INDEX

TOPICS

 Certificates………………………………………………………
………………………………
 Acknowledgement………………………………………………
…………………………........

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction of the project

………………………………………………………………………

1.2 Project
overview……………………………………………………………
……………………..

1.3 .Thesis………………………………………………………………
………………………………

CHAPTER 2: Tools & EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 Introduction to embedded

systems………………………………………………………………
2.2 Need of embedded
systems…………………………………………………………………
……...

2.3 Explanation of embedded

systems………………………………………………………………...

2.4 Applications of embedded

systems………………………………………………………………

CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Introduction with block

diagram…………………………………………………………………

3.2
Microcontroller…………………………………………………………
………………………….

3.3 Regulated power

supply……………………………………………………………………
……...

3.4 LED indicator…………………..…..…………………….

………………………………………...

3.5
Bluetooth………………………………………………………………
…………………………..

3.6 Relay.
…………………………………………………………………………
…………………
3.7 Dc
motor……………………………………………………………………
……………………
3.8 Solar
panel……………………………………………………………………
……………………

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

4.1 Express
PCB……………………………………………………………………
…………………

4.2 IDE
Compiler………………………………………………………………
…………………….

4.3 Proteus
software…………………………………………………………………
…………………

4.4 Procedural steps for compilation, simulation and

dumping……………………………………..

CHAPTER 5: PROJECT DESCRIPTION

CHAPTER 6: ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES AND
APPLICATIONS

CHAPTER 7: RESULTS, CONCLUSION, FUTURE PROSPECTS

REFERENCES

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1Introduction:
In Modern world, Automation robot is used in many of the fields such
as defense, surveillance, medical field, industries and so on. In this
project, the robot system is used to develop the process of cultivating
agricultural land without the use of man power. The aim of the project
is to reduce the man power, time and increase the productivity rate. The
entire basic automation robot works like weeding, harvesting and so on.
Here the designing systems like plough the land, sowing the seed, and
navigate the vehicle motion are preferred by this autonomous robot
using battery and DC motor. Based on movement of this robot in the
land, the surface makes level with metal sheet, plough the land and drop
the seeds parallel with the help of DC Motor

The device consists of a microcontroller, which is interfaced

with the input and output modules, the controller acts as an intermediate
medium between both of them. So the controller can be termed as a
control unit. The input module is nothing a switch board to which
mobile transmitter is interfaced. When the user presses a switch the data
will be transmitted over Bluetooth transmitter. The data will be received
by the Bluetooth receiver and is fed to controller. The Microcontroller
acts accordingly to program and switches the Relays to which electrical
devices to be operated are connected. The Microcontroller used in the
project is programmed using Embedded ‘C’ language.

Features:
1. Remote controlling of the electrical devices.
2. Any Electrical devices can be controlled.

1.2 Project Overview:

An embedded system is a combination of software

and hardware to perform a dedicated task. Some of the main devices
used in embedded products are Microprocessors and Microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are commonly referred to as
general purpose processors as they simply accept the inputs, process it
and give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts the
data as inputs but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with various
devices, controls the data and thus finally gives the result.

The “Agriculture Robot With Seed, Plough, Pesticide spray

& Level” using PIC16F72 microcontroller is an exclusive project

which is used to switch on/off the electrical devices using mobile

phone.

We can use this project to reduce deaths due current shocks at homes,
industries, fields and also to on/off the devices from any place in the
world.

1.3 Thesis:
 The thesis explains the implementation of “Agriculture Robot
With Seed, Plough, Pesticide spray & Level ” using PIC16F72

microcontroller. The organization of the thesis is explained here with:

Chapter 1 Presents introduction to the overall thesis and the overview

of the project. In the project overview a brief introduction of Bluetooth
and Relay system and its applications are discussed.

Chapter 2 Presents the topic embedded systems. It explains the about

what is embedded systems, need for embedded systems, explanation of
it along with its applications.

Chapter 3 Presents the hardware description. It deals with the block

diagram of the project and explains the purpose of each block. In the
same chapter the explanation of microcontrollers, Bluetooth, power
supplies, Relay are considered.

Chapter 4 Presents the software description. It explains the

implementation of the project using PIC C Compiler software.

Chapter 5 Presents the project description along with Bluetooth

decoder interfacing to microcontroller.

Chapter 6 Presents the advantages, disadvantages and applications of

the project.

Chapter 7 Presents the results, conclusion and future scope of the

project.
CHAPTER 2: TOOLS & EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

2.1 Tools

Drilling:

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole
of circular cross-section in solid materials. The drill bit is a rotary
cutting tool, often multipoint. The bit is pressed against the workpiece
and rotated at rates from hundreds to thousands of revolutions per
minute. This forces the cutting edge against the workpiece, cutting off
chips from what will become the hole being drilled.

Processes:
 Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the
entrance side and the presence of burrs on the exit side (unless they
have been removed). Also, the inside of the hole usually has helical
feed marks.

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece

by creating low residual stresses around the hole opening and a very
thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed material on the newly formed
surface. This causes the workpiece to become more susceptible to
corrosion at the stressed surface. A finish operation may be done to
avoid the corrosion. Zinc plating or any other standard finish operation
of 14 to 20 microns can be done which helps to avoid any sort of
corrosion.

Types of drilling:

 Spot drilling

 Center drilling

 Deep hole drilling

 Micro-drilling

 Vibration Drilling

Drilling in Metal:
 Under normal usage, swarf is carried up and away from the tip of
the drill bit by the fluting of the drill bit. The cutting edges produce
more chips which continue the movement of the chips outwards from
the hole. This is successful until the chips pack too tightly, either
because of deeper than normal holes or insufficient backing off
(removing the drill slightly or totally from the hole while drilling).
Cutting fluid is sometimes used to ease this problem and to prolong the
tool's life by cooling and lubricating the tip and chip flow. Coolant may
be introduced via holes through the drill shank, which is common when
using a gun drill. When cutting aluminum in particular, cutting fluid
helps ensure a smooth and accurate hole while preventing the metal
from grabbing the drill bit in the process of drilling the hole.

For heavy feeds and comparatively deep holes oil-hole drills can
be used, with a lubricant pumped to the drill head through a small hole
in the bit and flowing out along the fluting. A conventional drill press
arrangement can be used in oil-hole drilling, but it is more commonly
seen in automatic drilling machinery in which it is the work piece that
rotates rather than the drill bit.
Fig: 1 High speed steel twist bit drilling into aluminum with methylated
spirits lubricant.

Cut-Off Machine
Handling instructions
GENERAL OPERATIONAL PRECAUTIONS

WARNING! When using electric tools, basic safety precautions should

always be followed to reduce the risk of fire, electric shock and
personal injury, including the following.

Read all these instructions before operating this product and save these
instructions.

For safe operations:

1. Keep work area clean. Cluttered areas and benches invite injuries.

2. Consider work area environment. Do not expose power tools to rain.

Do not use power tools in damp or wet locations. Keep work area
well lit.

Do not use power tools where there is risk to cause fire or explosion.
3. Guard against electric shock. Avoid body contact with earthed or
grounded surfaces (e.g. pipes, radiators, ranges, refrigerators).

4. Keep children away. Do not let visitors touch the tool or extension
cord. All visitors should be kept away from work area.

5. Store idle tools. When not in use, tools should be stored in a dry,
 high or locked up place, out of reach of children.

6. Do not force the tool. It will do the job better and safer at the rate for
which it was intended.

7. Use the right tool. Do not force small tools or attachments to do the
job of a heavy duty tool. Do not use tools for purposes not intended;
for example, do not use circular saw to cut tree limbs or logs.

8. Dress properly. Do not wear loose clothing or jewellery, they can be

caught in moving parts. Rubber gloves and non-skid footwear are
recommended when working outdoors. Wear protecting hair
covering to contain long hair.
9. Use eye protection. Also use face or dust mask if the cutting
operation is dusty.

10. Connect dust extraction equipment.

If devices are provided for the connection of dust extraction and
collection facilities ensure these are connected and properly used.

11. Do not abuse the cord. Never carry the tool by the cord or yank it to
disconnect it from the receptacle. Keep the cord away from heat, oil
and sharp edges.

12. Secure work. Use clamps or a vise to hold the work. It is safer than
 using your hand and it frees both hands to operate tool.

13. Do not overreach. Keep proper footing and balance at all times.

14. Maintain tools with care. Keep cutting tools sharp and clean for
better and safer performance. Follow instructions for lubrication and
changing accessories. Inspect tool cords periodically and if
damaged, have it repaired by authorized service center. Inspect
extension cords periodically and replace, if damaged. Keep handles
dry, clean, and free from oil and grease.

15. Disconnect tools. When not in use, before servicing, and when
changing accessories such as blades, bits and cutters.
16. Remove adjusting keys and wrenches. Form the habit of checking to
see that keys and adjusting wrenches are removed from the tool
before turning it on.

17. Avoid unintentional starting. Do not carry a plugged-in tool with a

finger on the switch. Ensure switch is off when plugging in.

18. Use outdoor extension leads. When tool is used outdoors, use only
extension cords intended for outdoor use.

19. Stay alert. Watch what you are doing. Use common sense. Do not
operate tool when you are tired.
20. Check damaged parts. Before further use of the tool, a guard or
other part that is damaged should be carefully checked to determine
that it will operate properly and perform its intended function.
Check for alignment of moving parts, free running of moving parts,
breakage of parts, mounting and any other conditions that may
affect its operation. A guard or other part that is damaged should be
properly repaired or replaced by an authorized service center unless
otherwise indicated in this handling instructions. Have defective
switches replaced by an authorized service center. Do not use the
tool if the switch does not turn it on and off.

21. Warning
The use of any accessory or attachment, other than those
recommended in this handling instructions, may present a risk of
personal injury.

22. Have your tool repaired by a qualified person. This electric tool is in
accordance with the relevant safety requirements. Repairs should
only be carried out by qualified persons using original spare parts.
Otherwise this may result in considerable danger to the user.

PRECAUTIONS ON USING CUT-OFF MACHINE

1. Before using it, ascertain that the cut-off wheel is not cracked or
split. Always make a trial run before use to confirm that the Cut-off
 Machine does not involve abnormalities.

2. Use the normal cut-off wheel on its normal working surface.

3. Guard against cut-off sparks.
4. Properly replace the cut-off wheel.
5. Always pay attention that the cut-off wheel clamping parts are never
impaired. Defective parts will cause damage to the cut-off wheel.

6. Ensure that the workpiece is free of foreign matter such as nails.

SPECIFICATIONS
(110V, 115V, 120V, (220V, 230V,
Voltage (by areas)* 127V) 240V)

Input 1640W* 2000W*

90 115 mm  130
Max. cutting dimensions ° mm 70 mm  235 mm
45 100
Height  width ° mm  106 mm
No-Load Speed 3800 /min

Max. working peripheral

speed 4800 m/min
Weight 16.5 kg

Be sure to check the nameplate on product as it is subject to change by

areas
STANDARD ACCESSORIES

(1) Cut-off wheel...............................1

(2) Hex. bar wrench...........................1

APPLICATION

Cutting of various metallic materials such as pipes, round bars and

shaped steel.

PRIOR TO OPERATION

1. Power source

Ensure that the power source to be utilized conforms to the power

requirements specified on the product nameplate.

2. Power switch
Ensure that the power switch is in the OFF position. If the plug is
connected to a receptacle while the power switch is in the ON
 position, the power tool will start operating immediately, which
could cause a serious accident.

3. Extension cord
When the work area is removed from the power source, use an
extension cord of sufficient thickness and rated capacity. The
extension cord should be kept as short as practicable.

4. Install the machine on a level flat place, and keep it in a stable

condition. Prior to shipping, the equipment is subjected to a rigid
factory inspection to prevent electric shocks during operation.

5. Since movable portions are secured by tension of a chain while in

transit, remove the chain from the chain hook by slightly depressing
the switch handle.

6. Ascertain that all cut-off wheels are in perfect condition, and do not
display scars and cracks.

7. Although they have been fully clamped at the factory prior to

delivery, reclamp the clamping nuts securely for safety.

8. Possible accidents such as a cracked cut-off wheel is prevented by

this protective cover (wheel cover). Although it has been fully
clamped at the factory prior to delivery, securely reclamp the
 mounting screws for safety.
1. When replacing the cut-off wheel, ensure that the replacement
cutting wheel has a designed circumferential speed in excess of
4800 m/min.

2. Ensure that the bar spanner used for tightening or removing the cut-
off wheel is not attached to the machine.

3. Ensure that the material is securely fastened with the vise. If it is

not, a serious accident could be caused if the material comes loose
or the cut-off wheel breaks during operation.

4. Continued cutting without noticing a cracked or split cut-off wheel

may prove to be very hazardous. Before starting operation, make a
trial run to confirm that no abnormalities are involved.

Trial run periods:

When replacing the cut-off wheel Over 3 minutes. When starting
routine work. Over 1 minute.
13. Rotate the cut-off wheel to inspect any facial deflection. A heavy
deflection will cause the cut-off wheel to shift.

CUTTING PROCEDURES

CAUTION:
It is dangerous to remove or install the workpiece while the cut-off
wheel turning.

1. Operating the switch

The switch is switched on by manually pulling the trigger and cut off
by releasing the trigger to the original location. The switch can
operate continuously, even after releasing the trigger, by pushing the
stopper after pulling the trigger. The stopper can be removed by
pulling the trigger again and the switch is cut off with the release of
the trigger.
2. Cutting
3. Rotate the cut-off wheel, gently press down the handle, and
bring the cut-off wheel close to the cutting material.

4. When the cut-off wheel contacts the cutting material, gently

press down the handle further and start cutting.

5. When cutting (or designated slotting) is completed, raise the

handle and restore it to its original position.
6. At the termination of each cutting process, turn OFF the switch
to stop rotation and proceed with the subsequent cutting job.

CAUTION: It does not necessarily cut rapidly when putting more force
on the handle.
Vise (B)

Work piece material

Too much force on the handle will put excessive pressure on the
motor and reduce its capacity.
Do not fail to switch OFF the switch after operation is completed and
pull the plug out.

MOUNTING AND DISMOUNTING THE CUT-OFF WHEEL

1. Dismounting the cut-off wheel (Fig. 1)

Vise (A)

Clutch

Screw handle

Fig. 2
(1) Press the stopper and loosen the bolt with a hex. bar
wrench.
CAUTION:
Vise (B)Work piece material. When the mounting shaft for cut-off
wheel cannot be

fixed with pressing the stopper, turn the bolt with a

hex. bar wrench while pressing the stopper. The
mounting shaft for cut-off wheel is fixed when the
stopper has been lowered.
(2) Remove the bolt, washer (A), and the wheel washer
and detach the cut-off wheel.

Stopper

Motor

Hex. bar wrench

Cut-off wheel

Fig. 1
2. Mounting the cut-off wheel

Throughly remove dust from the wheel washers and bolt then mount
 the wheel by following the dismounting procedures in reverse order.

CAUTION:
Confirm that the stopper which was used for installation and removal
of the cut-off wheel has returned to the retract position.

HOW TO OPERATE

1. Procedure for fixing the cutting material (Fig. 2 and 3)

Place the workpiece material between vise (A) and vise (B), raise the
clutch and push the screw handle to bring vise (A) lightly into contact
with the workpiece material, as shown in

Then, turn the clutch down, and securely fix the workpiece material
in position by turning the screw handle. When the cutting job is
completed, turn the screw handle 2 or 3 times to loosen the vise, and
remove the workpiece material. CAUTION:
Never remove or install a workpiece material while the cut-off wheel
is rotating, to avoid personal injury.

2. Cutting at angles (Fig. 4 and 5)

(1) The machine permits cutting at angles of 45° or 60°.

(2) Loosen the two M10 hexagon socket head bolts on the vice (B),
then set the working surface on the vice-jaw at any angles of 0°, 30°,
 or 45° as shown in Fig. 5. Upon completion of setting, securely
tighten the two M10 hexagon socket head bolts.

90
°
60° 45°

Fig. 4

3
(3) When wide material is cut with angle, it will be firmly camped
by fixing a steel board like Fig. 6 to the vise

(B).
1. Replacing a cut-off wheel

When the cut-off wheel has already become dull while

continually using, the unnecessary load is got from

Flat hd. screw of more than 6 mm  15

120 45 mm
mm
28 6 mm
mm nuts

Vise (B) 2 - 6.5 mm

2. Inspecting the carbon brushes (Fig. 9)

The motor employs carbon brushes which are
consumable parts. Since an excessively worn carbon
brush can result in motor trouble, replace the carbon
brush with a new one having the same carbon brush
No. shown in the figure when it becomes worn to or
near the “wear limit”. In addition, always keep carbon
brushes clean and ensure that they slide freely within
the brush holders.

3. Moving the stationary vise-jaw

The vise opening is set at the maximum of 170 mm when shipped
from the factory. In case an opening of more than 170 mm is
required, move the vise to the position shown by the chain line after
unscrewing the two bolts. The maximum opening can be set in two
steps 205 mm and 240 mm. When the cutting material is excessively
wide, the vise can be effectively used by repositioning the stationary
side of the vise-jaws.
4. How to use metallic block

When the cut-off wheel has a reduced outer diameter, insert between
the vise (A) and (B) a metallic block slightly smaller than the
dimension of workpiece being cut to use the cut-off wheel
economically.

MAINTENANCE AND INSPECTION

CAUTION:

Be sure to switch off and pull off the plug from the power outlet before
inspection and maintenance.
 44

3. Inspecting the mounting screws

Regularly inspect all mounting screws and ensure that they are
properly tightened. Should any of the screws be loose, retighten them
immediately. Failure to do so could result in serious hazard.

4. Lubrication
Supply oil in the following oil supply points once a month so as to
keep the machine workable for a long time.

Oil supply points

Rotary part of shaft Rotary part of vise Slide
way of vise (A)

5. Cleaning
Wipe off chip and waste adhered to the machine with a cloth or the
like time to time. Be careful not to make the motor portion wet with
oil or water.

6. Service parts list

CAUTION:

Repair, modification and inspection of Hitachi Power Tools must be

 carried out by an Hitachi Authorized Service Center.

This Parts List will be helpful if presented with the tool to the Hitachi
Authorized Service Center when requesting repair or other
maintenance.

In the operation and maintenance of power tools, the safety

regulations and standards prescribed in each country must be
observed.

MODIFICATIONS:
Hitachi Power Tools are constantly being improved and modified to
incorporate the latest technological advancements.

Accordingly, some parts (i.e. code numbers and/or design) may be

changed without prior notice.
ITE
M
PART
NAME
NO
.

4 SUB COVER (A)

5 NUT M5
MACHINE SCREW
(W/WASHERS) M5 1
6  6
FLANGE BOLT
7 (A)

8 COVER SPACER
HEX. SOCKET
HD.BOLT M10 
11 20

12 WASHER (A)
WHEEL WASHER
13 (A)
CUT-OFF WHEEL
14 ASS’Y
MACHINE
16 SCREW M5  12
SPRING WASHER
17 M5

18 COVER BUSH
WHEEL COVER
19 (A)

20 HITACHI LABEL
BOLT WASHER
21 M5
BOLT WASHER
25 M10

26 SPINNDLE ASS’Y
BALL BEARING
27 6306ZZCM

28 BEARING PLATE

29 BALL BEARING
SEAL LOCK HEX.
SOCKET SET SCREW 1
30 M5  6

31 CHAIN HOOK

32 GEAR CASE
 BALL BEARING
33 6002VVCM
RETAINING RING
34 FOR D15 SHAFT
ARMATURE
35 ASS’Y

36 FAN GUIDE

37 BALL BEARING

38 GAUGE SPRING
RETAINING RING (E-
39 TYPE) FOR D6 SHAFT

40 STOPPER PIN

41 TUBE(D)
HEX. HD.
TAPPNG SCREW
42 D5  75

43 STATOR ASS’Y
BRUSH
44 TERMINAL
MACHINE SCREW
(W/WASHERS) M5 3
45  5

46 NAME PLATE

47 HOUSING ASS’Y
HEX. E5SOCKET
48 SET SCREW M5  8

49 BRUSH HOLDER

50 CARBON BRUSH

51 BRUSH CAP

52 SPRING

53 HANDLE

54 SWITCH
TAPPING SCREW
55 (W/FLANGE)

60 HANDLE COVER
TAPPING SCREW 1
61 (W/FLANGE) D4  6

63 TUBE(D)
64 CORD CLIP
TAPPING SCREW 1
65 (W/FLANGE) D4  6

66 CORD ARMOR

67 CORD

68 VISE ASS’Y

69 SCREW

70 SCREW HOLDER
HEX. SOCKET HD.
BOLT (W/WASHERS)
71 M8  25
ITE
M PART
NO NAME
.
72 CHAIN
73 BOLT WASHER M8
74 BOLT
SPLITP
IN D3 1
75  5
WASH
76 ER M16
ROLL
PIN D5 2
77  5
VISE
78 (B)
HINGE
79 SHAFT
BASE
RUBBE
80 R
81 BASE
NUT
82 M8
83 SPRING WASHER M8
SPARK
84 CHUTE
HEX. SOCKET HD. BOLT M8
85  20

Arc-Welding

Introduction
Arc welding is the fusion of two pieces of metal by an electric arc between the pieces being joined – the
work pieces – and an electrode that is guided along the joint between the pieces. The electrode is either a rod
that simply carries current between the tip and the work, or a rod or wire that melts and supplies filler metal
to the joint.

The basic arc welding circuit is an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) power source connected
by a “work” cable to the work piece and by a “hot” cable to an electrode. When the electrode is positioned
close to the work piece, an arc is created across the gap between the metal and the hot cable electrode. An
ionized column of gas develops to complete the circuit.

Basic Welding Circuit

The arc produces a temperature of about 3600°C at the tip and melts part of the metal being welded and part
of the electrode. This produces a pool of molten metal that cools and solidifies behind the electrode as it is
moved along the joint.

There are two types of electrodes. Consumable electrode tips melt, and molten metal droplets detach and
mix into the weld pool. Non-consumable electrodes do not melt. Instead, filler metal is melted into the joint
from a separate rod or wire.

The strength of the weld is reduced when metals at high temperatures react with oxygen and nitrogen in the
air to form oxides and nitrides. Most arc welding processes minimize contact between the molten metal and
the air with a shield of gas, vapour or slag. Granular flux, for example, adds deoxidizers that create a shield
to protect the molten pool, thus improving the weld.
Advances in Welding Power Source Design and Efficiency

The electricity-consuming device – the key component of the arc welding apparatus – is the power source.
Electrical consumption from the approximately 110 000 to 130 000 arc welding machines in use in Canada
is estimated at 100 GWh a year.

In the past, power sources used transformer-rectifier equipment with large step-down transformers that
made them heavy and prone to overheating. They can be used for only one function, i.e., one type of
welding. In the 1990s, advances in power switching semiconductors led to the development of inverter
power sources that are multi-functional, lighter, more flexible and that provide a superior arc.

Welding power sources use electricity when welding (arc -on) and when idling. Earlier transformer-rectifier
equipment had energy conversion efficiencies that ranged from 40 to 60 percent and required idling power
consumption of 2 to 5 kW. Modern inverter power sources have energy conversion efficiencies near 90
percent, with idling power consumption in the order of 0.1 kW.

Modern inverter power sources are gradually replacing transformer-rectifier units. They combine a quick
return on investment, and, compared with transformer-rectifier units, are far more portable and easier to
operate, are multi-functional rather than mono-functional, create superior arcs and combine higher-quality
welds with longer arc-on time.
 The Five Most Common Arc Welding Processes

Popularit
Process Known Electrodes Shielding Operator y
as skill
required
Rigid Diminishin
Shielded SMAW metal Stick Low g
metal arc or stick coatings
welding
Gas metal arc GMAW Solid wire CO2 gas Low Growing
welding or MIG
Hollow
Flux core arc FCAW wire Core Low Growing
welding or MIG materials
Gas tungsten GTAW Tungsten Argon gas High Steady
arc welding or TIG
Submerged SAW Solid wire Argon gas High Steady
arc welding

Power sources produce DC with the electrode either positive or negative, or AC. The choice of current and
polarity depends on the process, the type of electrode, the arc atmosphere and the metal being welded.

Energy Efficiency of the Power Source

• Modern inverter power sources have high energy-conversion efficiencies and can be 50 percent more
efficient than transformer-rectifier power sources.

16. Modern inverter power sources for idling power requirements are 1/20th of conventional
transformer-rectifier power sources.
17. Modern inverter power sources have power factors that are close to 100 percent; transformer-rectifier
power source percentages are much lower, which reduces electricity consumption.
18. Modern inverter power sources are four times lighter and much smaller than transformer-rectifier
power sources. They are thus more portable and can be moved by one person instead of four, making
it possible to bring the welding equipment to the job, not vice versa.
 19. Modern inverter power sources are multi-functional and can be used for GMAW, FCAW, SMAW
and GTAW.

How Much Will I Save?

Assumptions
Work time Two shifts of eight hours for 250 days
a year (4000 hours)
Operating
factor 40 percent
Arc-on time 1600 hours per year
Idling time 2400 hours per year
Cost per kWh $0.12
Welding
process SMAW (Shielded metal arc welding)
Output power 300 amps at 32 volts – 9.6 kW
Inverter-Based Power Source Transformer-Rectifier Power
Source
Weight: 34 kg Weight: 126 kg
Energy conversion efficiency: Energy conversion efficiency:
78.7% 51.6%
Arc-on power: 10.4 Arc-on power: 18.6
kW kW
Idling power: 0.87
Idling power: 0.06 kW kW
Operating Electricity
Cost Operating Electricity Cost
Welding time $1,996.80 Welding time $3,571.20
Idling time $16.42 Idling time $250.56
 Annual Annual
electricity $2,013.22 electricity $3,821.76
cost cost
Annual
electricity $1,808.54
saving

Investment Investment
Purchase price $5,609 Purchase price $4,428
Price difference $1,181
8
Payback period months

The break-even point for investment in an inverter power source equipment occurs approximately eight
months after purchase. From then on, annual energy costs will remain lower.

Purchasing Tips

Find the lowest-powered inverter power source that is most appropriate to your application.

23. If you need process flexibility, choose multi-process equipment.

24. Look for a power factor of 99 percent or higher.

25. Look for an energy conversion efficiency (kVA out over kVA in) near 80 percent.

26. Look for idling power consumption of less than 0.1 kW.

27. Buy from a reliable supplier who provides field maintenance and at least a two-year, all-parts
warranty.

28. Check manufacturers' Web sites for warranty information.

29. Shop for competitive prices.

Operation Tips
Arc welding requires an operator and a power source. Both the operator and the equipment have roles to
play in making the welding process more energy efficient.

Some Important Definitions

Arc-on time: When the welder holds an arc between the electrode and the work piece Idling
time: When welding equipment is ready for use but is not generating an arc
Operating factor: The ratio of arc-on time to the total time worked, often expressed as a percentage:

Work time: Convention is to assume total annual work time of 4000 hours (two shifts).

Power Efficiency

Welding power sources draw power when idling. Efficiency is greater when idling is reduced and the
operating factor is close to 100 percent. The higher the operating factor, the more efficient the process. The
following are ways to improve efficiency:

7. Use the most efficient welding process. Use gas metal arc welding (GMAW) instead of shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW). Typically, operating factors for SMAW fall between 10 to 30 percent;
operating factors for GMAW fall between 30 to 50 percent.

8. Use multi-process inverter power sources. Modern inverter power sources can be used for several
welding processes and save time and effort when switching processes. For example, the Miller XTM
304 can be used for GMAW, FCAW, SMAW and GTAW.
9. Automate when possible. Manage repetitive operations by applying advances in automation and
computer programming.

• Reduce idling time. Cut the time spent on pre-welding tasks such as assembly, positioning, tacking
and cleaning, and on follow-up operations, such as slag removal and defect repair. Position the
work to allow down-hand welding. Experience has shown that down-hand (vertical high to low)
welding is faster, easier on the operator and more error-free than other techniques.
 • Train the welder. Well-trained welders work better and faster and are usually conscious of energy
savings opportunities.

Power Source Performance

Certain characteristics determine the energy efficiency of power sources:

9. Power factor: Power factor is the ratio of “real” electrical power made available by the welding
power source for producing a welding arc (the power you can use) to the "apparent" electrical power
supplied by the utility (the power you pay for). The older technology of transformer-rectifier power
sources can have power factors in the order of 75 percent; modern inverter power sources have
power factors close to 100 percent.

10. Arc-on power and idling power: Transformer-rectifier power sources use more power in arc-on
and idling modes than modern inverter power sources do with the same output.

The following table shows that the average annual electrical energy required by a typical transformer-
rectifier source is five to nine times the energy required by an inverter power source for the same job. In
other words, the inverter source uses only 10 to 20 percent of the power needed by a transformer-rectifier
source.

Power Process Apparent Apparent Operating Annual

Source Arc-On Idling Factor Energy
Power Power (OF) Required
(kW) (kW) (kWh)
Transformer SMAW 10.26 4.86 10% 18 600
– rectifier (stick) 10.26 4.86 30% 25 920
Inverter SMAW 3.91 0.12 10% 1 996
(stick) 3.91 0.12 30% 5 028

To compare the performance of power sources use the following formula:

The kVA input and output values for power sources at rated outputs can be found in manufacturers'
equipment data sheets.

COMMON ELECTRIC ARC WELDING PROCESSES

Shielded metal arc welding:

Shielded Metal Arc Welding, also known as manual metal arc welding, stick welding, or electric arc
welding, is the most widely used of the various arc welding processes. Welding is performed with the heat
of an electric arc that is maintained between the end of a coated metal electrode and the work piece (See
Figure below).
The heat produced by the arc melts the base metal, the electrode core rod, and the coating. As the molten
metal droplets are transferred across the arc and into the molten weld puddle, they are shielded from the
atmosphere by the gases produced from the decomposition of the flux coating. The molten slag floats to the
top of the weld puddle where it protects the weld metal from the atmosphere during solidification.

Other functions of the coating are to provide arc stability and control bead shape. More information on
coating functions will be covered in subsequent lessons.

Equipment & Operation - One reason for the wide acceptance of the SMAW process is the simplicity of
the necessary equipment. The equipment consists of the following items. (See Figure below)

5. Welding power source

6. Electrode holder
7. Ground clamp
8. Welding cables and connectors
9. Accessory equipment (chipping hammer, wire brush)
10. Protective equipment (helmet, gloves, etc.)

Welding Power Sources - Shielded metal arc welding may utilize either alternating current (AC) or direct
current (DC), but in either case, the power source selected must be of the constant current type. This type of
power source will deliver a relatively constant amperage or welding current regardless of arc length
variations by the operator. The amperage determines the amount of heat at the arc and since it will remain
relatively constant, the weld beads produced will be uniform in size and shape. Whether to use an AC, DC,
or AC/DC power source depends on the type of welding to be done and the electrodes used. The following
factors should be considered:
Electrode Selection - Using a DC power source allows the use of a greater range of electrode types. While
most of the electrodes are designed to be used on AC or DC, some will work properly only on DC.

Metal Thickness - DC power sources may be used for welding both heavy sections and light gauge work.
Sheet metal is more easily welded with DC because it is easier to strike and maintain the DC arc at low
currents.

Distance from Work - If the distance from the work to the power source is great, AC is the best choice
since the voltage drop through the cables is lower than with DC. Even though welding cables are made of
copper or aluminum (both good conductors), the resistance in the cables becomes greater as the cable length
increases. In other words, a voltage reading taken between the electrode and the work will be somewhat
lower than a reading taken at the output terminals of the power source. This is known as voltage drop.

Welding Position - Because DC may be operated at lower welding currents, it is more suitable for overhead
and vertical welding than AC. AC can successfully be used for out-of-position work if proper electrodes are
selected.

Arc Blow - When welding with DC, magnetic fields are set up throughout the weldment. In weldments that
have varying thickness and protrusions, this magnetic field can affect the arc by making it stray or fluctuate
in direction. This condition is especially troublesome when welding in corners. AC seldom causes this
problem because of the rapidly reversing magnetic field produced. Combination power sources that produce
both AC and DC are available and provide the versatility necessary to select the proper welding current for
the application. When using a DC power source, the question of whether to use electrode negative or
positive polarity arises. Some electrodes operate on both DC straight and reverse polarity, and others on DC
negative or DC positive polarity only. Direct current flows in one direction in an electrical circuit and the
direction of current flow and the composition of the electrode coating will have a definite effect on the
welding arc and weld bead.

Figure below shows the connections and effects of straight and reverse polarity.
While polarity affects the penetration and burn-off rate, the electrode coating also has a strong influence on
arc characteristics. Performance of individual electrodes will be discussed in succeeding lessons.

Electrode Holder - The electrode holder connects to the welding cable and con- ducts the welding current
to the electrode. The insulated handle is used to guide the electrode over the weld joint and feed the
electrode over the weld joint and feed the electrode into the weld puddle as it is consumed. Electrode
holders are available in different sizes and are rated on their current carrying capacity.

Ground Clamp - The ground clamp is used to connect the ground cable to the work piece. It may be
connected directly to the work or to the table or fixture upon which the work is positioned. Being a part of
the welding circuit, the ground clamp must be capable of carrying the welding current without overheating
due to electrical resistance.

Welding Cables - The electrode cable and the ground cable are important parts of the welding circuit. They
must be very flexible and have a tough heat-resistant insulation. Connections at the electrode holder, the
ground clamp, and at the power source lugs must be soldered or well crimped to assure low electrical
resistance. The cross-sectional area of the cable must be sufficient size to carry the welding current with a
minimum of voltage drop. Increasing the cable length necessitates increasing the cable diameter to lessen
resistance and voltage drop.

Coated Electrodes - Various types of coated electrodes are used in shielded metal arc welding. Electrodes
used for welding mild or carbon steels are quite different than those used for welding the low alloys and
stainless steels. Details on the specific types will be covered in subsequent lessons.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding is a welding process performed using the heat of an arc established between a
nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the work piece.
The electrode, the arc, and the area surrounding the molten weld puddle are protected from the atmosphere
by an inert gas shield. The electrode is not consumed in the weld puddle as in shielded metal arc welding. If
a filler metal is necessary, it is added to the leading the molten puddle. Gas tungsten arc welding produces
exceptionally clean welds no slag is produced, the chance inclusions in the weld metal is and the finished
weld requires virtually no cleaning. Argon and Helium, the primary shielding gases employed, are inert
gases. Inert gases do not chemically combine with other elements and therefore, are used to exclude the
reactive gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen, from forming compounds that could be detrimental to the weld
metal. Gas tungsten arc welding may be used for welding almost all metals — mild steel, low alloys,
stainless steel, copper and copper alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, nickel and nickel alloys,
magnesium and magnesium alloys, titanium, and others. This process is most extensively used for welding
aluminum and stainless steel alloys where weld integrity is of the utmost importance. Another use is for the
root pass (initial pass) in pipe welding, which requires a weld of the highest quality. Full penetration without
an excessively high inside bead is important in the root pass, and due to the ease of current control of this
process, it lends itself to control of back-bead size. For high quality welds, it is usually necessary to provide
an inert shielding gas inside the pipe to prevent oxidation of the inside weld bead.

Gas tungsten arc welding lends itself to both manual and automatic operation. In manual operation, the
welder holds the torch in one hand and directs the arc into the weld joint. The filler metal is fed manually
into the leading edge of the puddle. In automatic applications, the torch may be automatically moved over a
stationary work piece or the torch may be stationary with the work moved or rotated in relation to the torch.
Filler metal, if required, is also fed automatically.

Equipment and Operation - Gas tungsten arc welding may be accomplished with relatively simple
equipment, or it may require some highly sophisticated components. Choice of equipment depends upon the
type of metal being joined, the position of the weld being made, and the quality of the weld metal necessary
for the application. The basic equipment consists of the following:

14. The power source

15. Electrode holder (torch)

16. Shielding gas
17. Tungsten electrode
18. Water supply when necessary
19. Ground cable
20. Protective equipment
Power Sources - Both AC and DC power sources are used in gas tungsten arc welding. They are the
constant current type with a drooping volt-ampere curve. This type of power source produces very slight
changes in the arc current when the arc length (voltage) is varied.

The choice between an AC or DC welder depends on the type and thickness of the metal to be welded.
Distinct differences exist between AC and DC arc characteristics, and if DC is chosen, the polarity also
becomes an important factor. The effects of polarity in GTAW are directly opposite the effects of polarity in
SMAW. In SMAW, the distribution of heat between the electrode and work, which determines the
penetration and weld bead width, is controlled mainly by the ingredients in the flux coating on the electrode.
In GTAW where no flux coating exists, heat distribution between the electrode and the work is controlled
solely by the polarity. The choice of the proper welding current will be better understood by analyzing each
type separately.

Direct current electrode negative (DCEN) is produced when the electrode is connected to the negative
terminal of the power source. Since the electrons flow from the electrode to the plate, approximately 70% of
the heat of the arc is concentrated at the work, and approximately 30% at the electrode end. This allows the
use of smaller tungsten elec- trodes that produce a relatively narrow concentrated arc. The weld shape has
deep penetra- tion and is quite narrow. Direct current electrode negative is suitable for weld- ing most
metals. Magnesium and aluminum have a refractory oxide coating on the surface that must be physically
removed immediately prior to welding if DCSP is to be used.

Direct current electrode positive (DCEP) is produced when the electrode is connected to the positive
terminal of the welding power source. In this condition, the electrons flow from the work to the electrode
tip, concentrating approximately 70% of the heat of the arc at the electrode and 30% at the work. This higher
heat at the electrode necessitates using larger diameter tungsten to prevent it from melting and
contaminating the weld metal. Since the electrode diameter is larger and the heat is less concentrated at the
work, the resultant weld bead is relatively wide and shallow.
Direct current electrode positive is rarely used in gas -tungsten arc welding. Despite the excellent
oxide cleaning action, the lower heat input in the weld area makes it a slow process, and in
metals having higher thermal conductivity, the heat is rapidly conducted away from the weld
zone. When used, DCEP is restricted to welding thin sections (under 1/8") of magnesium and
aluminum.

Alternating current is actually a combination of DCEN and DCEP and is widely used for
welding aluminum. In a sense, the advantages of both DC processes are combined, and the weld
bead produced is a compromise of the two. Remember that when welding with 60 Hz current,
the electron flow from the electrode tip to the work reverses direction 120 times every second.
Thereby, the intense heat alternates from electrode to work piece, allowing the use of an
intermediate size electrode. The weld bead is a compromise having medium penetration and
bead width. The gas ions blast the oxides from the surface of aluminum and magnesium during
the positive half cycle.

DC constant current power sources - Constant current power sources, used for shielded metal
arc welding, may also be used for gas-tungsten arc welding. In applications where weld integrity
is not of utmost importance, these power sources will suffice. With machines of this type, the arc
must be initiated by touching the tungsten electrode to the work and quickly withdrawing it to
maintain the proper arc length. This starting method contaminates the electrode and blunts the
point which has been grounded on the electrode end. These conditions can cause weld metal
inclusions and poor arc direction. Using a power source designed for gas tungsten arc welding
with a high frequency stabilizer will eliminate this problem. The electrode need not be touched to
the work for arc initiation. Instead, the high frequency voltage, at very low current, is
superimposed onto the welding current. When the electrode is brought to within approximately
1/8 inch of the base metal, the high frequency ionizes the gas path, making it conductive and a
welding arc is established. The high frequency is automatically turned off immediately after arc
initiation when using direct current.

AC Constant Current Power Source - Designed for gas tungsten arc welding, always
incorporates high frequency, and it is turned on throughout the weld cycle to maintain a stable
arc. When welding with AC, the current passes through 0 twice in every cycle and the must be
reestablished each time it does so. The oxide coating on metals, such as aluminum and
magnesium, can act much like a rectifier.. The positive half-cycle will be eliminated if the arc
does not reignite, causing an unstable condition. Continuous high frequency maintains an
ionized path for the welding arc, and assures arc re- ignition each time the current changes
direction. AC is extensively used for welding aluminum and magnesium.

AC/DC Constant Current Power Sources - Designed for gas tungsten arc welding, are
available, and can be used for welding practically all metals. The gas tungsten arc welding
process is usually chosen because of the high quality welds it can produce. The metals that are
commonly welded with this process, such as stainless steel, aluminum and some of the more
exotic metals, cost many times the price of mild steel; and therefore, the power sources designed
for this process have many desirable features to insure high quality welds. Among these are:

3. Remote current control, which allows the operator to control welding amperage with a
hand control on the torch, or a foot control at the welding station.

4. Automatic soft-start, which prevents a high current surge when the arc is initiated.

5. Shielding gas and cooling water solenoid valves, which automatically control flow
before, during and for an adjustable length of time after the weld is completed.

6. Spot-weld timers, which automatically control all elements during each spot-weld cycle.
Other options and accessories are also available.

Power sources for automatic welding with complete programmable output are also available.
Such units are used extensively for the automatic welding of pipe in position. The welding
current is automatically varied as the torch travels around the pipe. Some units provide a pulsed
welding current where the amperage is automatically varied between a low and high several
times per second. This produces welds with good penetration and improved weld bead shape.

Torches - The torch is actually an electrode holder that supplies welding current to the tungsten
electrode, and an inert gas shield to the arc zone. The electrode is held in a collet-like clamping
device that allows adjustment so that the proper length of electrode pro- trudes beyond the
shielding gas cup. Manual torches are designed to accept electrodes of 3 inch or 7 inch lengths.
Torches may be either air or water-cooled. The air-cooled types actually are cooled to a degree
by the shielding gas that is fed to the torch head through a compos- ite cable. The gas actually
surrounds the copper welding cable, affording some degree of cooling. Water-cooled torches are
usually used for applications where the welding current exceeds 200 amperes. The water inlet
hose is connected to the torch head. Circulating around the torch head, the water leaves the torch
via the current-in hose and cable assembly. Cooling the welding cable in this manner allows the
use of a smaller diameter cable that is more flexible and lighter in weight.

The gas nozzles are made of ceramic materials and are available in various sizes and shapes. In
some heavy duty, high current applications, metal water-cooled nozzles are used.

A switch on the torch is used to energize the electrode with welding current and start the
shielding gas flow. High frequency current and water flow are also initiated by this switch if the
power source is so equipped. In many installations, these functions are initiated by a foot control
that also is capable of controlling the welding current. This method gives the operator full
control of the arc. The usual welding method is to start the arc at a low current, gradually
increase the current until a molten pool is achieved, and welding begins. At the end of the weld,
current is slowly decreases and the arc extinguished, preventing the crater that forms at the end
of the weld when the arc is broken abruptly.

Shielding Gases - Argon and helium are the major shielding gases used in gas tungsten arc
welding. In some applications, mixtures of the two gases prove advantageous. To a lesser extent,
hydrogen is mixed with argon or helium for special applications.

Argon and helium are colorless, odorless, tasteless and nontoxic gases. Both are inert gases,
which means that they do not readily combine with other elements. They will not burn nor
support combustion. Commercial grades used for welding are 99.99% pure. Argon is .38%
heavier than air and about 10 times heavier than helium. Both gases ionize when present in an
electric arc. This means that the gas atoms lose some of their electrons that have a negative
charge. These unbalanced gas atoms, properly called positive ions, now have a positive charge
and are attracted to the negative pole in the arc. When the arc is positive and the work is
negative, these positive ions impinge upon the work and remove surface oxides or scale in the
weld area.

Argon is most commonly used of the shielding gases. Excellent arc starting and ease of use make
it most desirable for manual welding. Argon produces a better cleaning action when welding
aluminum and magnesium with alternating current. The arc produced is relatively narrow. Argon
is more suitable for welding thinner material. At equal amperage, helium produces a higher arc
voltage than argon. Since welding heat is the product of volts times amperes, helium produces
more available heat at the arc. This makes it more suitable for welding heavy sections of metal
that have high heat conductivity, or for automatic welding operations where higher welding
speeds are required.

Argon-helium gas mixtures are used in applications where higher heat input and the desirable
characteristics of argon are required. Argon, being a relatively heavy gas, blankets the weld area
at lower flow rates. Argon is preferred for many applications because it costs less than helium.
Helium, being approximately 10 times lighter than argon, requires flow rates of 2 to 3 times that
of argon to satisfactorily shield the arc.

Electrodes - Electrodes for gas tungsten arc welding are available in diameters from .010" to
1/4" in diameter and standard lengths range from 3" to 24". The most commonly used sizes,
however, are the .040", 1/16", 3/32", and 1/8" diameters.

The shape of the tip of the electrode is an important factor in gas tungsten arc welding. When
welding with DCEN, the tip must be ground to a point. The included angle at which the tip is
ground varies with the application, the electrode diameter, and the welding current. Narrow
joints require a relatively small included angle. When welding very thin material at low currents,
a needlelike point ground onto the smallest available electrode may be necessary to stabilize the
arc. Properly ground electrodes will assure easy arc starting, good arc stability, and proper bead
width.

When welding with AC, grinding the electrode tip is not necessary. When proper welding
current is used, the electrode will form a hemispherical end. If the proper welding current is
exceeded, the end will become bulbous in shape and possibly melt off to contaminate the weld
metal.

The American Welding Society has published Specification AWS A5.12-80 for tungsten arc
welding electrodes that classifies the electrodes on the basis of their chemical composition, size
and finish. Briefly, the types specified are listed below:

7. Pure Tungsten (AWS EWP) Color Code: Green Used for less critical applications. The
cost is low and they give good results at relatively low currents on a variety of metals.
Most stable arc when used on AC, either balanced wave or continuous high frequency.

8. 1% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-1) Color Code: Yellow Good current carrying
capacity, easy arc starting and provide a stable arc. Less susceptible to contamination.
Designed for DC applications of nonferrous materials.
3. 2% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-2) Color Code: Red Longer life than 1% Thoriated
electrodes. Maintain the pointed end longer, used for light gauge critical welds in aircraft work.
Like 1%, designed for DC applications for nonferrous materials.

4. 5% Thoriated Tungsten (AWS EWTh-3) Color Code: Blue Sometimes called "striped"
electrode because it has 1.0-2.0% Thoria inserted in a wedge-shaped groove throughout its
length. Combines the good properties of pure and thoriated electrodes. Can be used on either AC
or DC applications.

5. Zirconia Tungsten (AWS EWZr) Color Code: Brown Longer life than pure tungsten.
Better performance when welding with AC. Melts more easily than thoriam-tungsten when
forming rounded or tapered tungsten end. Ideal for applications where tungsten contamination
must be minimized.

2.2 Embedded Systems:

 An embedded system is a computer system designed to perform one or a few
dedicated functions often with real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a
complete device often including hardware and mechanical parts. By contrast, a general-purpose
computer, such as a personal computer (PC), is designed to be flexible and to meet a wide range
of end-user needs. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.

Embedded systems are controlled by one or more main processing cores that are
typically either microcontrollers or digital signal processors (DSP). The key characteristic,
however, is being dedicated to handle a particular task, which may require very powerful
processors. For example, air traffic control systems may usefully be viewed as embedded, even
though they involve mainframe computers and dedicated regional and national networks between
airports and radar sites. (Each radar probably includes one or more embedded systems of its
own.)

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers can
optimize it to reduce the size and cost of the product and increase the reliability and
performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from economies of scale.

Physically embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital watches
and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory controllers, or the
systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from low, with a single
microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and networks mounted inside a
large chassis or enclosure.

In general, "embedded system" is not a strictly definable term, as most systems

have some element of extensibility or programmability. For example, handheld computers share
some elements with embedded systems such as the operating systems and microprocessors which
power them, but they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected.
Moreover, even systems which don't expose programmability as a primary feature generally need
to support software updates. On a continuum from "general purpose" to "embedded", large
application systems will have subcomponents at most points even if the system as a whole is
"designed to perform one or a few dedicated functions", and is thus appropriate to call
"embedded". A modern example of embedded system is shown in fig: 2.1.
 Fig 2.1:A modern example of embedded system

Labeled parts include microprocessor (4), RAM (6), flash memory (7).Embedded
systems programming is not like normal PC programming. In many ways, programming for an
embedded system is like programming PC 15 years ago. The hardware for the system is usually
chosen to make the device as cheap as possible. Spending an extra dollar a unit in order to make
things easier to program can cost millions. Hiring a programmer for an extra month is cheap in
comparison. This means the programmer must make do with slow processors and low memory,
while at the same time battling a need for efficiency not seen in most PC applications. Below is a
list of issues specific to the embedded field.

2.1.1 History:

In the earliest years of computers in the 1930–40s, computers were sometimes

dedicated to a single task, but were far too large and expensive for most kinds of tasks performed
by embedded computers of today. Over time however, the concept of programmable controllers
evolved from traditional electromechanical sequencers, via solid state devices, to the use of
computer technology.

One of the first recognizably modern embedded systems was the Apollo Guidance
Computer, developed by Charles Stark Draper at the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory. At the
project's inception, the Apollo guidance computer was considered the riskiest item in the Apollo
project as it employed the then newly developed monolithic integrated circuits to reduce the size
and weight. An early mass-produced embedded system was the Automatics’ D-17 guidance
computer for the Minuteman missile, released in 1961. It was built from transistor logic and had
a hard disk for main memory. When the Minuteman II went into production in 1966, the D-17
was replaced with a new computer that was the first high-volume use of integrated circuits.

2.1.2 Tools:

Embedded development makes up a small fraction of total programming. There's

also a large number of embedded architectures, unlike the PC world where 1 instruction set rules,
and the Unix world where there's only 3 or 4 major ones. This means that the tools are more
expensive. It also means that they're lowering featured, and less developed. On a major
embedded project, at some point you will almost always find a compiler bug of some sort.
Debugging tools are another issue. Since you can't always run general programs
on your embedded processor, you can't always run a debugger on it. This makes fixing your
program difficult. Special hardware such as JTAG ports can overcome this issue in part.
However, if you stop on a breakpoint when your system is controlling real world hardware (such
as a motor), permanent equipment damage can occur. As a result, people doing embedded
programming quickly become masters at using serial IO channels and error message style
debugging.

2.1.3 Resources:

To save costs, embedded systems frequently have the cheapest processors that can
do the job. This means your programs need to be written as efficiently as possible. When dealing
with large data sets, issues like memory cache misses that never matter in PC programming can
hurt you. Luckily, this won't happen too often- use reasonably efficient algorithms to start, and
optimize only when necessary. Of course, normal profilers won't work well, due to the same
reason debuggers don't work well.
Memory is also an issue. For the same cost savings reasons, embedded systems
usually have the least memory they can get away with. That means their algorithms must be
memory efficient (unlike in PC programs, you will frequently sacrifice processor time for
memory, rather than the reverse). It also means you can't afford to leak memory. Embedded
applications generally use deterministic memory techniques and avoid the default "new" and
"malloc" functions, so that leaks can be found and eliminated more easily. Other resources
programmers expect may not even exist. For example, most embedded processors do not have
hardware FPUs (Floating-Point Processing Unit). These resources either need to be emulated in
software, or avoided altogether.
2.1.4 Real Time Issues:

Embedded systems frequently control hardware, and must be able to respond to

them in real time. Failure to do so could cause inaccuracy in measurements, or even damage
hardware such as motors. This is made even more difficult by the lack of resources available.
Almost all embedded systems need to be able to prioritize some tasks over others, and to be able
to put off/skip low priority tasks such as UI in favor of high priority tasks like hardware control.

2.2 Need For Embedded Systems:

The uses of embedded systems are virtually limitless, because every day new
products are introduced to the market that utilizes embedded computers in novel ways. In recent
years, hardware such as microprocessors, microcontrollers, and FPGA chips have become much
cheaper. So when implementing a new form of control, it's wiser to just buy the generic chip and
write your own custom software for it. Producing a custom-made chip to handle a particular task
or set of tasks costs far more time and money. Many embedded computers even come with
extensive libraries, so that "writing your own software" becomes a very trivial task indeed. From
an implementation viewpoint, there is a major difference between a computer and an embedded
system. Embedded systems are often required to provide Real-Time response. The main
elements that make embedded systems unique are its reliability and ease in debugging.
2.2.1 Debugging:

Embedded debugging may be performed at different levels, depending on the

facilities available. From simplest to most sophisticate they can be roughly grouped into the
following areas:
 Interactive resident debugging, using the simple shell provided by the embedded
operating system (e.g. Forth and Basic)
  External debugging using logging or serial port output to trace operation using either a
monitor in flash or using a debug server like the Remedy Debugger which even works for
heterogeneous multi core systems.
 An in-circuit debugger (ICD), a hardware device that connects to the microprocessor via
a JTAG or Nexus interface. This allows the operation of the microprocessor to be
controlled externally, but is typically restricted to specific debugging capabilities in the
processor.
 An in-circuit emulator replaces the microprocessor with a simulated equivalent,
providing full control over all aspects of the microprocessor.
 A complete emulator provides a simulation of all aspects of the hardware, allowing all of
it to be controlled and modified and allowing debugging on a normal PC.
 Unless restricted to external debugging, the programmer can typically load and run
software through the tools, view the code running in the processor, and start or stop its
operation. The view of the code may be as assembly code or source-code.
Because an embedded system is often composed of a wide variety of elements,
the debugging strategy may vary. For instance, debugging a software(and microprocessor)
centric embedded system is different from debugging an embedded system where most of the
processing is performed by peripherals (DSP, FPGA, co-processor). An increasing number of
embedded systems today use more than one single processor core. A common problem with
multi-core development is the proper synchronization of software execution. In such a case, the
embedded system design may wish to check the data traffic on the busses between the processor
cores, which requires very low-level debugging, at signal/bus level, with a logic analyzer, for
instance.
2.2.2 Reliability:

Embedded systems often reside in machines that are expected to run continuously
for years without errors and in some cases recover by themselves if an error occurs. Therefore
the software is usually developed and tested more carefully than that for personal computers, and
unreliable mechanical moving parts such as disk drives, switches or buttons are avoided.
Specific reliability issues may include:
 The system cannot safely be shut down for repair, or it is too inaccessible to repair.
Examples include space systems, undersea cables, navigational beacons, bore-hole
systems, and automobiles.
  The system must be kept running for safety reasons. "Limp modes" are less tolerable.
Often backups are selected by an operator. Examples include aircraft navigation, reactor
control systems, safety-critical chemical factory controls, train signals, engines on single-
engine aircraft.
 The system will lose large amounts of money when shut down: Telephone switches,
factory controls, bridge and elevator controls, funds transfer and market making,
automated sales and service.
A variety of techniques are used, sometimes in combination, to recover from
errors—both software bugs such as memory leaks, and also soft errors in the hardware:
 Watchdog timer that resets the computer unless the software periodically notifies the
watchdog
 Subsystems with redundant spares that can be switched over to
 software "limp modes" that provide partial function
 Designing with a Trusted Computing Base (TCB) architecture[6] ensures a highly secure
& reliable system environment
 An Embedded Hypervisor is able to provide secure encapsulation for any subsystem
component, so that a compromised software component cannot interfere with other
subsystems, or privileged-level system software. This encapsulation keeps faults from
propagating from one subsystem to another, improving reliability. This may also allow a
subsystem to be automatically shut down and restarted on fault detection.
 Immunity Aware Programming

2.3 Explanation of Embedded Systems:

2.3.1 Software Architecture:

There are several different types of software architecture in common use.

 Simple Control Loop:

In this design, the software simply has a loop. The loop calls subroutines, each of
which manages a part of the hardware or software.

 Interrupt Controlled System:

 Some embedded systems are predominantly interrupt controlled. This means that
tasks performed by the system are triggered by different kinds of events. An interrupt could be
generated for example by a timer in a predefined frequency, or by a serial port controller
receiving a byte. These kinds of systems are used if event handlers need low latency and the
event handlers are short and simple.

Usually these kinds of systems run a simple task in a main loop also, but this task
is not very sensitive to unexpected delays. Sometimes the interrupt handler will add longer tasks
to a queue structure. Later, after the interrupt handler has finished, these tasks are executed by
the main loop. This method brings the system close to a multitasking kernel with discrete
processes.

 Cooperative Multitasking:

A non-preemptive multitasking system is very similar to the simple control loop

scheme, except that the loop is hidden in an API. The programmer defines a series of tasks, and
each task gets its own environment to “run” in. When a task is idle, it calls an idle routine,
usually called “pause”, “wait”, “yield”, “nop” (stands for no operation), etc.The advantages and
disadvantages are very similar to the control loop, except that adding new software is easier, by
simply writing a new task, or adding to the queue-interpreter.

 Primitive Multitasking:

In this type of system, a low-level piece of code switches between tasks or threads
based on a timer (connected to an interrupt). This is the level at which the system is generally
considered to have an "operating system" kernel. Depending on how much functionality is
required, it introduces more or less of the complexities of managing multiple tasks running
conceptually in parallel.

As any code can potentially damage the data of another task (except in larger
systems using an MMU) programs must be carefully designed and tested, and access to shared
data must be controlled by some synchronization strategy, such as message queues, semaphores
or a non-blocking synchronization scheme.

Because of these complexities, it is common for organizations to buy a real-time

operating system, allowing the application programmers to concentrate on device functionality
rather than operating system services, at least for large systems; smaller systems often cannot
afford the overhead associated with a generic real time system, due to limitations regarding
memory size, performance, and/or battery life.

 Microkernels And Exokernels:

A microkernel is a logical step up from a real-time OS. The usual arrangement is

that the operating system kernel allocates memory and switches the CPU to different threads of
execution. User mode processes implement major functions such as file systems, network
interfaces, etc.

In general, microkernels succeed when the task switching and intertask

communication is fast, and fail when they are slow. Exokernels communicate efficiently by
normal subroutine calls. The hardware and all the software in the system are available to, and
extensible by application programmers. Based on performance, functionality, requirement the
embedded systems are divided into three categories:

2.3.2 Stand Alone Embedded System:

These systems takes the input in the form of electrical signals from transducers or
commands from human beings such as pressing of a button etc.., process them and produces
desired output. This entire process of taking input, processing it and giving output is done in
standalone mode. Such embedded systems comes under standalone embedded systems

Eg: microwave oven, air conditioner etc..

2.3.3 Real-time embedded systems:

Embedded systems which are used to perform a specific task or operation in a

specific time period those systems are called as real-time embedded systems. There are two types
of real-time embedded systems.

 Hard Real-time embedded systems:

These embedded systems follow an absolute dead line time period i.e.., if the
tasking is not done in a particular time period then there is a cause of damage to the entire
equipment.
 Eg: consider a system in which we have to open a valve within 30 milliseconds. If this
valve is not opened in 30 ms this may cause damage to the entire equipment. So in such cases we
use embedded systems for doing automatic operations.

 Soft Real Time embedded systems:

These embedded systems follow a relative dead line time period i.e.., if the task is
not done in a particular time that will not cause damage to the equipment.

Eg: Consider a TV remote control system ,if the remote control takes a few
milliseconds delay it will not cause damage either to the TV or to the remote control. These
systems which will not cause damage when they are not operated at considerable time period
those systems comes under soft real-time embedded systems.

2.3.4 Network communication embedded systems:

A wide range network interfacing communication is provided by using embedded

systems.

Eg:

 Consider a web camera that is connected to the computer with internet can be used
to spread communication like sending pictures, images, videos etc.., to another
computer with internet connection throughout anywhere in the world.

 Consider a web camera that is connected at the door lock.

Whenever a person comes near the door, it captures the image of a person and
sends to the desktop of your computer which is connected to internet. This gives an alerting
message with image on to the desktop of your computer, and then you can open the door lock
just by clicking the mouse.
 Fig 2.2: Network communication embedded systems

2.3.5 Different types of processing units:

The central processing unit (c.p.u) can be any one of the following
microprocessor, microcontroller, digital signal processing.

 Among these Microcontroller is of low cost processor and one of the main advantage of
microcontrollers is, the components such as memory, serial communication interfaces,
analog to digital converters etc.., all these are built on a single chip. The numbers of
external components that are connected to it are very less according to the application.

 Microprocessors are more powerful than microcontrollers. They are used in major
applications with a number of tasking requirements. But the microprocessor requires
many external components like memory, serial communication, hard disk, input output
ports etc.., so the power consumption is also very high when compared to
microcontrollers.

 Digital signal processing is used mainly for the applications that particularly involved
with processing of signals

2.4 APPLICATIONS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS:

2.4.1 Consumer applications:

 At home we use a number of embedded systems which include microwave oven,
remote control, vcd players, dvd players, camera etc….

Fig2.3: Automatic coffee makes equipment

2.4.2 Office automation:

We use systems like fax machine, modem, printer etc…

Fig2.4: Fax machine Fig2.5: Printing machine

2.4.3. Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries are using embedded systems for process control. In
industries we design the embedded systems to perform a specific operation like monitoring
temperature, pressure, humidity ,voltage, current etc.., and basing on these monitored levels we
do control other devices, we can send information to a centralized monitoring station.
 Fig2.6: Robot

In critical industries where human presence is avoided there we can use robots
which are programmed to do a specific operation.

2.4.5 Computer networking:

Embedded systems are used as bridges routers etc..

Fig2.7: Computer networking

2.4.6 Tele communications:

Cell phones, web cameras etc.

Fig2.8: Cell Phone Fig2.9: Web camera
 CHAPTER 3: HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

3.1 Introduction:

In this chapter the block diagram of the project and design aspect of independent
modules are considered. Block diagram is shown in fig: 3.1:

FIG 3.1: Block diagram of Agriculture Robot With Seed, Plough, Pesticide spray &

Level

The main blocks of this project are:

 1. Micro controller (16F72)

2. Reset

3. Crystal oscillator

4. Relay

5. Regulated power supply (RPS)

6. LED Indicator

7. Bluetooth

8. DC Motor

9. Seed Dropper

10. Plough

11. Level

3.2 Micro controller:

ATMEGA328:

Features

• High Performance, Low Power AVR® 8-Bit Microcontroller

• Advanced RISC Architecture

– 131 Powerful Instructions – Most Single Clock Cycle Execution

– 32 x 8 General Purpose Working Registers

– Fully Static Operation

– Up to 20 MIPS Throughput at 20 MHz

– On-chip 2-cycle Multiplier

• High Endurance Non-volatile Memory Segments

– 4/8/16/32K Bytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash progam memory

(ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)

– 256/512/512/1K Bytes EEPROM (ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)

– 512/1K/1K/2K Bytes Internal SRAM (ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P)

– Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000 EEPROM

– Data retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C(1)

– Optional Boot Code Section with Independent Lock Bits

In-System Programming by On-chip Boot Program

True Read-While-Write Operation

– Programming Lock for Software Security

• Peripheral Features

– Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with Separate Prescaler and Compare Mode

– One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture

Mode

– Real Time Counter with Separate Oscillator

– Six PWM Channels

– 8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and QFN/MLF package

Temperature Measurement

– 6-channel 10-bit ADC in PDIP Package

Temperature Measurement

– Programmable Serial USART

– Master/Slave SPI Serial Interface

– Byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface (Philips I2C compatible)

– Programmable Watchdog Timer with Separate On-chip Oscillator

– On-chip Analog Comparator

– Interrupt and Wake-up on Pin Change

• Special Microcontroller Features

– Power-on Reset and Programmable Brown-out Detection

– Internal Calibrated Oscillator

– External and Internal Interrupt Sources

– Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-down, Standby,

and Extended Standby

• I/O and Packages

– 23 Programmable I/O Lines

– 28-pin PDIP, 32-lead TQFP, 28-pad QFN/MLF and 32-pad QFN/MLF

• Operating Voltage:

– 1.8 - 5.5V for ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P

• Temperature Range:

– -40°C to 85°C

• Speed Grade:

– 0 - 20 MHz @ 1.8 - 5.5V

• Low Power Consumption at 1 MHz, 1.8V, 25°C for ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P:

– Active Mode: 0.2 mA

– Power-down Mode: 0.1 μA

– Power-save Mode: 0.75 μA (Including 32 kHz RTC)

1.1 Pin Descriptions

1.1.1 VCC Digital supply voltage.

1.1.2 GND Ground.

1.1.3 Port B (PB7:0) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2

Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each it). The Port B
output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As
inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated.
The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.
Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as input to the inverting Oscillator
amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings,
PB7 can be used as output from the inverting Oscillator amplifier.

If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7..6 is used as TOSC2..1 input for
the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set. The various special features of Port B are
elaborated in ”Alternate Functions of Port B” on page 82 and ”System Clock and Clock Options” on page
26.

1.1.4 Port C (PC5:0)

Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each it). The PC5..0
output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As
inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated.
The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.

1.1.5 PC6/RESET

If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical characteristics of
PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is un programmed, PC6 is used as
a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset,
even if the clock is not running.

The minimum pulse length is given in Table 28-3 on page 318. Shorter pulses are not guaranteed to
generate a Reset. The various special features of Port C are elaborated in ”Alternate Functions of Port C”
on page 85.

1.1.6 Port D (PD7:0)

Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D
output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As
inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated.
The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.
The various special features of Port D are elaborated in ”Alternate Functions of Port D” on page

88.
1.1.7 AVCC

AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It should be externally
connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through
a low-pass filter. Note that PC6..4 use digital supply voltage, VCC.

1.1.8 AREF

AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.

1.1.9 ADC7:6 (TQFP and QFN/MLF Package Only)

In the TQFP and QFN/MLF package, ADC7:6 serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter. These pins are
powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.

Overview

The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P is a low-power CMOS 8-bit microcontroller based on the AVR

enhanced RISC architecture. By executing powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the
ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P achieves throughputs approaching 1 MIPS per MHz allowing the
system designer to optimize power consumption versus processing speed.

2.1 Block Diagram

The AVR core combines a rich instruction set with 32 general purpose working registers. All the 32
registers are directly connected to the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), allowing two independent registers
to be accessed in one single instruction executed in one clock cycle. The resulting architecture is more
code efficient while achieving throughputs up to ten times faster than conventional CISC
microcontrollers.

The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P provides the following features: 4K/8K bytes of In-System

Programmable Flash with Read-While-Write capabilities, 256/512/512/1K bytes EEPROM, 512/1K/1K/2K
bytes SRAM, 23 general purpose I/O lines, 32 general purpose working registers, three flexible
Timer/Counters with compare modes, internal and external interrupts, a serial programmable USART, a
byte-oriented 2-wire Serial Interface, an SPI serial port, a 6-channel 10-bit ADC (8 channels in TQFP and
QFN/MLF packages), a programmable Watchdog Timer with internal Oscillator, and five software
selectable power saving modes. The Idle mode stops the CPU while allowing the SRAM, Timer/Counters,
USART, 2-wire Serial Interface, SPI port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down
mode saves the register contents but freezes the Oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the
next interrupt or hardware reset.

In Power-save mode, the asynchronous timer continues to run, allowing the user to maintain a timer
base while the rest of the device is sleeping. The ADC Noise Reduction mode stops the CPU and all I/O
modules except asynchronous timer and ADC, to minimize switching noise during ADC conversions. In
Standby mode, the crystal/resonator Oscillator is running while the rest of the device is sleeping. This
allows very fast start-up combined with low power consumption.

The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density non-volatile memory technology. The On-chip ISP
Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed In-System through an SPI serial interface, by a
conventional non-volatile memory programmer, or by an On-chip Boot program running on the AVR
core. The Boot program can use any interface to download the application program in the Application
Flash memory. Software in the Boot Flash section will continue to run while the Application Flash section
is updated, providing true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System
Self-Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P is a powerful
microcontroller that provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded control
applications.

The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P AVR is supported with a full suite of program and system
development tools including: C Compilers, Macro Assemblers, Program Debugger/Simulators, In-Circuit
Emulators, and Evaluation kits.

2.2 Comparison Between ATmega48PA, ATmega88PA, ATmega168PA and ATmega328P

The ATmega48PA, ATmega88PA, ATmega168PA and ATmega328P differ only in memory sizes, boot
loader support, and interrupt vector sizes. Table 2-1 summarizes the different memory and interrupt
vector sizes for the three devices.

ATmega88PA, ATmega168PA and ATmega328P support a real Read-While-Write Self-Programming

mechanism. There is a separate Boot Loader Section, and the SPM instruction can only execute from
there. In ATmega48PA, there is no Read-While-Write support and no separate Boot Loader Section. The
SPM instruction can execute from the entire Flash.

AVR CPU Core

6.1 Overview

This section discusses the AVR core architecture in general. The main function of the CPU core is to
ensure correct program execution. The CPU must therefore be able to access memories, perform
calculations, control peripherals, and handle interrupts.
In order to maximize performance and parallelism, the AVR uses a Harvard architecture – with separate
memories and buses for program and data. Instructions in the program memory are executed with a
single level pipelining. While one instruction is being executed, the next instruction is pre-fetched from
the program memory. This concept enables instructions to be executed in every clock cycle. The
program memory is In-System Reprogrammable Flash memory.

The fast-access Register File contains 32 x 8-bit general purpose working registers with a single clock
cycle access time. This allows single-cycle Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) operation. In a typical ALU
operation, two operands are output from the Register File, the operation is executed, and the result is
stored back in the Register File – in one clock cycle. Six of the 32 registers can be used as three 16-bit
indirect address register pointers for Data Space addressing – enabling efficient address calculations.
One of the these address pointers can also be used as an address pointer for look up tables in Flash
program memory. These added function registers are the 16-bit X-, Y-, and Z-register, described later in
this section.

The ALU supports arithmetic and logic operations between registers or between a constant and a
register. Single register operations can also be executed in the ALU. After an arithmetic operation, the
Status Register is updated to reflect information about the result of the operation.

Program flow is provided by conditional and unconditional jump and call instructions, able to directly
address the whole address space. Most AVR instructions have a single 16-bit word format. Every
program memory address contains a 16- or 32-bit instruction.

Program Flash memory space is divided in two sections, the Boot Program section and the Application
Program section. Both sections have dedicated Lock bits for write and read/write protection. The SPM
instruction that writes into the Application Flash memory section must reside in the Boot Program
section.

During interrupts and subroutine calls, the return address Program Counter (PC) is stored on the Stack.
The Stack is effectively allocated in the general data SRAM, and consequently the Stack size is only
limited by the total SRAM size and the usage of the SRAM. All user programs must initialize the SP in the
Reset routine (before subroutines or interrupts are executed). The Stack Pointer (SP) is read/write
accessible in the I/O space. The data SRAM can easily be accessed through the five different addressing
modes supported in the AVR architecture.

The memory spaces in the AVR architecture are all linear and regular memory maps.

A flexible interrupt module has its control registers in the I/O space with an additional Global Interrupt
Enable bit in the Status Register. All interrupts have a separate Interrupt Vector in the Interrupt Vector
table. The interrupts have priority in accordance with their Interrupt Vector position.

The lower the Interrupt Vector address, the higher the priority.

The I/O memory space contains 64 addresses for CPU peripheral functions as Control Registers,

SPI, and other I/O functions. The I/O Memory can be accessed directly, or as the Data Space locations
following those of the Register File, 0x20 - 0x5F. In addition, the ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P has
Extended I/O space from 0x60 - 0xFF in SRAM where only the ST/STS/STD and LD/LDS/LDD instructions
can be used.
6.2 ALU – Arithmetic Logic Unit

The high-performance AVR ALU operates in direct connection with all the 32 general purpose working
registers. Within a single clock cycle, arithmetic operations between general purpose registers or
between a register and an immediate are executed. The ALU operations are divided into three main
categories – arithmetic, logical, and bit-functions. Some implementations of the architecture also
provide a powerful multiplier supporting both signed/unsigned multiplication and fractional format. See
the “Instruction Set” section for a detailed description.

6.3 Status Register

The Status Register contains information about the result of the most recently executed arithmetic
instruction. This information can be used for altering program flow in order to perform conditional
operations. Note that the Status Register is updated after all ALU operations, as specified in the
Instruction Set Reference. This will in many cases remove the need for using the dedicated compare
instructions, resulting in faster and more compact code. The Status Register is not automatically stored
when entering an interrupt routine and restored when returning from an interrupt. This must be
handled by software.

AVR Memories

7.1 Overview

This section describes the different memories in the ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P. The AVR
architecture has two main memory spaces, the Data Memory and the Program Memory space. In
addition, the ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P features an EEPROM Memory for data storage. All three
memory spaces are linear and regular.

7.2 In-System Reprogrammable Flash Program Memory

The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P contains 4/8/16/32K bytes On-chip In-System Reprogrammable

Flash memory for program storage. Since all AVR instructions are 16 or 32 bits wide, the Flash is
organized as 2/4/8/16K x 16. For software security, the Flash Program memory space is divided into two
sections, Boot Loader Section and Application Program Section in ATmega88PA and ATmega168PA. See
SELFPRGEN description in section ”SPMCSR – Store Program Memory Control and Status Register” on
page 292 for more details.
The Flash memory has an endurance of at least 10,000 write/erase cycles. The
ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P Program Counter (PC) is 11/12/13/14 bits wide, thus addressing the
2/4/8/16K program memory locations. The operation of Boot Program section and associated Boot Lock
bits for software protection are described in detail in ”Self-Programming the Flash, ATmega48PA” on
page 269 and ”Boot Loader Support – Read-While-Write Self-Programming, ATmega88PA,
ATmega168PA and ATmega328P” on page 277. ”Memory Programming” on page 294 contains a
detailed description on Flash Programming in SPI- or Parallel Programming mode.

Constant tables can be allocated within the entire program memory address space (see the LPM – Load
Program Memory instruction description).

SRAM Data Memory

The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P is a complex microcontroller with more peripheral units than can
be supported within the 64 locations reserved in the Opcode for the IN and OUT instructions. For the
Extended I/O space from 0x60 - 0xFF in SRAM, only the ST/STS/STD and LD/LDS/LDD instructions can be
used. The lower 768/1280/1280/2303 data memory locations address both the Register File, the I/O
memory, Extended I/O memory, and the internal data SRAM. The first 32 locations address the Register
File, the next 64 location the standard I/O memory, then 160 locations of Extended I/O memory, and the
next 512/1024/1024/2048 locations address the internal data SRAM.

The five different addressing modes for the data memory cover: Direct, Indirect with Displacement,
Indirect, Indirect with Pre-decrement, and Indirect with Post-increment. In the Register File, registers
R26 to R31 feature the indirect addressing pointer registers.

The direct addressing reaches the entire data space. The Indirect with Displacement mode reaches 63
address locations from the base address given by the Y- or Z-register.

When using register indirect addressing modes with automatic pre-decrement and post-increment, the
address registers X, Y, and Z are decremented or incremented. The 32 general purpose working
registers, 64 I/O Registers, 160 Extended I/O Registers, and the 512/1024/1024/2048 bytes of internal
data SRAM in the ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P are all accessible through all these addressing
modes.
EEPROM Data Memory

The ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P contains 256/512/512/1K bytes of data EEPROM memory. It is

organized as a separate data space, in which single bytes can be read and written. The EEPROM has an
endurance of at least 100,000 write/erase cycles. The access between the EEPROM and the CPU is
described in the following, specifying the EEPROM Address Registers, the EEPROM Data Register, and
the EEPROM Control Register.

7.4.1 EEPROM Read/Write Access

The EEPROM Access Registers are accessible in the I/O space.

lets the user software detect when the next byte can be written. If the user code contains instructions
that write the EEPROM, some precautions must be taken. In heavily filtered power supplies, VCC is likely
to rise or fall slowly on power-up/down. This causes the device for some period of time to run at a
voltage lower than specified as minimum for the clock frequency used. In order to prevent unintentional
EEPROM writes, a specific write procedure must be followed. Refer to the description of the EEPROM
Control Register for details on this. When the EEPROM is read, the CPU is halted for four clock cycles
before the next instruction is executed. When the EEPROM is written, the CPU is halted for two clock
cycles before the next instruction is executed.

Low Power Crystal Oscillator

Pins XTAL1 and XTAL2 are input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier which can be
configured for use as an On-chip Oscillator, Either a quartz crystal or a ceramic resonator may be used.
This Crystal Oscillator is a low power oscillator, with reduced voltage swing on the XTAL2 output.

It gives the lowest power consumption, but is not capable of driving other clock inputs, and may be
more susceptible to noise in noisy environments. C1 and C2 should always be equal for both crystals
and resonators. The optimal value of the capacitors depends on the crystal or resonator in use, the
amount of stray capacitance, and the electromagnetic noise of the environment. For ceramic
resonators, the capacitor values given by the manufacturer should be used .
Watchdog Timer

Features

• Clocked from separate On-chip Oscillator

• 3 Operating modes

– Interrupt

– System Reset

– Interrupt and System Reset

• Selectable Time-out period from 16ms to 8s

• Possible Hardware fuse Watchdog always on (WDTON) for fail-safe mode

Overview

ATmega48PA/88PA/168PA/328P has an Enhanced Watchdog Timer (WDT). The WDT is a timer counting
cycles of a separate on-chip 128 kHz oscillator. The WDT gives an interrupt or a system reset when the
counter reaches a given time-out value. In normal operation mode, it is required that the system uses
the WDR - Watchdog Timer Reset - instruction to restart the counter before the time-out value is
reached. If the system doesn't restart the counter, an interrupt or system reset will be issued.

In Interrupt mode, the WDT gives an interrupt when the timer expires. This interrupt can be used to
wake the device from sleep-modes, and also as a general system timer. One example is to limit the
maximum time allowed for certain operations, giving an interrupt when the operation has run longer
than expected. In System Reset mode, the WDT gives a reset when the timer expires. This is typically
used to prevent system hang-up in case of runaway code. The third mode, Interrupt and System Reset
mode, combines the other two modes by first giving an interrupt and then switch to System Reset
mode. This mode will for instance allow a safe shutdown by saving critical parameters before a system
reset.

The Watchdog always on (WDTON) fuse, if programmed, will force the Watchdog Timer to System Reset
mode. With the fuse programmed the System Reset mode bit (WDE) and Interrupt mode bit (WDIE) are
locked to 1 and 0 respectively. To further ensure program security, alterations to the Watchdog set-up
must follow timed sequences. The sequence for clearing WDE and changing time-out configuration is as
follows:

1. In the same operation, write a logic one to the Watchdog change enable bit (WDCE) and WDE. A logic
one must be written to WDE regardless of the previous value of the WDE bit.

2. Within the next four clock cycles, write the WDE and Watchdog prescaler bits (WDP) as desired, but
with the WDCE bit cleared. This must be done in one operation.

The following code example shows one assembly and one C function for turning off the Watchdog
Timer. The example assumes that interrupts are controlled (e.g. by disabling interrupts globally) so that
no interrupts will occur during the execution of these functions.

8-bit Timer/Counter0 with PWM

Features

• Two Independent Output Compare Units

• Double Buffered Output Compare Registers

• Clear Timer on Compare Match (Auto Reload)

• Glitch Free, Phase Correct Pulse Width Modulator (PWM)

• Variable PWM Period

• Frequency Generator
• Three Independent Interrupt Sources (TOV0, OCF0A, and OCF0B)

Overview

Timer/Counter0 is a general purpose 8-bit Timer/Counter module, with two independent Output
Compare Units, and with PWM support. It allows accurate program execution timing (event
management) and wave generation.

CPU accessible I/O Registers, including I/O bits and I/O pins, are shown in bold.

3.3 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY:

3.3.1 Introduction:

Power supply is a supply of electrical power. A device or system that

supplies electrical or other types of energy to an output load or group of loads is called a  power
supply unit or PSU. The term is most commonly applied to electrical energy supplies, less often
to mechanical ones, and rarely to others.

A power supply may include a power distribution system as well as primary or

secondary sources of energy such as

 Conversion of one form of electrical power to another desired form and voltage, typically
involving converting AC line voltage to a well-regulated lower-voltage DC for electronic
devices. Low voltage, low power DC power supply units are commonly integrated with the
devices they supply, such as computers and household electronics.
 Batteries.

 Chemical fuel cells and other forms of energy storage systems.

 Solar power.

 Generators or alternators.
3.3.2 Block Diagram:

Fig 3.3.2 Regulated Power Supply

The basic circuit diagram of a regulated power supply (DC O/P) with led
connected as load is shown in fig: 3.3.3.
 Fig 3.3.3 Circuit diagram of Regulated Power Supply with Led connection

The components mainly used in above figure are

 230V AC MAINS
 TRANSFORMER
 BRIDGE RECTIFIER(DIODES)
 CAPACITOR
 VOLTAGE REGULATOR(IC 7805)
 RESISTOR
 LED(LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The detailed explanation of each and every component mentioned above is as follows:

Transformation: The process of transforming energy from one device to another is called
transformation. For transforming energy we use transformers.

Transformers:
 A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductors without changing its frequency. A
varying current in the first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the
transformer's core, and thus a varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This
varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the
secondary winding. This effect is called mutual induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the

secondary winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. This field is made up from lines of force and has the same shape as a bar
magnet.

If the current is increased, the lines of force move outwards from the coil. If the
current is reduced, the lines of force move inwards.

If another coil is placed adjacent to the first coil then, as the field moves out or in,
the moving lines of force will "cut" the turns of the second coil. As it does this, a voltage is
induced in the second coil. With the 50 Hz AC mains supply, this will happen 50 times a second.
This is called MUTUAL INDUCTION and forms the basis of the transformer.

The input coil is called the PRIMARY WINDING; the output coil is the
SECONDARY WINDING. Fig: 3.3.4 shows step-down transformer.

Fig 3.3.4: Step-Down Transformer

The voltage induced in the secondary is determined by the TURNS RATIO.

 For example, if the secondary has half the primary turns; the secondary will have
half the primary voltage.

Another example is if the primary has 5000 turns and the secondary has 500 turns,
then the turn’s ratio is 10:1.

If the primary voltage is 240 volts then the secondary voltage will be x 10 smaller
= 24 volts. Assuming a perfect transformer, the power provided by the primary must equal the
power taken by a load on the secondary. If a 24-watt lamp is connected across a 24 volt
secondary, then the primary must supply 24 watts.

To aid magnetic coupling between primary and secondary, the coils are wound on
a metal CORE. Since the primary would induce power, called EDDY CURRENTS, into this
core, the core is LAMINATED. This means that it is made up from metal sheets insulated from
each other. Transformers to work at higher frequencies have an iron dust core or no core at all.

Note that the transformer only works on AC, which has a constantly changing
current and moving field. DC has a steady current and therefore a steady field and there would be
no induction.

Some transformers have an electrostatic screen between primary and secondary.

This is to prevent some types of interference being fed from the equipment down into the mains
supply, or in the other direction. Transformers are sometimes used for IMPEDANCE
MATCHING.

We can use the transformers as step up or step down.

Step Up transformer:

In case of step up transformer, primary windings are every less compared to

secondary winding.
 Because of having more turns secondary winding accepts more energy, and it
releases more voltage at the output side.

Step down transformer:

Incase of step down transformer, Primary winding induces more flux than the
secondary winding, and secondary winding is having less number of turns because of that it
accepts less number of flux, and releases less amount of voltage.

Battery power supply:

A battery is a type of linear power supply that offers benefits that traditional
line-operated power supplies lack: mobility, portability and reliability. A battery consists of
multiple electrochemical cells connected to provide the voltage desired. Fig: 3.3.5 shows Hi-
Watt 9V battery

Fig 3.3.5: Hi-Watt 9V Battery

The most commonly used dry-cell battery is the carbon-zinc dry cell battery. Dry-

cell batteries are made by stacking a carbon plate, a layer of electrolyte paste, and a zinc plate
alternately until the desired total voltage is achieved. The most common dry-cell batteries have
one of the following voltages: 1.5, 3, 6, 9, 22.5, 45, and 90. During the discharge of a carbon-
zinc battery, the zinc metal is converted to a zinc salt in the electrolyte, and magnesium dioxide
is reduced at the carbon electrode. These actions establish a voltage of approximately 1.5 V.

The lead-acid storage battery may be used. This battery is rechargeable; it consists

of lead and lead/dioxide electrodes which are immersed in sulfuric acid. When fully charged, this
type of battery has a 2.06-2.14 V potential (A 12 volt car battery uses 6 cells in series). During
discharge, the lead is converted to lead sulfate and the sulfuric acid is converted to water. When
the battery is charging, the lead sulfate is converted back to lead and lead dioxide A nickel-
cadmium battery has become more popular in recent years. This battery cell is completely sealed
and rechargeable. The electrolyte is not involved in the electrode reaction, making the voltage
constant over the span of the batteries long service life. During the charging process, nickel
oxide is oxidized to its higher oxidation state and cadmium oxide is reduced. The nickel-
cadmium batteries have many benefits. They can be stored both charged and uncharged. They
have a long service life, high current availabilities, constant voltage, and the ability to be
recharged. Fig: 3.3.6 shows pencil battery of 1.5V.

Fig 3.3.6: Pencil Battery of 1.5V

RECTIFICATION:

The process of converting an alternating current to a pulsating direct current is

called as rectification. For rectification purpose we use rectifiers.

Rectifiers:

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC) to direct

current (DC), a process known as rectification. Rectifiers have many uses including as
components of power supplies and as detectors of radio signals. Rectifiers may be made of solid-
state diodes, vacuum tube diodes, mercury arc valves, and other components.

A device that it can perform the opposite function (converting DC to AC) is

known as an inverter.

When only one diode is used to rectify AC (by blocking the negative or positive
portion of the waveform), the difference between the term diode and the term rectifier is merely
one of usage, i.e., the term rectifier describes a diode that is being used to convert AC to DC.
Almost all rectifiers comprise a number of diodes in a specific arrangement for more efficiently
converting AC to DC than is possible with only one diode. Before the development of silicon
semiconductor rectifiers, vacuum tube diodes and copper (I) oxide or selenium rectifier stacks
were used.

Bridge full wave rectifier:

The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in fig: 3.3.7, which converts an ac voltage to
dc voltage using both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in
the figure. The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied
to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other
two ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct,
whereas diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with
the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct
whereas, D1 and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous
half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Input Output
 Fig 3.3.7: Bridge rectifier: a full-wave rectifier using 4 diodes

DB107:

Now -a -days Bridge rectifier is available in IC with a number of DB107. In our

project we are using an IC in place of bridge rectifier. The picture of DB 107 is shown in fig:
3.3.8.

Features:

 Good for automation insertion

 Surge overload rating - 30 amperes peak

 Ideal for printed circuit board

 Reliable low cost construction utilizing molded

 Glass passivated device

 Polarity symbols molded on body

 Mounting position: Any

 Weight: 1.0 gram

Fig 3.3.8: DB107

Filtration:
 The process of converting a pulsating direct current to a pure direct current using
filters is called as filtration.

Filters:

Electronic filters are electronic circuits, which perform signal-processing

functions, specifically to remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enhance
wanted ones.

Introduction to Capacitors:

The Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and

one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (static
voltage) across its plates. In its basic form a capacitor consists of two parallel conductive plates
that are not connected but are electrically separated either by air or by an insulating material
called the Dielectric. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the
plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite
negative charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and
continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the
applied voltage Vcc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated
below. The construction of capacitor and an electrolytic capacitor are shown in figures 3.3.9 and
3.3.10 respectively.
Fig 3.3.9:Construction Of a Capacitor Fig 3.3.10:Electrolytic
Capaticor

Units of Capacitance:

Microfarad  (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F

 Nanofarad  (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

 Pico farad  (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

Operation of Capacitor:

Think of water flowing through a pipe. If we imagine a capacitor as being a

storage tank with an inlet and an outlet pipe, it is possible to show approximately how an
electronic capacitor works.

First, let's consider the case of a "coupling capacitor" where the capacitor is used
to connect a signal from one part of a circuit to another but without allowing any direct current to
flow. 

If the current flow is alternating between zero and a

maximum, our "storage tank" capacitor will allow the current
waves to pass through.

However, if there is a steady current, only the initial short

burst will flow until the "floating ball valve" closes and stops
further flow.
 So a coupling capacitor allows "alternating current" to pass through because the
ball valve doesn't get a chance to close as the waves go up and down. However, a steady current
quickly fills the tank so that all flow stops.

A capacitor will pass alternating current but (apart from an initial surge) it will not
pass d.c.

Where a capacitor is used to decouple a circuit, the effect is

to "smooth out ripples". Any ripples, waves or pulses of
current are passed to ground while d.c. Flows smoothly.

Regulation:

The process of converting a varying voltage to a constant regulated voltage is

called as regulation. For the process of regulation we use voltage regulators.

Voltage Regulator:

A voltage regulator (also called a ‘regulator’) with only three terminals appears to
be a simple device, but it is in fact a very complex integrated circuit. It converts a varying input
voltage into a constant ‘regulated’ output voltage. Voltage Regulators are available in a variety
of outputs like 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V and 15V. The LM78XX series of voltage regulators are
designed for positive input. For applications requiring negative input, the LM79XX series is
used. Using a pair of ‘voltage-divider’ resistors can increase the output voltage of a regulator
circuit.

It is not possible to obtain a voltage lower than the stated rating. You cannot use a
12V regulator to make a 5V power supply. Voltage regulators are very robust. These can
withstand over-current draw due to short circuits and also over-heating. In both cases, the
regulator will cut off before any damage occurs. The only way to destroy a regulator is to apply
reverse voltage to its input. Reverse polarity destroys the regulator almost instantly. Fig: 3.3.11
shows voltage regulator.

Fig 3.3.11: Voltage Regulator

Resistors:

A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component that produces a voltage across its

terminals that is proportional to the electric current passing through it in accordance with Ohm's
law:

V = IR

Resistors are elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in
most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as
well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel/chrome).

The primary characteristics of a resistor are the resistance, the tolerance, maximum
working voltage and the power rating. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient,
noise, and inductance. Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power
dissipation limits the maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied
voltage. Critical resistance is determined by the design, materials and dimensions of the resistor.

Resistors can be made to control the flow of current, to work as Voltage dividers,
to dissipate power and it can shape electrical waves when used in combination of other
components. Basic unit is ohms.
Theory of operation:

Ohm's law:

The behavior of an ideal resistor is dictated by the relationship specified in Ohm's

law:

V = IR

Ohm's law states that the voltage (V) across a resistor is proportional to the
current (I) through it where the constant of proportionality is the resistance (R).

Power dissipation:

The power dissipated by a resistor (or the equivalent resistance of a resistor

network) is calculated using the following:
Fig 3.3.12: Resistor Fig 3.3.13: Color Bands In Resistor
3.4. LED:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LED’s are used as

indicator lamps in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical
electronic component in 1962, early LED’s emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions
are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
The internal structure and parts of a led are shown in figures 3.4.1 and 3.4.2 respectively.
 Fig 3.4.1: Inside a LED Fig 3.4.2: Parts of a LED

Working:

The structure of the LED light is completely different than that of the light bulb.
Amazingly, the LED has a simple and strong structure. The light-emitting semiconductor
material is what determines the LED's color. The LED is based on the semiconductor diode.

When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is usually small in area (less than
1 mm2), and integrated optical components are used to shape its radiation pattern and assist in
reflection. LED’s present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and
greater durability and reliability. However, they are relatively expensive and require more
precise current and heat management than traditional light sources. Current LED products for
general lighting are more expensive to buy than fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
They also enjoy use in applications as diverse as replacements for traditional light sources in
automotive lighting (particularly indicators) and in traffic signals. The compact size of LED’s
has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are useful in advanced communications technology. The electrical symbol and polarities of
led are shown in fig: 3.4.3.
 Fig 3.4.3: Electrical Symbol & Polarities of LED

LED lights have a variety of advantages over other light sources:

 High-levels of brightness and intensity

 High-efficiency

 Low-voltage and current requirements

 Low radiated heat

 High reliability (resistant to shock and vibration)

 No UV Rays

 Long source life

 Can be easily controlled and programmed

Applications of LED fall into three major categories:

 Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
 Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these
objects.
  Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the
human visual system.

3.5 BLUE TOOTH Module:

‘Bluetooth’, the short-range radio link technology designed to "connect" an array of

devices including mobile phones, PC’s, and PDA’s, and the strategic decisions that Motorola
should make in incorporating this nascent technology into its product portfolio. The purpose of
this paper will be to provide a high-level overview of the technology to the head of Motorola's
Communications Enterprise, and prepare this corporate officer to be strategically and
functionally conversant in the technology with subordinates that have direct responsibility for
integrating Bluetooth into Motorola's product lines. The first sections of the paper detail the
background of the Bluetooth technology and its associated Special-Interest Group, or SIG, (a
conglomeration of firms that has sought to reduce market uncertainty, thereby expediting the
diffusion of Bluetooth devices). Bluetooth’s perceived strengths over other wireless connectivity
technologies are also discussed and some macro-level threats that may impede Bluetooth
diffusion are outlined. The remainder of the paper details potential Bluetooth markets (in terms
of consumer and corporate applications) and examines Motorola's current Bluetooth product
offerings (a cell phone battery and computer PCMCIA card each enabled with a Bluetooth chip).
Finally, the paper provides guidance for Motorola's Bluetooth application development strategies
regarding the applications outlined in the SIG's specifications, namely emphasizing those
applications that leverage existing complementary assets, and those that are critical to Bluetooth
adoption regardless of prior expertise.

Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances

(using short-wavelength UHF radio waves in the ISM band from 2.4 to 2.485 GHz) from fixed
and mobile devices, and building personal area networks (PANs). Invented by telecom
vendorEricsson in 1994 it was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data
cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization. Bluetooth is
managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG), which has more than 20,000 member
companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics.
 Bluetooth was standardized as IEEE 802.15.1, but the standard is no longer maintained. The
[5]

SIG oversees the development of the specification, manages the qualification program, and
protects the trademarks. To be marketed as a Bluetooth device, it must be qualified to standards
defined by the SIG. A network of patents is required to implement the technology, which is
licensed only for that qualifying device.
Communication and connection
A master Bluetooth device can communicate with a maximum of seven devices in a
piconet (an ad-hoc computer network using Bluetooth technology), though not all devices reach
this maximum. The devices can switch roles, by agreement, and the slave can become the master
(for example, a headset initiating a connection to a phone will necessarily begin as master, as
initiator of the connection; but may subsequently prefer to be slave).
The Bluetooth Core Specification provides for the connection of two or more piconets to form
a scatternet, in which certain devices simultaneously play the master role in one piconet and the
slave role in another.
At any given time, data can be transferred between the master and one other device
(except for the little-used broadcast mode. The master chooses which slave device to address;
typically, it switches rapidly from one device to another in a round-robin fashion. Since it is the
master that chooses which slave to address, whereas a slave is (in theory) supposed to listen in
each receive slot, being a master is a lighter burden than being a slave. Being a master of seven
slaves is possible; being a slave of more than one master is difficult. The specification is vague
as to required behavior in scatternets. Many USB Bluetooth adapters or "dongles" are available,
some of which also include an IrDAadapter
Specifications and features
The Bluetooth specification was developed as a cable replacement, initiated by Nils
Rydbeck in 1994, first specification written by Tord Wingren and developed by Jaap
Haartsen and Sven Mattisson, who were working for Ericsson in Lund, Sweden. The
specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology.
The specifications were formalized by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). The SIG was
formally announced on 20 May 1998. Today it has a membership of over 20,000 companies
worldwide.[36] It was established by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Toshiba and Nokia, and later joined by
many other companies.
All versions of the Bluetooth standards are designed for downward compatibility. That lets the
latest standard cover all older versions.
The Bluetooth Core Specification Working Group (CSWG) produces mainly 4 kinds of
specifications
 The Bluetooth Core Specification, release cycle is typically a few years in between
 Core Specification Addendum (CSA), release cycle can be as tight as a few times per
year
 Core Specification Supplements (CSS), can be released very quickly
 Errata
Bluetooth v1.0 and v1.0B[
Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems, and manufacturers had difficulty making their
products interoperable. Versions 1.0 and 1.0B also included mandatory Bluetooth hardware
device address (BD_ADDR) transmission in the Connecting process (rendering anonymity
impossible at the protocol level), which was a major setback for certain services planned for use
in Bluetooth environments.
Bluetooth v1.1

Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2002[37]

Many errors found in the 1.0B specifications were fixed.

Added possibility of non-encrypted channels.

Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI).
Bluetooth v1.2
Major enhancements include the following:

Faster Connection and Discovery

Adaptive frequency-hopping spread spectrum (AFH), which improves resistance to radio
frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence.

Higher transmission speeds in practice, up to 721 kbit/s,[38] than in v1.1.

Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links
by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionally increase audio latency to
provide better concurrent data transfer.

Host Controller Interface (HCI) operation with three-wire UART.

Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1–2005[39]

Introduced Flow Control and Retransmission Modes for L2CAP.
Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR
This version of the Bluetooth Core Specification was released in 2004. The main difference is
the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data transfer. The nominal rate of
EDR is about 3 Mbit/s, although the practical data transfer rate is 2.1 Mbit/s. EDR uses a
combination of GFSK and Phase Shift Keying modulation (PSK) with two variants, π/4-
DQPSKand 8DPSK.[40] EDR can provide lower power consumption through a reduced duty
cycle.
The specification is published as "Bluetooth v2.0 + EDR" which implies that EDR is an optional
feature. Aside from EDR, there are other minor improvements to the 2.0 specification, and
products may claim compliance to "Bluetooth v2.0" without supporting the higher data rate. At
least one commercial device states "Bluetooth v2.0 without EDR" on its data sheet.
Bluetooth v2.1 + EDR
Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 + EDR was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 26 July
2007.
The headline feature of 2.1 is secure simple pairing (SSP): this improves the pairing experience
for Bluetooth devices, while increasing the use and strength of security. See the section
on Pairing below for more details
2.1 allows various other improvements, including "Extended inquiry response" (EIR), which
provides more information during the inquiry procedure to allow better filtering of devices
before connection; and sniff subrating, which reduces the power consumption in low-power
mode.
Bluetooth v3.0 + HS
Version 3.0 + HS of the Bluetooth Core Specification were adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on 21
April 2009. Bluetooth 3.0+HS provide theoretical data transfer speeds of up to 24 Mbit/s, though
not over the Bluetooth link itself. Instead, the Bluetooth link is used for negotiation and
establishment, and the high data rate traffic is carried over a collocated 802.11 link.
The main new feature is AMP (Alternative MAC/PHY), the addition of 802.11 as a high speed
transport. The High-Speed part of the specification is not mandatory, and hence only devices
sporting the "+HS" will actually support the Bluetooth over 802.11 high-speed data transfer. A
Bluetooth 3.0 device without the "+HS" suffix will not support High Speed, and needs to only
support a feature introduced in Core Specification Version 3.0 or earlier Core Specification
Addendum 1.

Uses

Max. permitted power

Typ. range[14]
Class
(m)
(mW) (dBm)

1 100 20 ~100

2 2.5 4 ~10

3 1 0 ~1

Bluetooth is a standard wire-replacement communications protocol primarily designed for low-

power consumption, with a short range based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each
device. Because the devices use a radio (broadcast) communications system, they do not have to
be in visual line of sight of each other, however a quasi optical wireless path must be viable.
Range is power-class-dependent, but effective ranges vary in practice; see the table on the
[5]

right.
Version Data rate Max. application throughput

1.2 1 Mbit/s >80 kbit/s

2.0 + EDR 3 Mbit/s >80 kbit/s

3.0 + HS 24 Mbit/s See Version 3.0 + HS

4.0 24 Mbit/s See Version 4.0 LE

The effective range varies due to propagation conditions, material coverage, production sample
variations, antenna configurations and battery conditions. Most Bluetooth applications are in
indoor conditions, where attenuation of walls and signal fading due to signal reflections will
cause the range to be far lower than the specified line-of-sight ranges of the Bluetooth products.
Most Bluetooth applications are battery powered Class 2 devices, with little difference in range
whether the other end of the link is a Class 1 or Class 2 device as the lower powered device tends
to set the range limit. In some cases the effective range of the data link can be extended when a
Class 2 devices is connecting to a Class 1 transceiver with both higher sensitivity and
transmission power than a typical Class 2 device. Mostly however the Class 1 devices have a
similar sensitivity to Class 2 devices. Connecting two Class 1 devices with both high sensitivity
and high power can allow ranges far in excess of the typical 100m, depending on the throughput
required by the application. Some such devices allow open field ranges of up to 1 km and beyond
between two similar devices without exceeding legal emission limits.
While the Bluetooth Core Specification does mandate minimal for range, the range of the
technology is application-specific and not limited. Manufacturers may tune their
implementations to the range needed for individual use cases.

Bluetooth protocol stack

Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Bluetooth is defined as a layer protocol architecture consisting of core protocols, cable

replacement protocols, telephony control protocols, and adopted protocols. Mandatory protocols
for all Bluetooth stacks are: LMP, L2CAP and SDP. In addition, devices that communicate with
Bluetooth almost universally can use these protocols: HCI and RFCOMM.
List of applications

Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands free head
set. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular.

Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a Bluetooth
compatible car stereo system.

Wireless control of and communication with tablets and speakers such as iPad and
Android devices.

Wireless Bluetooth headset and Intercom. Idiomatically, a headset is sometimes called "a
Bluetooth".

Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is
required.

Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the
mouse, keyboard and printer.

Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices
with OBEX.

Replacement of previous wired RS-232 serial communications in test equipment, GPS
receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices.

For controls where infrared was often used.

For low bandwidth applications where higher USB bandwidth is not required and cable-
free connection desired.

Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other,
discoverable, Bluetooth devices.

Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet (e.g., PROFINET) networks.

Three seventh and eighth generation game consoles, Nintendo's Wii and Sony’s
PlayStation, use Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers.

Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile
phone as a wireless modem.

Short range transmission of health sensor data from medical devices to mobile phone, set-
top box or dedicated tele health devices.

Allowing a DECT phone to ring and answer calls on behalf of a nearby mobile phone.

Real-time location systems (RTLS), are used to track and identify the location of objects
in real-time using “Nodes” or “tags” attached to, or embedded in the objects tracked, and
“Readers” that receive and process the wireless signals from these tags to determine their
locations.[25]

Personal security application on mobile phones for prevention of theft or loss of items.
The protected item has a Bluetooth marker (e.g., a tag) that is in constant communication with
the phone. If the connection is broken (the marker is out of range of the phone) then an alarm is
raised. This can also be used as a man overboard alarm. A product using this technology has
been available since 2009.[26]

Calgary, Alberta, Canada's Roads Traffic division uses data collected from travelers'
Bluetooth devices to predict travel times and road congestion for motorists.[27]

Wireless transmission of audio, (a more reliable alternative to FM transmitters)
3.5.1 History

Bluetooth is a worldwide initiative spearheaded by some of the leading powerhouses in

the electronics industry, chiefly Ericsson, Intel, IBM, Nokia, and Toshiba. Following initial
development by Ericsson, these firms started the Bluetooth special-interest group in 1998 with
the intent of developing a worldwide technology for wireless communication among diverse
devices. Bluetooth enables wireless data and voice communication via a short-range radio to
provide a low-cost solution for wireless information exchange. Targeted electronic devices
include handsets, notebooks, PCs, and personal digital assistants for the first wave. For instance,
this technology could enable Palm Pilots to synchronize with each other, PCs, or with a mobile
phone. This effort to provide a wide range of wireless data and voice communication to disparate
devices may have a significant impact on the way people synchronize and share data, in that the
time and ease of communicating improves radically. To date, no other effort has been so
comprehensive, incorporating potentially dozens of devices with eclectic user groups (most
notably the home and business user). Given an increasing desire amongst consumer and
commercial users for mobility and connectivity, Bluetooth proponents expect that the demand
for Bluetooth technology will lead to its rapid adoption. Dataquest estimates that two-thirds of
all new mobile phone handsets will utilize Bluetooth by 2004. That amounts to more than 570
million phones, as compared to less than 1% this year, or 1.2 million phones (See Exhibit 1).
Most believe that the growth and ultimate success of Bluetooth, much like fax machines and
email, will be dependent on Metcalfe’s Law, which states that the value of a system increases
proportionately to the number of nodes in that system.
 The Bluetooth SIG started out with a better strategy than many other technology
innovators. It marketed the Bluetooth concept and membership heavily, accentuating the
potential of the technology to hardware and software developers and manufacturers. Unlike some
earlier groups, this SIG encouraged broad membership, as it charges no fees to join—no
royalties, guarantees, or promises. This open standard has enabled the original five-member
group to reach more than 2,108 members to date; there is massive momentum behind this
initiative. More striking, the SIG has focused on a global roadmap from the onset, supporting
country-specific local laws and restrictions, thus lowering hurdles at the point of initialization.
The members of the SIG clearly understand that Bluetooth will create a "Mix and Match"
market, and have worked to unite a broad range of manufacturers under one standard and
minimize the uncertainty for manufacturers and consumers. From G. Moore's "Chasm"
perspective, the users are any firms that can utilize the technology, and SIG has attained critical
mass amongst these “users.” The manufacturer is the critical component of the adoption cycle,
rather than the consumer, because the benefits of the Bluetooth technology are dependent on the
availability of a complementary variety of Bluetooth enabled devices. Accordingly, the support
from a wide assortment of device manufacturers is essential to ensure widespread customer
adoption. Consequently, the SIG has dramatically shortened the product adoption cycle and
created market momentum that will surmount the chasm between early and mainstream markets.

Bluetooth itself is a low-power, short-range radio that will operate on average from 10
meters to 100 meters. These radios are built on silicon using the most common chip fabrication
technology, a CMOS (complimentary metal oxide silicon) process, although some will be built
on silicon-germanium wafers. The module, which essentially is a commodity radio, also includes
a baseband hardware link controller, a link management interface, and software applications to
run the module. The Bluetooth SIG expects the modules will cost $25-$30 each through the end
of 2000. Thereafter, the price is expected to decrease as the volumes increase, possibly to as low
as $5-$10 per module.

3.5.2 Advantages

Bluetooth has the potential to improve personal communications (consumer and

corporate) and productivity by creating personal networks between all of a user's electronic
devices. It operates in the unlicensed, internationally available 2.45GHz band and is a much
more robust technology than other wireless technologies used for similar applications, most
notably infrared-- which requires a line of sight link between communicating devices.
Bluetooth’s multidirectional capability makes the technology adaptable to a multitude of
applications. Additionally, Bluetooth can enable up to eight devices at one time, forming a
‘piconet’, communicating amongst themselves (See Exhibit 2).

Additionally, Bluetooth-enabled devices have greater computing power devoted to

communications compared to previous generations of devices, allowing for the power to
translate between internal languages of all sorts of devices thought to be previously
incompatible. As an example, a Bluetooth-enabled portable CD player would be able to play
with Bluetooth-enabled speakers in the absence of headphones. Accordingly, as that example
shows, Bluetooth’s most important hurdle is adoption, which is a function of the demonstrated
benefit being offered by a sufficient number of enabled devices.

3.5.3 Disadvantages

First and foremost, for Bluetooth to become widely adopted, the incremental costs for
enabling Bluetooth technology need to decline significantly. As mentioned, Bluetooth’s success
is network constrained - if it is not widely adopted, its usefulness and capabilities are limited,
much like applications like ICQ. Unlike ICQ, the cost for manufacturers to incorporate
Bluetooth chipsets into devices and the subsequent costs to consumers are presently quite high--
at its current cost levels, wide-scale adoption is not likely. While prices are anticipated to drop
to the $5 per device level, industry analysts believe that the $1 price point is needed for the
technology to become truly ubiquitous (i.e. in a variety of CE products, not simply limited to cell
phones and PDAs).

In the software and hardware industries, certain companies have been known to take
open, clearly defined standards, and modify them slightly, and then claim that the modified
standard was proprietary. In this way, standards have fragmented and products that should be
compatible have not been. New applications have also failed to be correctly aligned with the
traditional and ‘revised’ standards, leading to compatibility and design confusion concerns. A
positive for the Bluetooth platform is its capability to support the robust, versatile TCP/IP
platform.

Bluetooth is currently operating in an unlicensed spectrum- 2.45 GHz. This is potentially

a problem if other technologies using the spectrum will interfere with Bluetooth devices. While
2.45GHz is not presently heavily congested, neither were phone lines in 1993 with data
transmission. The point is that growth can be explosive with technologies that grow
geometrically. Bluetooth’s 79-channel architecture helps to curb cross-interference problems, as
each time it transmits a packet of information, it hops to a new frequency. Any problem
transmissions are re-transmitted on new frequencies. Nonetheless, despite the unique technology,
the possibility for problems exists.

It should be noted that this paper will not attempt to address the threats that extend
somewhat beyond Motorola's operational parameters (in the sense that Motorola cannot dictate
the usage parameters of unlicensed spectrum, nor control the development activities of
independent business entities). The paper assumes that most companies will adhere to the SIG
specifications and that the Bluetooth architecture will withstand bandwidth congestion; it then
focuses on the potential markets and immediate development strategies that Motorola should
undertake to effectively incorporate Bluetooth into the company's product portfolio and speed
Bluetooth on its way to widespread adoption.

3.5.4 Applications

According to Stephens, Inc., given Bluetooth’s status as an embryonic technology, the

market for Bluetooth-enabled devices has been characterized as “very much in its infancy stage.”
Nonetheless, there are numerous applications that Bluetooth enables in the marketplace. The
following delineates the potential markets for the Bluetooth under two broad categories,
Consumer and Corporate.

Consumer Market:

The SIG is initially launching Bluetooth as a cable replacement technology that is easy to
use and highly mobile. Accordingly, the most viable market will be the consumer market, which
can be divided into two separate areas: (i) Domestic applications (ii) Personal communications.

Domestic applications: encompass wireless connectivity for devices within the home
environment such as home entertainment equipment. This could be as simple as replacing
infrared remote controls for televisions and hi-fis with a Bluetooth device that obviates the need
for line of sight communication. Another example is a Bluetooth enabled DVD player that will
automatically connect itself to the TV, VCR, speakers et al without coaxial cables. The potential
utilization of Bluetooth includes the eventual wireless control of a multitude of domestic devices
from lighting to security systems.

Personal communications: covers applications that enhance the way individuals address their
communications needs. Per the Ovum report, the salient Bluetooth application can be effectively
described as “hidden computing”. This encompasses three elements: (i) Automatic file
synchronizer: Bluetooth permits users to automatically synchronize elements of their desktops,
laptops, PDAs and cellular phones. This includes automatic updating of the address book and
calendars with changes in one device automatically changed on another once the two come
within range of each other. (ii) Briefcase trick: a Bluetooth connection permits access to e-mail
without taking the laptop out of its case. When the laptop receives an e-mail, it will alert the user
via their cellular phone. The user can then browse all incoming e-mails via the cellular phone.
(iii) Forbidden message: this allows an e-mail composed on a laptop to be automatically sent to
the user's cellular phone when the latter is switched on. This is particularly useful for business
travelers who cannot send e-mails while on a plane - cellular phones must be switched off. This
feature can also be utilized in other places where mobile phones are not permitted, such as
hospitals.

Corporate Market:

Some of the applications enumerated for the consumer market are also applicable to the
corporate world, especially automatic file synchronization. The following are other viable
corporate areas for Bluetooth:

 Wireless Office Infrastructure: using Bluetooth to connect all desktop devices wirelessly. The
mouse, keyboard and desktop monitor can all be connected to the PC without wires, allowing
greater flexibility. This can also eliminate the need for connecting the PC to the printer and
the LAN
 “Dockers:” is a mobility version of corporate communications, where employees bring in
their laptop and connect to the company network without wires, using a docking station
 LAN-in-a-box applications: Bluetooth enables small groups of workers to establish their own
LAN while off-site, for example, for consulting engagements or audits
 Point-to-point and point-to-multipoint connections: Bluetooth is not limited to point-to-point
communication. By establishing an ad hoc LAN between up to eight devices, it creates a
 piconet; each device within the piconet can belong to more than one piconet at any one time,
creating a scatternet. Other wireless LAN technologies are not capable of this function
 Shared Sites: constitute large sites where there is heavy use of computing equipment and
high traffic volumes need to be catered for. Therefore, installing or moving a wired LAN can
be highly disruptive. Bluetooth can eliminate this. Segments within this market include
financial/securities markets, government offices and departments, hospitals and universities
 Difficult to wire environments: wireless connectivity via Bluetooth is effective where cabling
can cause problems. Public access locations where cabling runs the risk of being damaged
such as airports, department stores or hospitals. Industrial sites with potentially dangerous
environments such as extreme temperatures. Listed buildings with restrictions on building
modifications
3.5 Serial Port Applications:

Current State: Motorola is not currently working on applications that would allow a Bluetooth
enabled keyboard, mouse, or other serial device to connect wirelessly with a computer.

Relevance to Motorola’s Current Business Model/Complementary Assets: These products are

low-tech and low margin. Motorola does not have the expertise nor the complementary assets
required in manufacturing, marketing, or distributing these types of products.

Competitive Environment: Motorola would face fierce competition from established companies
such as Microsoft and Logitech.

Strategic Recommendation: Motorola would have to re-tool manufacturing facilities that are
producing high margin products in order to produce the low margin serial devices. Motorola
would also have to absorb the costs associated with traveling up the learning curve before it
could attain a similar cost base to its competitors. Additionally, avoiding head-to-head
competition with Microsoft is almost always a good strategy. Therefore, Motorola should not
devote resources to developing serial port applications.

Headsets:

Current State: Motorola is currently working on applications that would allow a Bluetooth
enabled cellular phone to connect with a wireless headset.
Relevance to Motorola’s Current Business Model/Complementary Assets: This product is a
critical product offering to stay competitive in the cellular phone sector. The headset, for all
intents and purposes, is a radio, and Motorola has a strong development and distribution
foundation for these types of products.

Competitive Environment: Motorola will face competition from the traditional cellular phone
manufacturers, such as Ericsson and Nokia, because all manufacturers will need to offer a
wireless headset to complement their phones.

Strategic Recommendation: Motorola should invest the necessary resources to get to market
quickly with a high-quality wireless headset. This application will also allow cellular phone
customers to experience the benefits of Bluetooth in a familiar, easy-to-use product with obvious
benefits.

3.6 Dial-up Modem Networking / Faxing:

Current State: Motorola is not working on a stand-alone wireless modem/fax application that
utilizes Bluetooth.

Relevance to Motorola’s Current Business Model/Complementary Assets: Motorola has robust

experience and complementary assets in both wireless technology and wireline modem
manufacturing.

Competitive Environment: The market for wireless modems, connected by cable from the PC to
(usually) a cell phone with modem capability is not large because current performance level's are
in the 14.4 Kbps range. Demand is expected to increase as wireless data rates increase between
the wireless modem devices and the cellular infrastructure.

Strategic Recommendation: Motorola should not invest in developing standalone wireless

modem devices. They should continue to focus on the development process for high-speed,
cellular phone-based wireless modems with Bluetooth interface capability. Motorola should
increase development expenditures, as necessary, to ensure that cell phone/modem's availability
coincides with the availability of high-speed cellular data infrastructure (projected for the first
half of 2002).

3.7 LAN Access:

Current State: Motorola is not presently working on Bluetooth enabled access point connections
to company Intranets.

Relevance to Motorola’s Current Business Model/Complementary Assets: Although LAN access

is similar to wireless modem capability, there are some additional complexities involved in LAN
access. There would be a need for substantial software development resources while Motorola is
just beginning to invest in and grow its software development capabilities. Moreover, Motorola
has limited experience with competing in the networking products arena.

Competitive Environment: There are already competing formats for wireless LAN access such as
Hiper LAN and IEEE802.11. These products/standards permit data transmissions at speeds
much faster than Bluetooth and over much longer distances.

Strategic Recommendation: Because of its lack of complementary assets and experience,

Motorola should not invest resources in developing Bluetooth products aimed at this market.

3.8 Advantages:

Bluetooth has a lot to offer with an increasingly difficult market place. Bluetooth helps to
bring with it the promise of freedom from the cables and simplicity in networking that has yet to
be matched by LAN (Local Area Network).

In the key marketplace, of wireless and handheld devices, the closest competitor to
Bluetooth is infrared. Infrared holds many key features, although the line of sight it provides
doesn't go through walls or through obstacles like that of the Bluetooth technology.

Unlike infrared, Bluetooth isn't a line of sight and it provides ranges of up to 100 meters.
Bluetooth is also low power and low processing with an overhead protocol. What this means, is
that it's ideal for integration into small battery powered devices. To put it short, the applications
with Bluetooth are virtually endless.

3.9 Disadvantages:

Bluetooth has several positive features and one would be extremely hard pressed to find
downsides when given the current competition. The only real downsides are the data rate and
security. Infrared can have data rates of up to 4 MBps, which provides very fast rates for data
transfer, while Bluetooth only offers 1 MBps.
 For this very reason, infrared has yet to be dispensed with completely and is considered
by many to be the complimentary technology to that of Bluetooth. Infrared has inherent security
due to its line of sight.

The greater range and radio frequency (RF) of Bluetooth make it much more open to
interception and attack. For this reason, security is a very key aspect to the Bluetooth
specification.

Although there are very few disadvantages, Bluetooth still remains the best for short
range wireless technology. Those who have tried it love it, and they know for a fact that
Bluetooth will be around for years to come.

3.6 Relay:

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a

switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal, or where several circuits must be
controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating
the signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays found extensive
use in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations. A type of relay
that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor.
Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor
device triggered by light to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics
and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or
faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments
still called "protection relays".
Types of relays:
1. Simple electromechanical relay:

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an iron
yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and a
set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged to the yoke and
mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by a spring so that when
the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the
two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may
have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has
a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the
moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit board (PCB) via the
yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

Basic design and operation:

When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts the
armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact or contacts either makes or
breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when the relay was
De-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the connection, and vice versa if
the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off, the armature is returned by a
force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this
force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters.
Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce
noise. In a high voltage or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.

If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate the
energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise generate a
voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays already include a diode
inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact protection network, consisting of a capacitor and
resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil is designed to be energized with AC, a small
copper ring can be crimped to the end of the solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-
phase current, which increases the minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is made
with a thyristor or other solid-state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation an opt
coupler can be used which is a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor. Small
relay as used in electronics

2. Latching relay

Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The ratchet operates
a cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-on just below it. The moving
and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi stable). These are also called "impulse", "keep", or
"stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is achieved
with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing coils with an
over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in position while the
coil is relaxed, or with a remnant core. In the ratchet and cam example, the first pulse to the coil
turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example, a pulse to one coil
turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type of relay has the
advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched, and it retains its
last setting across a power outage. A remnant core latching relay requires a current pulse of
opposite polarity to make it change state.

3. Reed relay

A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which protects
the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a magnetic field generated
when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed relays are capable of faster
switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low switch current and voltage ratings.
4. Mercury-wetted relay

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) because of their
low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing applications where the mercury
eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted
vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays
are rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury switch.

5. Polarized relay

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to increase
sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to detect
faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician could
first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical current
that would operate the relay.

6. Machine tool relay

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to normally-
closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly installing many
relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of automation in such
industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC) mostly displaced
the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
7. Contactor relay

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting loads.
Continuous current ratings for common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps.
High-current contacts are made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the
contacts to oxidize; however, silver oxide is still a good conductor. Such devices are often used
for motor starters. A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The
overload sensing devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or
where a solder pot melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary
contacts are in series with the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is
de-energized. Contactor relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use
where noise is a chief concern.

8. Solid-state relay

Solid state relay, which has no moving parts

25 A or 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function to
an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-term
reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a small
voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could handle.
As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes, have
become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.

9. Solid state contactor relay

A solid state contactor is a very heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink,
used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent
on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce
due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from
Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other
microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

10. Buchholz relay

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas
is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.

11. Forced-guided contacts relay

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together, so that
when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together. If one
set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will be able
to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check the status
of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts", "captive
contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".
12. Overload protection relay

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the motor, or
to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor windings. One
type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element in series with
the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip or melts
solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the same
environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient temperature is
provided.

13. Pole and throw:

Circuit symbols of relays. "C" denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.

The diagram on the package of a DPDT AC coil relay

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay
will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in
one of three ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit
is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make"
contact.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or
"break" contact.

 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-
open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a
Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact
utilizes” make before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.

The following designations are commonly encountered:

 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is
ambiguous whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology
"SPNO" and "SPNC" is sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.

 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two
SPST switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay
has six terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).

 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals.
Equivalent to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has
eight terminals, including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a
single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).
Applications of Relays:
 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or
audio amplifiers,
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile,

 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing
circuit breakers (protection relays),

A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

 Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage
switch. The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are
easily installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also
be controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
 Logic functions. For example, the Boolean AND function is realized by connecting
normally open relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open
contacts in parallel. The change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or)
function. Similar functions for NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed
contacts. The Ladder programming language is often used for designing relay logic
networks.

o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2,
and Zuse Z3.
 o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors
to nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the
control panels of radioactive waste-handling machinery.

 Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of
contacts. A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the
armature and moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic
field for a short time, lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute)
delay, a dashpot is used. A dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape
slowly. The time period can be varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For
longer time periods, a mechanical clockwork timer is installed.

Advantages of relays:

 Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
 Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.

 Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

 Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Disadvantages of relays:
 Relays are bulkier than transistors for switching small currents.
 Relays cannot switch rapidly (except reed relays), transistors can switch many times per
second.

 Relays use more power due to the current flowing through their coil.

 Relays require more current than many ICs can provide, so a low power transistor
may be needed to switch the current for the relay's coil.
Relay Driver:

The current needed to operate the relay coil is more than can be supplied by most chips
(op. amps etc), so a transistor is usually needed, as shown in the diagram below.

Use BC109C or similar. A resistor of about 4k7 will probably be alright. The diode is
needed to short circuit the high voltage “back emf” induced when current flowing through the
coil is suddenly switched off.

Fig. 7.2 Relay Driver

3.8 Dc motor:

A dc motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, very typically through the

interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, producing
electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by
an alternator, generator or dynamo. Many types of electric motors can be run as generators, and
vice versa. The input of a DC motor is current/voltage and its output is torque (speed).
 Fig 3.19: DC Motor

The DC motor has two basic parts: the rotating part that is called the armature and the stationary
part that includes coils of wire called the field coils. The stationary part is also called the stator.
Figure shows a picture of a typical DC motor, Figure shows a picture of a DC armature, and Fig
shows a picture of a typical stator. From the picture you can see the armature is made of coils of
wire wrapped around the core, and the core has an extended shaft that rotates on bearings. You
should also notice that the ends of each coil of wire on the armature are terminated at one end of
the armature. The termination points are called the commutator, and this is where the brushes
make electrical contact to bring electrical current from the stationary part to the rotating part of
the machine.

Operation:
The DC motor you will find in modem industrial applications operates very similarly to
the simple DC motor described earlier in this chapter. Figure 12-9 shows an electrical diagram of
a simple DC motor. Notice that the DC voltage is applied directly to the field winding and the
brushes. The armature and the field are both shown as a coil of wire. In later diagrams, a field
resistor will be added in series with the field to control the motor speed.

When voltage is applied to the motor, current begins to flow through the field coil from the
negative terminal to the positive terminal. This sets up a strong magnetic field in the field
winding. Current also begins to flow through the brushes into a commutator segment and then
through an armature coil. The current continues to flow through the coil back to the brush that is
attached to other end of the coil and returns to the DC power source. The current flowing in the
armature coil sets up a strong magnetic field in the armature.

Fig 3.20: Simple electrical diagram of DC motor

Fig 3.21: Operation of a DC Motor

The magnetic field in the armature and field coil causes the armature to begin to
rotate. This occurs by the unlike magnetic poles attracting each other and the like magnetic poles
repelling each other. As the armature begins to rotate, the commutator segments will also begin
to move under the brushes. As an individual commutator segment moves under the brush
connected to positive voltage, it will become positive, and when it moves under a brush
connected to negative voltage it will become negative. In this way, the commutator segments
continually change polarity from positive to negative. Since the commutator segments are
connected to the ends of the wires that make up the field winding in the armature, it causes the
magnetic field in the armature to change polarity continually from north pole to south pole. The
commutator segments and brushes are aligned in such a way that the switch in polarity of the
armature coincides with the location of the armature's magnetic field and the field winding's
magnetic field. The switching action is timed so that the armature will not lock up magnetically
with the field. Instead the magnetic fields tend to build on each other and provide additional
torque to keep the motor shaft rotating.
When the voltage is de-energized to the motor, the magnetic fields in the armature
and the field winding will quickly diminish and the armature shaft's speed will begin to drop to
zero. If voltage is applied to the motor again, the magnetic fields will strengthen and the
armature will begin to rotate again.

Types of DC motors:

1. DC Shunt Motor,

2. DC Series Motor,

3. DC Long Shunt Motor (Compound)

4. DC Short Shunt Motor (Compound)

The rotational energy that you get from any motor is usually the battle between two magnetic
fields chasing each other. The DC motor has magnetic poles and an armature, to which DC
electricity is fed, The Magnetic Poles are electromagnets, and when they are energized, they
produce a strong magnetic field around them, and the armature which is given power with a
commutator, constantly repels the poles, and therefore rotates.

1. The DC Shunt Motor:

In a 2 pole DC Motor, the armature will have two separate sets of windings, connected to a
commutator at the end of the shaft that are in constant touch with carbon brushes. The brushes
are static, and the commutator rotate and as the portions of the commutator touching the
respective positive or negative polarity brush will energize the respective part of the armature
with the respective polarity. It is usually arranged in such a way that the armature and the poles
are always repelling.

The general idea of a DC Motor is, the stronger the Field Current, the stronger the magnetic
field, and faster the rotation of the armature. When the armature revolves between the poles, the
magnetic field of the poles induce power in the armature conductors, and some electricity is
generated in the armature, which is called back emf, and it acts as a resistance for the armature.
Generally an armature has resistance of less than 1 Ohm, and powering it with heavy voltages of
Direct Current could result in immediate short circuits. This back emf helps us there.

When an armature is loaded on a DC Shunt Motor, the speed naturally reduces, and therefore the
back emf reduces, which allows more armatures current to flow. This results in more armature
field, and therefore it results in torque.

Fig: Diagram of DC shunt motor

When a DC Shunt Motor is overloaded, if the armature becomes too slow, the reduction of the
back emf could cause the motor to burn due to heavy current flow thru the armature.

The poles and armature are excited separately, and parallel, therefore it is called a Shunt Motor.

2. The DC Series Motor:

Fig: Diagram of DC series motor

A DC Series Motor has its field coil in series with the armature. Therefore any amount of power
drawn by the armature will be passed thru the field. As a result you cannot start a Series DC
Motor without any load attached to it. It will either run uncontrollably in full speed, or it will
stop.

Fig: Diagram of DC series motor graph representation

When the load is increased then its efficiency increases with respect to the load applied. So these
are on Electric Trains and elevators.

3. DC Compound Motor:

A compound of Series and Shunt excitation for the fields is done in a Compound DC Motor. This
gives the best of both series and shunt motors. Better torque as in a series motor, while the
possibility to start the motor with no load.
Fig: Diagram of DC compound motor

Above is the diagram of a long shunt motor, while in a short shunt, the shunt coil will be
connected after the serial coil.

A Compound motor can be run as a shunt motor without connecting the serial coil at all but not
vice versa.

3.6 PLOUGH

The main implement used for primary tillage is a plough. Ploughing essentially
consists of opening the upper crust of the soil, breaking the clods and making the soil
suitable for sowing seeds. The purpose of ploughing can be summarized as follows

♦ To obtain a deep seed bed of good texture.

♦ To increase the water holding capacity of the soil. ♦

To improve soil aeration.
♦ To destroy weeds and grasses. ♦
To destroy insects and pests. ♦ To
prevent soil erosion and

♦ To add fertility to the soil by covering vegetation.

Classification of ploughs according to power used

a) Bullock drawn ploughs- indigenous types

ii) Walking type

- Short beam
- Long beam

ii) Riding type

7. Tractor drawn ploughs

mounted type

ii) Semi mounted type

INDIGENOUS PLOUGH

It is an animal drawn plough. It penetrates into the soil and breaks it open. It
forms V shaped furrows with 15-20 cm top width and 12-15 cm depth. It can be used for
ploughing in dry land, garden land and wetlands. The size of the plough is represented by
the width of the body and the field capacity is around 0.4 ha per day of 8 hours. The
functional components include share, body, shoe, handle and beam. Except share all other
parts are made up of wood. In villages local artisans make the plough and supply to the
farmers. These ploughs are also called as country ploughs
 Indigenous plough

Share - It is the working part of the plough attached to the shoe with which it
penetrates into the soil and breaks it open.

Shoe - It supports and stabilizes the plough at the required depth.

Body - It is the main part of the plough to which the shoe, beam and handle are
attached. In country ploughs both body and shoe are made in a single piece of wood..

Beam - It is a long wooden piece, which connects the main body of the plough to
the yoke.

Handle - A wooden piece vertically attached to the body to enable the operator to
control the plough while it is working

In each state farmers use indigenous ploughs of their own make.

Operational adjustments

a. Lowering or raising the free end of the beam with respect to the plough body
results in an increase or decrease in the share angle with respect to the horizontal surface
which in turn increase or decrease the depth of ploughing.

b. Changing the length of the beam between plough body and yoke of the animals
will also alter the depth of ploughing. Reducing the beam length will decrease the depth
of cut and vice versa.

MOULD BOARD PLOUGH

Mouldboard plough is one of the oldest of all agricultural implements and is

generally considered to be the important tillage implement. Ploughing accounts for more
traction energy than any other field operation. Mouldboard ploughs are available for
animals, power tiller and tractor operation. While working, a mouldboard plough does
four jobs namely a) cutting the furrow slice b) lifting the furrow slice c) inverting the
furrow slice and d) pulverizing the furrow slice

Two bottom mouldboard plough

Tractor with two bottom mouldboard plough
 Land ploughed by a mouldboard plough
COMPONENTS OF A MOULDBOARD PLOUGH

A animal drawn mouldboard plough consists of a) plough bottom b) beam and c)

hitch bracket or clevis. A tractor drawn mouldboard plough consists of a) plough bottom
b) beam or standard c) main frame and d) hitch frame

a)Plough bottom – The part of the plough which actually cuts, lifts, pulverizes and
through the soil out of the furrow. It is composed of those parts necessary for the rigid
structure required to cut, lift, turn, and invert the soil. Parts of the mouldboard plough
bottom are a) Share b) Mould board c) Land side d) Frog and e) Tail piece. Share,
landside, mouldboard are bolted to the frog which is an irregular piece of cast iron.

Components of Mould Board plough

b) Share: It is that part of the plough bottom which penetrates into the soil and makes a
horizontal cut below the surface.

c) Mould board: It is the curved part which lifts , turns, and pulverizes the soil slice.

d) Land side: It is the flat plate which presses against the furrow wall and prevents the
plough from lateral swinging. The rear part of land side is called heel which slides on
the bottom of the furrow

e) Frog: It is the part to which share, land side and mouldboard are attached.

f) Tail piece: It is an adjustable extension, which can be fastened to the rear of the mould
board to help in turning the furrow slice.
DETAILS ABOUT DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF MOULDBOARD PLOUGH

1. Share - It penetrates into the soil and makes a horizontal cut below the soil surface . It
is a sharp, well polished and pointed component. Different portions of the share are
called by different names such as

1) Share point 2) Cutting edge 3) Wing of share 4) Gunnel 5) Cleavage edge and 6) Wing
bearing.

Share
a) Share point : It is the forward end of the cutting edge which actually penetrates into
the soil

b) Cutting edge: It is the front edge of the share which makes horizontal cut in the soil.
It is beveled to some distance.

c) Wing of share: It is the outer end of the cutting edge of the share. It supports the
plough bottom

e) Gunnel: It is the vertical face of the share which slides along the furrow wall. It takes
the side thrust of the soil and supports the plough bottom against the furrow wal .
f) Cleavage edge: It is the edge of the share which forms joint between moulboard and
share on the frog.

g) Wing bearing: It is the level portion of the wing of the share, providing a bearing for
the outer corner of the plough bottom.
Material of share: The shares are made of chilled cast iron or steel. The steel mainly
contains about 0.70 to 0.80% carbon and about 0.50 to 0.80% manganese besides other
minor elements.

2. Types of Shares

Share is of different types such as i) Slip share ii) Slip nose share iii) Shin share
and iv) Bar point share.
 Types of shares

i) Slip share: It is one piece share with curved cutting edge, having no additional part.

It is a common type of share, mostly used by the farmers. It is simple in design, but it has
got the disadvantage that the entire share has to be replaced if it is worn out due to
constant use .

ii) Slip nose share: It is a share in which the point of share is provided by a small
detachable piece. It has the advantage that the share point can be replaced as and when
required. If the point is worn out, it can be changed with a new nose without replacing the
entire share, effecting considerable economy.

iii) Shin share: It is the share having a shin as an additional part.

It is similar to the slip share with the difference that an extension is provided to it
by the side of the mouldboard.

iv) Bar point share: It is the share in which the point of the share is provided by an
adjustable and replaceable iron bar. This bar serves the purpose of share point and
land side of the plough.

3. Mouldboard: It is that part of the plough which receives the furrow slice from the share.
If lifts, turns and breaks the furrow slice. To suit different soil conditions and crop
requirements, mouldboard has been designed in different shapes. The mouldboard is of
following types: a) General purpose b) Stubble type c) Sod or Breaker type and d) Slat
type.
 Types of mould board

a) General purpose: It is a mouldboard having medium curvature lying between stubble

and sod types. The mouldboard is fairly long with a gradual twist, the surface being
slightly convex. The sloping of the surface is gradual. It turns a well defined furrow slice
and pulverizes the soil thoroughly.

b) Stubble type: It is short but broader mouldboard with a relatively abrupt curvature

which lifts, breaks and turns the furrow slice. .This is best suited to work in stubble soil
that is under cultivation for years together. Stubble soil is that soil in which stubble of the
plants from the previous crop is still left on the land at the time of ploughing. This type of
mouldboard is not suitable for lands with full of grasses.

c) Sod or Breaker type: It is a long mould board with gentle curvature which lifts and
inverts the unbroken furrow slice.. It turns over thickly covered soil. This is very useful
where complete inversion of soil is required by the farmer. This type has been designed
for used in sod soils (soil with much of grass).
d) Slat type: It is a mouldboard whose surface is made of slats placed along the length of
the mouldboard, so that there are gaps between the slats. This type of mouldboard is often
used, where the soil is sticky, because the solid mouldboard does not scour well in sticky
soils.

4) Land side: It is the flat plate which presses against and transmits lateral thrust of the
plough bottom to the furrow wall (Fig.6 ). It helps to resist the side pressure exerted by
the furrow slice on the mouldboard. It also helps in stabilizing the plough while in
operations. Land side is fastened to the frog with the help of plough bolts. The rear
bottom end of the land side is known as heel which rubs against the furrow sole.
 Mould board bottom

5) Frog: Frog is that part of the plough bottom to which the other components of the
plough bottom are attached. It is an irregular piece of metal. It is made of cast iron for
cast iron ploughs or it may be welded steel for steel ploughs.

6) Tail piece: It is an important extension of mouldboard which helps in turning a furrow

slice.

PLOUGH ACCESSORIES

There are a few accessories necessary for efficient function of the plough. They
are (i) Jointer (ii) Coulter (iii) Gauge wheel (iv) Land wheel and (v) Furrow wheel.

a) Jointer

It is a small irregular piece of metal having a shape similar to an ordinary plough

bottom. It looks like a miniature plough. Its purpose is to turn over a small ribbon like
furrow slice directly in front of the main plough bottom. This small furrow slice is cut
from the left and upper side of the main furrow slice and is inverted so that all trashes on
the top of the soil are completely turned down and buried under the right hand corner of
the furrow.
b) Coulter

It is a device used to cut the furrow slice vertically from the land ahead of the
plough bottom. It cuts the furrow slice from the land and leaves a clear wall. It also cuts
trashes which are covered under the soil by the plough. The coulter may be (a) Rolling
type disc coulter or (b) Sliding type knife coulter.

Rolling type disc coulter

It is a round steel disk which has been sharpened on the edge and suspended on a
shank and yoke from the beam. The edge of the coulter may be either smooth or notched.
It is so fitted that it can be adjusted up-down and side ways. The up-down adjustment
takes care of depth and sideways adjustment is meant for taking care of width of cut.

Sliding type knife coulter

It is a stationary knife fixed downward in a vertical position on the beam. The

knife does not roll over the ground but slides on the ground. The knife may be of
different shapes and sizes.

c) Gauge wheel

It is an auxiliary wheel of an implement to maintain an uniform depth of working.

Gauge wheel helps to maintain uniformity in respect of depth of ploughing in

different soil conditions. It is usually placed in hanging position.

d) Land wheel -It is the wheel of the plough which runs on the ploughed land.

e) Front furrow wheel - It is the front wheel of the plough which runs in the furrow.

f) Rear furrow wheel -It is the rear wheel of the plough which runs in the furrow.
ADJUSTMENT OF MOULDBOARD PLOUGH

For proper penetration and efficient work by the mouldboard plough, some
adjustments are made from time to trime. They are (i) Vertical suction and (ii) Horizontal
suction.

a) Vertical suction (Vertical clearance)

It is the maximum clearance under the land side and the horizontal surface when
the plough is resting on a horizontal surface in the working position. It is also defined as
the vertical distance from the ground, measured at the joining point of share and land
side. (Fig.7a). It helps the plough to penetrate into the soil to a proper depth. This
clearance varies according to the size of the plough.

Vertical clearance horizontal clearances

b) Horizontal suction (Horizontal clearance)

It is the maximum clearance between the land side and the furrow wall. This
suction helps the plough to cut the proper width of furrow slice. This clearance also
varies according to the size of the plough. It is also known as side clearance.

c) Throat clearance
 It is the perpendicular distance between share point and lower position of the
beam of the plough .

Throat clearance of plough

TYPES OF MOULDBOARD PLOUGHS

1) Fixed type (one way) mouldboard plough

One way plough throws the furrow slice to one side of the direction of travel and
is commonly used everywhere. It may be long beam type or short beam type

2) Two-way or Reversible plough

It is a mouldboard plough which turns furrow slice to the right or left side of
direction of travel as required. Such ploughs have two sets of opposed bottoms. In such a
plough, all furrows can be turned towards the same side of the field by using one bottom
for one direction of travel and the other bottom on the return trip. Two sets of bottom are
so mounted that they can be raised or lowered independently or rotated along an axis.
Two way ploughs have the advantage that they neither upset the slope of the land nor
leave dead furrows or back furrows in the middle of the field.

3) Turn wrest plough

 There are some reversible ploughs which have single bottom with an arrangement
that the plough bottom is changed from right hand to left hand or vice versa by rotating
the bottom through approximately 180° about a longitudinal axis. This type of plough is
called turn wrest plough . While moving in one direction, the plough throws the soil in
one direction and at the return trip the direction of the plough bottom is changed, thus the
plough starts throwing the soil in the same direction as before.

Turn wrest plough

OTHER TERMS CONNECTED WITH

PLOUGHS a) Vertical clevis

It is a vertical plate with a number of holes and fitted at the end of the beam. By
using the clevis depth of operation and line of pull are adjusted
 Clevis and line of pull

b) Horizontal clevis

It is a device used to make lateral adjustment of the plough relative to the line of

pull.

c) Plough size

The perpendicular distance from wing of the share to the line jointing the point of
the share and heel of land side is called size of plough. The size of the plough is also
called as width of cut of the soil.

d) Centre of power

It is the true point of hitch of a tractor

e) Centre of resistance: It is the point at which the resultant of all the horizontal and
vertical forces act. The center lies at a distance equal to ¾ size of the plough from the
share wing

f) Line of pull: It is the line passing through the centre of pull, the hitch point and centre
of resistance

g) Pull

It is the total force required to pull an implement.

 Centre of resistance

h) Draft

It is the horizontal component of the pull, parallel to the line of motion.

Draft , D = P cos θ

Where D = draft in kgf

P = pull in kgf

θ = angle between line of pull and horizontal.

i) Horse power

HP =

Draft depends upon 1) sharpness of cutting edge 2) working speed 3) working width 4)
working depth 5) type of implement 6) soil condition and 7) attachments.
j) Side draft

It is the horizontal component of the pull perpendicular to the direction of motion.

This is developed if the centre of resistance is not directly behind the centre of pull.

k) Unit draft

It is the draft per unit cross sectional area of the furrow.

DISC PLOUGH

A action of a disc plough is similar to the mouldboard plough. Disc plough cuts,
turns and in some cases breaks furrow slices by means of separately mounted large steel
concave discs. A disc plough is designed with a view to reduce friction by making a
rolling plough bottom instead of sliding plough bottom as in the case of mouldboard
plough. A disc plough works well in the conditions where mouldboard plough does not
work satisfactorily.

Three bottom disc plough

 Two bottom disc plough

Advantages of disc plough

♦ A disc plough can be forced to penetrate into the soil which is too hard and dry for
working with a mouldboard plough.

♦ It works well in sticky soils in which a mouldboard plough does not scour.
♦ It is more useful for deep ploughing.

♦ It can be used safely in rough, stony and stumpy soils without much danger of
breakage.

♦ A disc plough works well even after a considerable part of the disc is worn out in
abrasive soils.

♦ It works well in loose soils also (such as peat) without much clogging.

Disadvantages of disc plough

♦ It is not suitable for covering surface trash and weeds as effectively as a mouldboard
plough

♦ Comparatively, a disc plough leaves the soil in rough and cloddy condition than that of
a mouldboard plough.

♦ Disc plough is much heavier than mouldboard plough for equal capacities because
penetration of disc plough is effected largely by its weight rather than suction.
(Mouldboard plough is forced into the soil by the suction of the plough, while the disc

plough is forced into the soil by its own weight).

TYPES OF DISC PLOUGHS

Disc ploughs are of two types (i) Standard disc plough and (ii) Vertical disc
plough.

1. Standard disc plough

A standard disc plough consists of a series of individually mounted, inclined disc

blades on a frame supported by wheels. These ploughs usually have from 2 to 6 disc
blades, spaced to cut 18 to 30 cm per disc. Each disc revolves on a stub axle in a thrust
bearing, carried at the lower end of a strong standard which is bolted to the plough beam
The discs are tilted backward at an angle of 15 – 25º from the vertical (tilt angle) and
with a horizontal diameter disc face angle of 42 – 45 º (disc angle) from the direction of
travel. Disc diameters are commonly 60 – 70 cm. In action, the discs cut the soil, break it
and push it sideways. There is little inversion of furrow slice as well as little burying of
weeds and trashes compared to mouldboard plough. Scrapers are furnished as regular
equipment on most standard disc ploughs which assist in covering trash and prevent soil
build up on discs in sticky soils. Disc ploughs are most suitable for conditions under
which a mouldboard plough do not work satisfactorily, such as in hard, dry soil, in sticky
soils where a mould board will not scour, and in loose push type soil such as peat lands.
(A mouldboard plough in soils and moisture conditions where it works satisfactorily does
a better job than a disc plough and has a low specific graft)

Standard disc plough

A few important terms connected with disc plough are explained below

Disc: It is a circular, concave revolving steel plate used for cutting and inverting the soil.
Disc angle: It is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is inclined to
the direction of travel . Usually the disc angle of good plough varies between 42° to 45°.

Tilt angle: It is the angle at which the plane of the cutting edge of the disc is inclined to a
vertical line. The tilt angle varies from 15° to 25° for a good plough.

Scraper: It is a device to remove soil that tends to stick to the working surface of a disc.
Concavity: It is the depth measured at the centre of the disc by placing its concave side
on a flat surface.
 Angles of disc plough

Adjustments in disc plough

To obtain proper degree of pulverization and depth of cut there are certain
adjustments to be made n the disc plough as follows

1. Increase the tilt angle to increase penetration ( depth of cut)

2. Increase the disc angle to increase the width of cut. But increasing disc angle will
reduce the depth of cut

3. Addition of weights on the plough will increase the penetrations

4. Keep the disc edges sharp. This will reduce the draft requirement

Adjust the plough wheels properly to keep the plough running

level 2. Reversible disc plough

It is similar to standard disc plough , except that it can turn over the furrow slice
to left or right side. It not only improves the rate of work but also leaves the field flat and
level. This plough is found very successful for contour ploughing because the operation
can be performed back and forth. on the contour line without any problem. The soil is
turned in the direction required to prevent soil erosion. Slopes can also be gradually
leveled just by ploughing down the slope every year. It saves water and time , improves
irrigation efficiency and ensures an even crop growth. and no water wastage.. The disc
are rotated from one side to another by using a lever.

ROTARY TILLER
 The rotary cultivator is widely considered to be the most important tool as it
provides fine degree of pulverization enabling the necessary rapid and intimate mixing of
soil besides reduction in traction demanded by the tractor driving wheels due to the
ability of the soil working blades to provide some forward thrust to the cultivating outfit.

The functional components include tynes, rotor, transmission system, universal

joint, leveling board, shield, depth control arrangement, clutch and three point linkage
connection Rotary tiller is directly mounted to the tractor with the help of three point
linkage. The power is transmitted from the tractor PTO (Power Take Off) shaft to a bevel
gear box mounted on the top of the unit, through telescopic shaft and universal joint.
From the bevel gear box the drive is further transmitted to a power shaft, chain and
sprocket transmission system to the rotor. The tynes are fixed to the rotor and the rotor
with tynes revolves in the same direction as the tractor wheels. The number of tynes
varies from 28 - 54. A leveling board is attached to the rear side of the unit for leveling
the tilled soil. A depth control lever with depth wheel provided on either side of the unit
ensures proper depth control. The cost of the unit varies from Rs.62, 000/- to 1,10,000/-.
The following types of blades are used with the rotor.

i. 'L' type blade - Works well in trashy conditions, they are more effective in cutting
weeds and they do not pulverize the soil much.

ii. Twisted blade - Suitable for deep tillage in relatively clean ground, but clogging and
wrapping of trashes on the tynes and shafts.

iii. Straight blade - Employed on mulchers designed mainly for secondary

tillage.

The benefits of the rotary tiller are effective pulverization of soil ensures good
plant growth, stubble and roots are completely cut and mixed with the soil and proper
ground leveling after the operation.
Rotary tiller- Tractor operated
 Components of rotary tiller- Tractor operated

CHISEL PLOUGH

Chisel ploughs are used to break through and shatter compacted or otherwise
impermeable soil layers. Deep tillage shatters compacted sub soil layers and aids in better
infiltration and storage of rainwater in the crop root zone. The improved soil structure also
results in better development of root system and the yield of crops and their drought tolerance is
also improved. The functional component of the unit include reversible share, tyne (chisel),
beam, cross shaft and top link connection .

Chisel plough

SUB-SOIL PLOUGH
 The function of the sub-soiler is to penetrate deeper than the conventional cultivation
machinery and break up the layers of the soil, which have become compacted due to the
movement of heavy machinery or as a result of continuous ploughing at a constant depth These
compacted areas prevent the natural drainage of the soil and also inhibit the passage of air and
nutrients through the soil structure. The sub-soiler consists of heavier tyne than the chisel plough
to break through impervious layer shattering the sub-soil to a depth of 45 to 75 cm (Fig.3) and
requires 60 to 100 hp to operate it. The advantages are same as that of chisel plough. The cost of
the unit is Rs.13, 000/-.

Sub soiler
 Sub soiler

CLASSIFICATION OF TRACTOR DRAWN IMPLEMENTS BASED ON HITCHING

TO THE TRACTOR

Tractor drawn implements possess higher working capacity and are operated at

higher speeds. These implements need more technical knowledge for operations and maintenance
work. Based on the type of hitching tractor drawn implements are classified as a) Trailed type
implement b) Semi-mounted implement and c) Mounted implement

a) Pull type implement

A pull type or trailed implement is one that is pulled and guided from single hitch point
and is never completed supported by the tractor.

b) Semi-mounted implement

This type of implement is one which is attached to the tractor along a hinge axis and not
at a single hitch point. It is controlled directly by tractor steering unit but its weight is partly
supported by the tractor.

c) Mounted implement
 A mounted implement is one which is attached to the tractor through a hitch linkage in
such a manner that it is completely supported by the tractor when in raised position. The
implement can be controlled directly by the tractor steering unit. .

3.7 Level

Material and Method

The simulation software may be general-pur-pose, intended to capture a variety of develop-mental

processes depending on the input files, or special-purpose, intended to capture a specific phenomenon
(Caliskan et al., 2010a; 2010b). Input data range from a few parameters in models cap-turing a
fundamental mechanism to thousands of measurements in calibrated descriptive models of specific
plants (species or individuals). Standard numerical outputs (i.e. numbers or plots) may be
complemented by computer-generated images and animations (Odabas et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2009c).

Rice parcels which were planted on an area of 6824 ha on Bafra plain between 41°35’21’’ and
41°41’19 N latitudes and 35º54’10’’ and 36º02’00’’ E longitudes were used as experimental area. Rice
plantation areas were determined by examining the photographs in relation to this area and the location
of the parcel; number of basins within the parcel and losses deriving from basin ditches were calculated.
Locations of rice parcels within the determined area are shown in Figure 1. Rice production areas were
determined through aerial photographs and these photographs were taken into CAD program with scale
correction and digi-tization; each rice planted parcel was determined

Fig. 1. Rice parcels which were selected within the field of study
on this program by counting basin numbers and ditch lengths were found by measuring one
by one with the help of this program. Basin ditches were taken as 0.80m in single ditches and
1.70m in couple ditches (water transmitting channels within the field) (Figure 3) by
examining plowing tool which made ditches (Figure 2) and by mea-suring the ditches formed
and used on the field in the present situation, and all loses were calculated. For this purpose,
CAD programs, which are suit-able for accessing aerial photographs, were used; it was
benefited from these programs in calculating defined area and lengths.

Upon development of the devices, which are operated with laser leveling method (Figure
4) in recent years, it is seen that basin areas have been established as average of 10 da. Size of
rice basins

Fig. 2. The plow that was used for forming

basin bars

in the countries, which benefit from laser tech-nology in land leveling, can reach up to 40-50
da (Surek, 2009).

In the study, ditch loses were determined in la-ser leveling performed areas by assuming
that one basin is 10 da in area.

Results and Discussion

Parameters in relation to calculating land losses concerning 102 parcels with a total of
6824 da rice sowed areas; flat or near-flat in level which was selected on the right coast of
Bafra plain are shown in Table 2. Losses concerning each leveled parcel (a total of 10 da
basin area) are also shown in the same table.
 It was found that the smallest parcel was 2.3 da, the biggest parcel was 226.7 da, the
average size was 44.5 da and standard deviation value of the parcels was calculated as 40.9
da. It was also found that basin number per parcel changed with 6-373 and 6622 basins were
evaluated in this study. Basin number per parcel increased with growing the parcel area and
the relationship between par-cel area and basin number per parcel was formu-lized as
Y=0.001x + 5.750 (R2=0.76) (Figure 5). As shown in Figure 5, there were 70 basins in a rice
parcel without leveling, 50 da in area. The re-lationship between parcel area and basin
number per parcel was found to be significant in 1% level (p=0.872**).

Fig. 3. Couple Ditch width in field Fig. 4. Laser leveling tool

The total land lose deriving from the experi-mental basin ditches was found to be 0.3-13.8
da (average 3.6 da, the total 367 da). The rate for the areas with land lose/total experimental
area was found to be 4.9-16.3% (as average 8.94%). Stan-dard deviation value of the lost
areas was found to be 2946m2. Lose amount for each parcel in case of the production areas
with or without leveling is shown in Figure 6. Ditch losses for each basin on the experimental
field ranged between 28-107m2 (as average 60.6m2, σ=14.96m2). In case of per-forming
leveling on the same experimental area, basin number per parcel shifted as 1-23 for basin, 10
da in area. Thus, the probable lost was found to be 156-6009 m2 (as average 1428 m2). On
the other hand, the total lost was found to be 145.6 for the same parcels. Rational loss
amounts were between 1.6%-6.7 and the average was determined as 3.55% (σ=0.88).
 Aerial photographs concerning the parcels, chosen to represent the basin number per
parcel are shown in Figure 7. As parcel area increases, decreases were observed in the
percentage of lost area (Figure 8). The relationship between parcel area and percentage of lost
area was found to be significant at the level of 1% (p=-0.492**). Per-forming the laser
leveling resulted in decreasing

400
350
300
250
pcs

200
150
y = 0.0013x +
100 5.7502
number,

50 R² = 0.7606
0
Basin

15000 25000
0 50000100000 0 200000 0

Parcel area, m2

Fig. 5. Basin numbers according to parcel sizes

Table 2

Some data acquired from the evaluation of aerial photographs

A B C D E F G H I K L M

41°38’49.41’’ 35°56’02.95’’
1 K D 22487.0 33 681.4 2064.3 9.18 62.6 3 689.0 3.1

6 41°38’42.42’’ 35°57’37.19’’ 16760.2 38 441.1 1869.7 11.16 49.2 2 533.8 3.2

 K D

41°39’34.65’’ 35°57’01.21’’
12 K D 39047.7 60 650.8 3508.6 8.99 58.5 4 943.8 2.4

41°38’36.04’’ 35°55’51.80’’
22 K D 11411.0 30 380.4 1440.2 12.62 48.0 2 559.5 4.9

41°39’14.44’’ 35°59’24.90’’
32 K D 23787.3 60 396.5 2627.1 11.04 43.8 3 759.9 3.2

41°37’10.48’’ 35°57’47.11’’
42 K D 71006.3 136 522.1 5921.8 8.34 43.5 7 2013.5 2.8

41°37’52.10’’ 35°55’23.31’’
52 K D 43146.7 74 583.1 3732.0 8.65 50.4 5 1427.2 3.3

41°39’43.09’’ 35°56’01.99’’
62 K D 28629.0 68 421.0 3067.9 10.72 45.1 3 977.4 3.4

41°40’26.79’’ 35°56’11.94’’
72 K D 18727.0 21 891.8 1453.3 7.76 69.2 2 696.5 3.7

41°40’55.50’’ 35°59’06.12’’
82 K D 103544.6 243 426.1 10910.7 10.54 44.9 2 3211.1 3.1

41°40’27.14” 35°57’01.21”
92 K D 82458.0 79 1043.8 4734.7 5.74 59.9 9 2761.9 3.3

41°39’48.75” 35°57’03.59”
102 K D 18320.5 28 654.3 1694.7 9.25 60.5 2 552.0 3.0

4535515.
Total 0 6622 367866.8 464 145653

Ave. 44465 64.9 709.0 3603.5 8.94 60.6 4.5 1428 3.55

Std.

40937 2946.4 1.85 15 0.88

Dev.

G: Ditch Loses on Parcel

A: Parcel Number (m2)
H: Rational Loss (lost area/parcel
B: Degree of latitude of parcel (°, ‘, “, North) area, %)
 I: Loss per Basin (lost area / basin number,
C: Degree of longitude of parcel (°, ‘, “, East) m2)
K: New basin number (10 decares of basins on
D: Parcel Area (m2) average, piece)
E: Number of Basin of Parcel L: New lost area
(piece) (m2)
M: New lost rate (lost area /total parcel area,
F: Average Basin Area (m2) %)

1800
0
y = 0.0686x +
556.15
1600
0 R² =
0.9085
1400
0

1200
2

0
M

1000 y = 0.0294x +
0 120.87
parcel,

8000 R² = 0.9377

6000
Each

4000
Area

2000

0
Lost

10000 2000
0 50000 0 150000 00 250000

Parcel area, m2 (m2

Present )
situation lost
 area
Planned leveled
situation lost area (m2)

Fig. 6. The present situation according to parcel areas and loss amounts for

the planned leveled situation

18

16

14

12

10
8

4 y = -2E-05x + 9.933

R² =
2 0.2418

10000 20000 25000

0 50000 0 150000 0 0

Parcel area,
m2

Fig. 8. Rational loss amounts

according to parcel areas

of 93% in basin number and the new total basin number was 464.

Similarly, lost rates in parcel area were found to be 3.55% in case of laser leveling. It was
observed an increase of 5.4% in parcel area in response to laser leveling. The difference
between the lost area in parcels with/without laser leveling was found to be significant
(p<0.001).

3.8 Solar panel

Solar cells

Contents

1 Introduction 1

2 Solar spectrum 2

3 Solar cell working principle 3

4 Solar cell I-V characteristics 7

5 Solar cell materials and e ciency 10

10. Introduction

Solar cells and photodetectors are devices that convert an optical input into
current. A solar cell is an example of a photovoltaic device, i.e, a device that
generates voltage when exposed to light. The photovoltaic e ect was
discovered by Alexander-Edmond Becquerel in 1839, in a junction formed
between an electrode (platinum) and an electrolyte (silver chloride). The rst
photovoltaic device was built, using a Si pn junction, by Russell Ohl in 1939.
The functioning of a solar cell is similar to the photodiode (photodetector). It is a
photodiode that is unbiased and connected to a load (impedence). There are
three qualitative di erences between a solar cell and photodetector

1. A photodiode works on a narrow range of wavelength while solar

cells need to work over a broad spectral range (solar spectrum).

2. Solar cells are typically wide area devices to maximize exposure.

3. In photodiodes the metric is quantum e ciency, which de nes the

sig-nal to noise ratio, while for solar cells, it is the power conversion
e - ciency, which is the power delivered per incident solar energy.
Usually, solar cells and the external load they are connected to are
designed to maximize the delivered power.

1
Figure 1: Typical solar spectrum at the top of the atmosphere and at sea
level. The di erence is the radiation absorbed/scattered by the atmosphere.
The spectrum of a black body at 5250 C is also superimposed and used for
modeling. Modi ed from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunlight
2 Solar spectrum

The solar spectrum typically extends from the IR to the UV region, wave-
length range from 3 m to 0.2 m. But the intensity is not uniform. A typical
solar spectrum, as a plot of spectral irradiance vs. wavelength, is shown in
gure 1. The area under the curve gives the total areal intensity and this is
2
approximately 1.35 kW m . The solar spectrum can be approximated by a
black body radiation curve at temperature of approximately 5250 C. There is
also a di erence in the spectra measured at the top of the atmosphere and
at the surface, due to atmospheric scattering and absorption.

The path length of the light in the atmosphere depends on the angle, which
will vary with the time of day. This is given by the air mass number (AM),
which is the secant of the angle between the sun and the zenith (sec ). AM0
represents the solar spectrum outside the earth's atmosphere. AM1 is when
the angle is zero, i.e. sun is at the zenith and it has an intensity of 0.925 kW
2 2
m . AM2 is when sun is at angle of 60 and its intensity is 0.691 kW m .
The di erent spectra are plotted in gure 2. The data can also be

2
Figure 2: Typical solar spectrum for di erent air mass conditions. The plot
shows AM0 (spectrum outside the atmosphere), AM1 (at the zenith), and
AM2 (at an angle of 60 ). This again can be modeled by black body
spectrum, at various temperatures. Adapted from Physics of
semiconductor devices - S.M. Sze.

plotted as a photon ux density i.e. no.of photons per unit energy per unit
area per unit time. This is shown in gure 3.
• Solar cell working principle

A simple solar cell is a pn junction diode. The schematic of the device is shown
in gure 4. The n region is heavily doped and thin so that the light can penetrate
through it easily. The p region is lightly doped so that most of the depletion
region lies in the p side. The penetration depends on the wave-length and the
absorption coe cient increases as the wavelength decreases. Electron hole
pairs (EHPs) are mainly created in the depletion region and due to the built-in
potential and electric eld, electrons move to the n region and the holes to the p
region. When an external load is applied, the excess elec-trons travel through
the load to recombine with the excess holes. Electrons and holes are also
generated with the p and n regions, as seen from gure 4. The shorter
wavelengths (higher absorption coe cient) are absorbed in the n region and the
longer wavelengths are absorbed in the bulk of the p re-gion. Some of the
EHPs generated in these regions can also contribute to the current. Typically,
these are EHPs that are generated within the minority

3
Figure 3: Solar spectrum plotted as photon ux density vs. energy for
AM0 and AM1.5. The di erence in the spectra is due to the
absorption/scattering by the atmosphere. Adapted from Physics of
semiconductor devices - S.M. Sze.
carrier di usion length, L e for electrons in the p side and L h for holes in
the n side. Carriers produced in this region can also di use into the
depletion region and contribute to the current. Thus, the total width of the
region that contributes to the solar cell current is w d + Le + Lh, where wd
is the depletion width. This is shown in gure 5. The carriers are extracted
by metal electrodes on either side. A nger electrode is used on the top to
make the electrical contact, so that there is su cient surface for the light
to penetrate. The arrangement of the top electrode is shown in gure 6.

Consider a solar cell made of Si. The band gap, E g, is 1.1 eV so that
wave-length above 1.1 m is not absorbed since the energy is lower than
the band gap. Thus any greater than 1.1 m has negligible absorption.
For much smaller than 1.1 m the absorption coe cient is very high and
the EHPs are generated near the surface and can get trapped near the
surface defects. So there is an optimum range of wavelengths where
EHPs can contribute to photocurrent, shown in gure 5.

4
Figure 4: Principle of operation of a pn junction solar cell. Radiation is absorbed
in the depletion region and produces electrons and holes. These are separated
by the built-in potential. Depending on the wavelength and the thickness di
erent parts of the device can absorb di erent regions of the solar spectrum.
Adapted from Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap

5
Figure 5: Photogenerated carriers in a solar cell due to absorption of
light. w is the width of the depletion region, while L h and Le are minority
carrier di usion lengths in the n and p regions. The amount of absorption
reduces with depth and hence the depletion region must be close to the
surface to maximize absorption. This is achieved by having a thin n
region. Adapted from Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap
Figure 6: Finger electrodes on a pn junction solar cell. The design consists
of a single bus electrode for carrying current and nger electrodes that are
thin enough so that su cient light can be absorbed by the solar cell. Adapted
from Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap

6
Figure 7: (a) pn junction solar cell under illumination with an external
load. The equivalent circuit (b) without and (c) with an external load. The
illu-mination causes a photocurrent to ow through the external circuit.
When an external load is applied the potential drop across it creates a
forward bias current, that opposes the photocurrent. Adapted from
Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap

4 Solar cell I-V characteristics

It possible to calculate the I-V characteristics of the solar cell by considering

its equivalent circuit. The I-V characteristics depend on the intensity of the
incident radiation and also the operating point (external load) of the cell.
Consider a pn junction solar cell under illumination, as shown in gure 7. If
the external circuit is a short circuit (external load resistance is zero) then
the only current is due to the generated EHPs by the incident light. This is
called the photocurrent, denoted by I ph. Another name for this is the short
circuit current, Isc. By de nition of current, this is opposite to the photo
current and is related to the intensity of the incident radiation, I op, by

Isc = Iph = kIop (1)

where k is a constant and depends on the particular device. k is equivalent
to an e ciency metric that measures the conversion of light into EHPs.
Consider the case when there is an external load R, as shown in gure 7.
The equivalent circuit for this case is shown in gure 8. There is a voltage
across the external load, given by V = IR. This voltage opposes the built in
potential and reduces the barrier for carrier injection across the junction.
This is similar to a pn junction in forward bias, where the external bias
causes injection of minority carriers and increased current. This forward bias
current opposes the photo current generated within the device due to the
solar radiation. This is because Iph is generated due to electrons going to
the n side and holes to the p side due to the electric eld within the device,
i.e. drift current while the forward bias current is due to di usion current

7
Figure 8: (a) A solar cell connected to an external load (b) Equivalent circuit,
with a constant current source, a forward biased pn junction and the external
load. The current from the forward biased pn junction opposes the constant
current source. Adapted from Physics of semiconductor devices - S.M. Sze.

caused by the injection of minority carriers. Thus, the net current can be
written as

I = Iph + Id
eV

Id = Is0 [exp( kBT ) 1] (2)

eV

I = Iph + Is0 [exp( kBT ) 1]

where Id is the forward bias current and can be written in terms of the
reverse saturation current, Is0 and external voltage, V . The overall I-V
characteristics is plotted in gure 9.

In the absence of light, the dark characteristics is similar to a pn

junction I-V curve. The presence of light (I ph) has the e ect of shifting the
I-V curve down. From gure 9, it is possible to de ne a photo current I ph,
which is the current when the external voltage is zero and an open circuit
voltage, Voc, which is the voltage when the net current in the circuit is
zero. Using equation 2, Voc can be calculated as

eVoc

Iph = Is0 [exp( kBT ) 1]

I
(3)
kBT ph

I
Voc e ln[ s0 ]
Higher the photon ux, higher is the value of I ph (by equation 1), and
higher the value of Voc. Similarly, lower Is0 can also cause higher Voc.
Since Is0 is the reverse saturation current for the pn junction it is given by

De Dh
2
Is0 = ni e [ + ] (4)

LeNA LhND

8
Figure 9: I V characteristics of Si pn junction solar cell under dark condi-
tions and under illumination with light of increasing intensity. Short circuit
current and open circuit voltage both increase with increasing
illumination. Adapted from Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap

9
The reverse saturation current can be lowered by choosing a material
with a higher band gap, Eg, which will cause ni to be lower. But this will
also reduce the range of wavelengths that can be absorbed by the
material, which will have the e ect of lowering I ph.

The total power in the solar cell circuit is given by

eV

P = IV = I V [exp( )1]
s0 kBT IphV (5)

For maximum power, its derivative with respect to voltage should be zero.

This gives a recursive relation in current and voltage.

dP
=0

dV kT
B )

eV
Im Iph (1 m (6)

kBT eV
m)

Vm Voc ln(1 + k BT
kBT

kBT eVm e ]

Pm = ImVm Iph [Voc e ln(1 + kB T )

This can be seen from gure 10. The area under the curve, corresponding
to Im and Vm, gives the maximum power. From equation 6 it can be seen
that the maximum power is directly proportional to V oc and can be
increased by decreasing Is0. This means that smaller ni and a larger Eg
are favorable but the trade o is that less radiation is absorbed.

5 Solar cell materials and e ciency

Conventional solar cells are made of Si single crystal and have an e ciency
of around 22-24%, while polycrystalline Si cells have an e ciency of 18%. A
schematic representation of such a cell is shown in gure 6. The e ciency of
the solar cell depends on the band gap of the material and this is shown in
gure 11. Polycrystalline solar cells are cheaper to manufacture but have a
lower e ciency since the microstructure introduces defects in the material
that can trap carriers. Amorphous solar cells have an even lower e ciency
but can be grown directly on glass substrates by techniques like sputtering
so that the overall cost of manufacturing is lowered. There are also design
improvements in the solar cell that can enhance the e ciency. PERL (passi-
vated emitter rear locally di used) cells, shown in gure 12, have an e ciency
of 24% due to the inverted pyramid structure etched on the surface that en-
hances absorption.

10
Figure 10: I-V curve for a solar cell with maximum power indicated by the
shaded area. The corresponding voltage and current are V m and Im. The
value depends on the external load applied. Adapted from Physics of
semiconductor devices - S.M. Sze.

11
Figure 11: Solar cell e ciency as a function of band gap of the semiconduc-
tor material. There is an particular band gap range where the e ciency is
maximum. Adapted from Physics of semiconductor devices - S.M. Sze.
Figure 12: Si solar cell with an inverted pyramid structure to enhance
absorp-tion of the incoming radiation. These are called PERL cells. The
inverted pyramid structure causes multiple re ections at the surface,
which help in absorption of the incoming radiation. Adapted from
Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap

12
 Typical solar cells are made of the same material so that the pn junction is a
homojunction. Some solar cell materials and their e ciencies are summa-rized
in table 1. A comprehensive state of current research in di erent solar cell
technologies and their e ciency is available in gure 13. Heterojunction solar
cells are also possible and they have the advantage of minimizing ab-sorption
in regions other than the depletion region, but overall cost increases because of
the use of di erent materials and the tight processing conditions needed to
produce defect free interfaces. A schematic of such a cell based on
GaAs/AlGaAs is shown in gure 14. The shorter wavelengths are absorbed by
the AlGaAs layers while the longer wavelengths, with higher penetration depths,
are absorbed by the GaAs layer. This leads to an overall e ciency of around
25%, see table 1. It is also possible to have a homojunction solar cell but with a
passivating layer of another material at the surface to reduce defects. This is
shown in gure 15. The surface passivating layer removes the dangling bonds
and minimizes carrier trapping. The passivation layer is a thin layer of a higher
band gap material to minimize absorption. Similarly, amorphous semiconductor
materials like Si and Ge also have a passivating layer of H, a-Si:H or a-Ge:H, to
reduce dangling bonds.

Another way of improving solar cell e ciency is to have more than one cell in
tandem. These are called tandem solar cells and a schematic is shown in
gure 16. These consist of two pn junction solar cells, with the rst one having
a higher band gap than the second. Thus, the shorter wavelengths can be
absorbed in cell 1, see gure 16, while the longer wavelengths are ab-sorbed
in cell 2. The advantage is that a larger portion of the solar radiation is used
so that tandem cells have high e ciency, see table1, but it also adds a layer
of complexity in growth and increases cost. Tandem cells can also be made
using amorphous Si:H and Ge:H. These are cheaper to make and more e
cient than individual amorphous solar cell devices.
13
Table 1: Some common solar cell materials and their characteristics.
Adapted from Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap

J
Semi- Eg (eV ) Voc (V ) sc (%) Commen-
2
conductor (mA cm ) ts
Si, single 1.1 0.5-0.7 42 16-24 Single

crystal crystal,

PERL

Si, poly- 1.1 0.5-0.65 38 12-19

crys-

talline

Amorphous 8-13 Amorphous

Si:Ge:H lms with

lm tandem

structure,

large-area

fabrica-

tion

GaAs, 1.42 1.02 28 24-25

single

crystal
GaAlAs/ 1.03 27.9 25 Di erent

GaAs, band gap

tandem materials

in tandem

increases

absorp-

tion

e ciency

GaInP/ 2.5 14 25-30 Di erent

GaAs, band gap

tandem materials

in tandem

increases

absorp-

tion

e ciency

CdTe, 1.5 0.84 26 15-16

thin lm

InP, single 1.34 0.87 29 21-22

crystal

CuInSe2 1.0 12-13

14
Figure 13: E ciency of various research solar cells. The latest diagram is
available at http://www.nrel.gov/ncpv/

15
Figure 14: (a) GaAs/AlGaAs based heterojunction solar cell. (b) Energy
band alignment across the junction. AlGaAs has the higher band gap
and can absorb higher energy radiation while GaAs can absorb the lower
en-ergy portion of the solar spectrum. Adapted from Principles of
Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap
Figure 15: Schematic of a GaAs based homojunction solar cell with a
sur-face passivating layer to minimize surface recombination. This layer
should be thin and have a high band gap to minimize absorption.
Adapted from Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O. Kasap

16
198
 Figure 16: Tandem solar cells. The higher band gap cell is closer to the illuminating
surface to absorb the short wavelengths and the smaller band gap cell is at the interior to
absorb the longer wavelengths. Adapted from Principles of Electronic Materials - S.O.
Kasap

CHAPTER 4: SOFTWARE DESCRIPTION

This project is implemented using following software’s:

 Express PCB – for designing circuit
 PIC C compiler - for compilation part
 Proteus 7 (Embedded C) – for simulation part

4.1 Express PCB:

Breadboards are great for prototyping equipment as it allows great flexibility to modify a design
when needed; however the final product of a project, ideally should have a neat PCB, few cables, and survive a
shake test. Not only is a proper PCB neater but it is also more durable as there are no cables which can yank
loose.

Express PCB is a software tool to design PCBs specifically for manufacture by the company
Express PCB (no other PCB maker accepts Express PCB files). It is very easy to use, but it does have several
limitations.

It can be likened to more of a toy then a professional CAD program.

It has a poor part library (which we can work around)

It cannot import or export files in different formats

It cannot be used to make prepare boards for DIY production

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 Express PCB has been used to design many PCBs (some layered and with surface-mount parts.
Print out PCB patterns and use the toner transfer method with an Etch Resistant Pen to make boards. However,
Express PCB does not have a nice print layout. Here is the procedure to design in Express PCB and clean up the
patterns so they print nicely.

4.1.1 Preparing Express PCB for First Use:

Express PCB comes with a less then exciting list of parts. So before any project is started head
over to Audio logic and grab the additional parts by morsel, ppl, and tangent, and extract them into your
Express PCB directory. At this point start the program and get ready to setup the workspace to suit your style.

Click View -> Options. In this menu, setup the units for “mm” or “in” depending on how you think,
and click “see through the top copper layer” at the bottom. The standard color scheme of red and green is
generally used but it is not as pleasing as red and blue.

4.1.2 The Interface:

When a project is first started you will be greeted with a yellow outline. This yellow outline is the
dimension of the PCB. Typically after positioning of parts and traces, move them to their final position and then
crop the PCB to the correct size. However, in designing a board with a certain size constraint, crop the PCB to
the correct size before starting.

Fig: 4.1 show the toolbar in which the each button has the following functions:

Fig 4.1: Tool bar necessary for the interface

 The select tool: It is fairly obvious what this does. It allows you to move and manipulate parts. When
this tool is selected the top toolbar will show buttons to move traces to the top / bottom copper layer, and
rotate buttons.
 The zoom to selection tool: does just that.

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  The place pad: button allows you to place small soldier pads which are useful for board connections or if
a part is not in the part library but the part dimensions are available. When this tool is selected the top
toolbar will give you a large selection of round holes, square holes and surface mount pads.

 The place component: tool allows you to select a component from the top toolbar and then by clicking in
the workspace places that component in the orientation chosen using the buttons next to the component
list. The components can always be rotated afterwards with the select tool if the orientation is wrong.

 The place trace: tool allows you to place a solid trace on the board of varying thicknesses. The top
toolbar allows you to select the top or bottom layer to place the trace on.

 The Insert Corner in trace: button does exactly what it says. When this tool is selected, clicking on a
trace will insert a corner which can be moved to route around components and other traces.

 The remove a trace button is not very important since the delete key will achieve the same result.

4.1.3 Design Considerations:

Before starting a project there are several ways to design a PCB and one must be chosen to suit
the project’s needs.

Single sided, or double sided:

When making a PCB you have the option of making a single sided board, or a double sided
board. Single sided boards are cheaper to produce and easier to etch, but much harder to design for large
projects. If a lot of parts are being used in a small space it may be difficult to make a single sided board
without jumper over traces with a cable. While there’s technically nothing wrong with this, it should be
avoided if the signal travelling over the traces is sensitive (e.g. audio signals).

A double sided board is more expensive to produce professionally, more difficult to etch on a
DIY board, but makes the layout of components a lot smaller and easier. It should be noted that if a trace is
running on the top layer, check with the components to make sure you can get to its pins with a soldering iron.
Large capacitors, relays, and similar parts which don’t have axial leads can NOT have traces on top unless
boards are plated professionally.

Ground-plane or other special purposes for one side:

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 When using a double sided board you must consider which traces should be on what side of the
board. Generally, put power traces on the top of the board, jumping only to the bottom if a part cannot be
soldiered onto the top plane (like a relay), and vice- versa.

Some projects like power supplies or amps can benefit from having a solid plane to use for
ground. In power supplies this can reduce noise, and in amps it minimizes the distance between parts and their
ground connections, and keeps the ground signal as simple as possible. However, care must be taken with
stubborn chips such as the TPA6120 amplifier from TI. The TPA6120 datasheet specifies not to run a ground
plane under the pins or signal traces of this chip as the capacitance generated could effect performance
negatively.

4.2 PIC Compiler:

PIC compiler is software used where the machine language code is written and compiled. After
compilation, the machine source code is converted into hex code which is to be dumped into the microcontroller
for further processing. PIC compiler also supports C language code.
It’s important that you know C language for microcontroller which is commonly known as
Embedded C. As we are going to use PIC Compiler, hence we also call it PIC C. The PCB, PCM, and PCH are
separate compilers. PCB is for 12-bit opcodes, PCM is for 14-bitopcodes, and PCH is for 16-bit opcode PIC
microcontrollers. Due to many similarities, all three compilers are covered in this reference manual. Features
and limitations that apply to only specific microcontrollers are indicated within. These compilers are
specifically designed to meet the unique needs of the PIC microcontroller. This allows developers to quickly
design applications software in a more readable, high-level language. When compared to a more traditional C
compiler, PCB, PCM, and PCH have some limitations. As an example of the limitations, function recursion is
not allowed.
This is due to the fact that the PIC has no stack to push variables onto, and also because of the
way the compilers optimize the code. The compilers can efficiently implement normal C constructs,
input/output operations, and bit twiddling operations. All normal C data types are supported along with pointers
to constant arrays, fixed point decimal, and arrays of bits.

PIC C is not much different from a normal C program. If you know assembly, writing a C
program is not a crisis. In PIC, we will have a main function, in which all your application specific work will be
defined. In case of embedded C, you do not have any operating system running in there. So you have to make
sure that your program or main file should never exit. This can be done with the help of simple while (1) or for
(;;) loop as they are going to run infinitely.

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 We have to add header file for controller you are using, otherwise you will not be able to access
registers related to peripherals.

#include <16F72.h> // header file for PIC 16F72//

4.3 Proteus:

Proteus is software which accepts only hex files. Once the machine code is converted into hex
code, that hex code has to be dumped into the microcontroller and this is done by the Proteus. Proteus is a
programmer which itself contains a microcontroller in it other than the one which is to be programmed. This
microcontroller has a program in it written in such a way that it accepts the hex file from the pic compiler and
dumps this hex file into the microcontroller which is to be programmed. As the Proteus programmer requires
power supply to be operated, this power supply is given from the power supply circuit designed and connected
to the microcontroller in proteus. The program which is to be dumped in to the microcontroller is edited in
proteus and is compiled and executed to check any errors and hence after the successful compilation of the
program the program is dumped in to the microcontroller using a dumper.

4.4 Procedural steps for compilation, simulation and dumping:

4.4.1 Compilation and simulation steps:

Introduction

Ah yes, it is finally time to make your Arduino do something! We're going to start with the classic hell world of
electronics, a blinking light.
This lesson will basically get you up and running using the Arduino software and uploading a sketch to the
Arduino board. Once you've completed this step we can continue to the really exciting stuff, which is when we
start writing our own sketches!

These instructions mostly show Windows software. Except when indicated, the software (should be) identical
on all platforms. Linux will be added once I figure out how to get it working (yay)

Do you have everything you need?

Not much is needed for this lesson, just a USB cable and an Arduino. If you have an older Arduino you may
also need an LED. Any LED is fine as long as it looks sorta like the photo, with a plastic bulb and two legs

Make sure you've gone through Lesson 0 first!

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 Assembled Arduino board, preferrably a
Diecimila (or whatever the latest version $35
Adafruit
is)

Adafruit
Or any
USB Cable. Standard A-B cable is required. computer
$5
Any length is OK. supply store

LED - Optional
Nearly any LED is OK, as long as it has two
Any
wire legs. This part is only required for NG
electronics $1
rev c Arduinos (and maybe other older
supply store
ones). Diecimila Arduino's have this part
'built-in'

Download the Software

The first thing to do is download the Arduino software.

Go to the Arduino Software Download page and grab the right file for your OS. As of Sept 2007 the version
is 009 but you should use whatever is most recent.
The packages are quite large, 30-50 MB so it may take a while to finish

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Unpack and Install

Extract the package onto the Desktop

 
Windows

Mac OS X

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Windows

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 Mac OS X
Startup!

Double click the Arduino software icon

 
Windows

Mac OS X
To open up the workspace

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I think I get the red error text shown because I already have Arduino installed. Either way, it isn't a problem if
you do or don't see it.

Select chip

The first step is to configure the Arduino software for the correct chip. Almost all Arduinos use the
ATmega168, but there's a chance you have an ATmega8. Look for the chip on the Arduino that looks like this:

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If the text says ATMEGA8-16P then you have an atmega8 chip. If the text says ATMEGA168-20P then you
have anatmega168 chip. If it says "ATMEGA328P-20P" you have an atmega328p chip

Make sure the correct chip is selected (this picture is really old, will be fixed soon). This preference is saved so
you only have to set it once, the program will remember next time it's run.

Select port

Next, its time to configure the Serial Port (also known as the COM Port). Go back to lesson 0 to remind
yourself of which port it is. On a PC it will probably be something like COM3 or COM4. On a Mac it will be
something liketty.usbserial-xxxxx

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 Windows port selection

Mac port selection

This preference is saved so you only have to set it once, the program will remember next time it's run.

However, if you have multiple Arduino's, they may be assigned difference COM ports. So every time you plug
in a new Arduino, double check that the correct port is selected.

Open blink sketch

Sketches are little scripts that you can send to the Arduino to tell it how to act. Let's open up an Example
Sketch. Go to the File menu -> Sketchbook -> Examples -> Digital -> Blink

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The window should now look like this, with a bunch of text in the formerly empty white space and the
tab Blink above it

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Verify / Compile

The first step to getting a Sketch ready for transfer over to the arduino is to Verify/Compile it. That means
check it over for mistakes (sort of like editing) and then translate it into an application that is compatible with
the Arduino hardware.

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After a few seconds, you should see the message Done compiling. in the Status Bar and Binary Sketch
Size: in theNotification area. This means the sketch was well-written and is ready for uploading to the Arduino
board!

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Reset (NG only)

To tell the Arduino that it should prepare itself for a new Sketch upload, you must reset the board. Diecimila
Arduino's have built-in auto-reset capability, so you don't need to do anything. Older Arduinos, such as NG,
must be manually reset before uploading a sketch. To do that simply press the black button on the right hand
side of the board, shown here.

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Upload

Now it's time to upload. Make sure the Arduino is plugged in, the green light is on and the correct Serial Port is
selected.

If you have an NG Arduino, press the Reset Button now, just before you select the Upload menu item.
Select Upload to I/O Board from the File menu

After a few seconds you should get this screen, with the message Done uploading. in the status bar.

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 If you get the following error message "avrdude: stk500_getsync(): not in sync: resp=0x00" that means that
the Arduino is not responding

Then check the following:

 If you have a NG Arduino, did you press reset just before selecting Upload menu item?
 Is the correct Serial Port selected?
 Is the correct driver installed?
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 Is the chip inserted into the Arduino properly? (If you built your own arduino or have burned the bootloader on
yourself)
 Does the chip have the correct bootloader on it? (If you built your own arduino or have burned the bootloader
on yourself)
If you get the following error message:

It means you dont have a serial port selected, go back and verify that the correct driver is installed (lesson 0)

and that you have the correct serial port selected in the menu.

If you get the following error Expected signature for ATMEGA

Then you have either the incorrect chip selected in the Tools menu or the wrong bootloader burned onto the
chip
If you get the following error: can't open device "COM10": The system cannot find the file specified (under
Windows, COM port value may vary)

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It means that you have too many COM ports (maybe you've got 9 Arduinos?) You should make sure that the
port is numbered as low as possible. You can use a program like FTClean to clear out old COM ports you aren't
using anymore. Once you've cleaned out the ports, you'll have to reinstall the driver again (see lesson 0). 
Alternately, if you're sure that the ports are not used for something else but are left over from other USB
devices, you can simply change the COM port using the Device Manager. Select the USB device in the Device
Manager, right click and select Properties

Then click Advanced... and in the next window change the COM port to something like COM4 or COM5.
Don't forget to select the new port name in the Arduino software. The lower port names may say (in use) but as
long as the other USB devices aren't plugged in, it shouldn't be a problem. This is a little riskier than just using
FTClean...
Video of all steps

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Here is a video showing the timing of the steps described so far.

Insert LED (NG Arduinos)

Some older Arduinos don't have a built in LED, its easy to tell if yours does or not

If you have a Diecimila or other Arduino with a built in LED you will see a translucent part as shown

If you have an NG rev C or other Arduino without an LED, the translucent part will not be there, and instead
you will see two silver dots

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If you don't have an LED, you'll need to add your own. Any LED will do, as long as it has two legs and kinda
looks like the one shown here. LEDs are directional components. That means if you put it in backwards it will
not work! To help you put the LED in right, the LED factory cuts the legs at different lengths. The longer leg
goes in the hole marked 13and the shorter one goes in the hole marked GND

Watch!

If you have a Diecimila Arduino, the upload process is quite fast, just start the Upload from the software. The
board will automatically reset itself, transfer the sketch and start the sketch. The little translucent LED will start
blinking

Click To Play

If you have an NG arduino, make sure the LED is inserted as indicated before. Here is a video of the entire
uploading process. Right after I press the Reset Button I start the sketch upload. There is a short wait while the
software prepares to transfer the sketch. Then the two small orange lights blink, indicating the sketch is being
transfered. When its done, there is a 7 second delay until the sketch starts.

Click To Play

If you don't get a blinking LED, make sure you put the part in the right way, in the correct holes, and perhaps try a
different LED as it may be bad

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 CHAPTER 6: ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages:

1. This system eliminates electrical shocks when manual switching mechanism is used.
2. Efficient and low cost design.
3. Low power consumption.
4. Fast response.
5. Bluetooth based wireless transmission.
6. Controls high and low voltage devices.

Disadvantages:

1. This system doesn’t acknowledge the status of devices being operated.

Applications:

This system is an efficient solution for operating many electrical appliances.

CHAPTER 7: RESULTS

7.1 Result:

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 The project “Agriculture Robot with Seed, Plough, Pesticide spray & Level ” was designed to
operate electrical devices using a Bluetooth. This project eliminates the manual switching mechanism to
ON/OFF the devices.

7.2 Conclusion:

Integrating features of all the hardware components used have been developed in it. Presence of
every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully, thus contributing to the best working of the unit.
Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s with the help of growing technology, the project has been successfully
implemented. Thus the project has been successfully designed and tested.

7.3 Future Scope:

Our project “ Agriculture Robot With Seed, Plough, Pesticide spray & Level ” is
mainly intended to control designing completely automated switch board with the help of Bluetooth technology
to control the industrial electrical appliances and also provide a user friendly environment of the user to operate
the devices effectively. It major aims in providing a reliable system for illiterates and old people who finds
difficulty in operating few high end devices like AC, water heaters etc.

The device consists of a microcontroller, which is interfaced with the input and output modules, the controller
acts as an intermediate medium between both of them. So the controller can be termed as a control unit. The
input module is nothing a switch board to which Bluetooth is interfaced. When the user presses a switch the
data will be transmitted over Bluetooth. The data will be received by the Bluetooth and is fed to controller. The
Microcontroller acts accordingly to program and switches the Relays to which electrical devices to be operated
are connected. The Microcontroller used in the project is programmed using Embedded ‘C’ language.

The main disadvantage of this project is that the person who is operating the appliances
doesn’t know the status of the appliances. This drawback can be eliminated by introducing a GSM module,
through which intimation on the status of appliances can be sent.

REFERENCES

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The sites which were used while doing this project:

1. www.wikipedia.com

2. www.allaboutcircuits.com

3. www.microchip.com

4. www.howstuffworks.com

Books referred:

1. Raj kamal –Microcontrollers Architecture, Programming, Interfacing and System Design.

2. Mazidi and Mazidi –Embedded Systems.

3. PCB Design Tutorial –David.L.Jones.

4. Microcontroller Manual – Microchip..

5. Embedded C –Michael.J.Pont.

APPENDIX

Program Code:

The program code which is dumped in the microcontroller of our project is shown below.

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