cos θ + cos 2θ ⎟ = π2 2LN 2 ⎜ 1 + ⎟
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ R⎠
Maximum inertial force is when θ = 0
Finertial = m pa p (max )
= m p 2π2 N 2 L(1 + 1 / R)
So Finertial = 0.57 (kg) × 2π2 × 80 × 10−3 〈1 + 1/3.5〉N2 = 1.16 N2
186
(Be careful with units of N: rev/s)
At 1000 rev/min, Finertial = 1.16 (1000/60)2 = 321 N
6000 rev/min, Finertial = 1.16 (6000/60)2 = 1160 N
Maximum pressure force on piston? Use data from figure in problem statement:
Fp,max = (pcyl,max – pcc)Ap, Ap = (π/4)B2
So Fp,max = (26 − 1) × 105 × (π/4) 0.0802 = 1.3 × 104 N
(this is approximately independent of speed)
(c) Single versus multi-cylinder at same torque: Eq. (2.18) gives
⎡ a ⎛ a2
1/2
⎤
2 ⎞
T = a sin θ[(p − pcc )A p − F − m pa p ] ⎢1 + cos θ / ⎜ 1 − 2 sin θ ⎟ ⎥
⎣ A ⎝ A ⎠ ⎦
(i) Assume the single- and four-cylinder engines have typical geometry ratios (e.g.,
ℓ/a constant)
(ii) Neglect inertia (only important at high speed)
(iii) Pressure vs θ curves are the same (same thermodynamic cycle)
(iv) Neglect any difference in tfmep
Then, bmep (= Wc/Vd) for the two engines will be the same:
bmep = 4πT/Vd; so T ∝ Vd (per cyl)
Thus Tone-cyl/T4-cyl (per cyl.) = Vd,one-cyl/Vd,4-cyl (per cyl)
=4
Ratio of maximum powers:
Need max. speed ratio. “Rule of thumb”: Sp (max), gasoline engine is about 18 m/s
independent of engine size. Sp (max) = 2 LN(max)
Pone-cyl (max) Tone-cyl N one-cyl (max) T one-cyl L 4-cyl

So = ⋅ = ⋅
P4-cyl (max) T4-cyl N 4-cyl (max) T 4-cyl L one-cyl
187
Single cylinder, Vd = 1.6 liter, with B = L,
π 2 π
Vd = B L = L3 ; L one-cyl = (4 Vd / π)1/3
4 4
L one-cyl = (4 × 1.6 × 103 / π) = 12.7 cm ≡ 127 mm
So Pone-cyl (max) / P4-cyl (max) = 80 / 127 = 0.63
The maximum power of the one-cylinder version is only about two-thirds that of the standard
4-cylinder version.
(d) The maximum torques of these two engines were made equal: the difference is in
their maximum rated speeds. The maximum speed (limited by flow choking, see Section
6.2.5) of the smaller size cylinder is higher.
(e) Other benefits of multi-cylinder engines:
– The stroke, therefore engine height, is shorter
– The more frequent and smaller torque pulses (see Fig. 2.4, and Section 1.5)
provide a smoother output.
– Multi-cylinder engines are much better “balanced” (and need to be, due to
their higher rated speed). See Section 15.7.3.
188

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NOTES AND ACKNOWLEDGMENT ........................................................................... iv

CHAPTER 1 - ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION ....................................... 1

CHAPTER 2 - ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS ..................... 6

CHAPTER 3 - THERMOCHEMISTRY OF FUEL-AIR MIXTURES ....................... 21

CHAPTER 4 - PROPERTIES OF WORKING FLUIDS .............................................. 38

CHAPTER 5 - IDEAL MODELS OF ENGINE CYCLES ........................................... 54

CHAPTER 6 - GAS EXCHANGE PROCESSES ......................................................... 80

CHAPTER 7 - MIXTURE PREPARATION IN SI ENGINES..................................... 93

CHAPTER 8 - CHARGE MOTION WITHIN THE CYLINDER .............................. 104

CHAPTER 9 - COMBUSTION IN SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES .......................... 113

CHAPTER 10 - COMBUSTION IN COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES ........... 135

CHAPTER 11 - POLLUTANT FORMATION AND CONTROL ............................... 144

CHAPTER 12 - ENGINE HEAT TRANSFER ............................................................. 155

CHAPTER 13 - ENGINE FRICTION AND LUBRICATION ..................................... 163

CHAPTER 14 - MODELING REAL ENGINE FLOW AND COMBUSTION

CHAPTER 15 - ENGINE OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS ................................. 169

4. A number of the problems ask for estimates of typical or characteristic quantities

ENGINE TYPES AND THEIR OPERATION

1.2 Note: piston accelerating towards crankshaft axis.

2. Spark-ignition of fuel-air Spontaneous ignition of fuel-air

3. Load reduced by throttling air Load reduced by reducing fuel

4. Fuel: gasoline. Volatile, does Fuel: distillate oil. Must ignite

5. Lower compression ratio (~10) Higher compression ratio (15 to

6. Lighter construction since Heavier construction; higher

1. Differences between spark-ignition (SI) engines and diesel engines

Standard automobile SI engine Truck diesel engine

ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS

0.056 < (F/A)S.I. < 0.083

0.014 < (F/A)D < 0.056

From Eq. (2.41)

2.2 (a) Engine in Fig. 1.11 (4-stroke SI engine):

Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.086 × 5300 / 60 = 15.2 m/s

Engine in Fig. 1.13 (4 – stroke SI hybrid engine):

Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.085 × 5000 / 60 = 14.2 m/s

(b) Engine in Fig. 1.31 turbo charged DI diesel,

bore = 135 mm, stroke = 150 mm

Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.150 × 2100 / 60 = 10.5 m/s

High-speed DI diesel engine (Fig. 1.32):

(assume B = L, 2.2-liter 4-cylinder engine: B = L = 89 mm)

Sp = 2LN = 2 × 0.089 × 4500 / 60 = 13.4 m/s

2.3 The power required to move vehicle up hill of slope α is:

Pg = (Mv g sin α)Sv

Now: Sv = 50 mile/h = 22.4 m/s

P = [0.0135 × 1500 × 9.81 + 0.5 × 1.18 × 0.4 × 2 × 22.4 2 +

1500 × 9.81× sin15°] × 22.4 × 10 −3

Note: 90 percent of this power is required for hill climbing.

2.5 Eqs. (2.33a) and (2.10) give:

2.6 Eq. (2.30b) gives:

Fuel QHV (MJ/kg) sfc (mg/J) sfc (g/kW·h)

2.7 (a) mep = Wc / Vd = ηf m f Q HV = ηf ηvρa,i Q HV (F / A)

So, bmep = ηm ηf ,i ηvρa,i Q HV (F / A)

Now, ρa,i = pa,i / (RTa,i )

bmep(kPa)Vd (dm 3 = liters) N(rev/s)

Careful with units (B and L in cm):

12 × 100 6 cyl: N max = 39 rev/s = 2340 rev/min

(c) Use eqn from (a) to find (F/A)

pa,i = 2 atm = 2 × 105 Pa

ηm = 0.9, ηf ,i = 0.42, ηv = 0.9

Q HV = 42 MJ/kg, R air = 8314 / 28 = 297 J/kg K

1200 × 103 × 297 × 325

= 190 − 57 − 14.3 − 60 − 11.4 = 47.3 kW

2.9 (a) Brake fuel conversion efficiency given by

Now tfmep = mfmep + afmep + pmep

f per cycle per cyl