FORCES OF ATTRACTION
acid, nitric acid, etc.
Intramolecular Forces of Attraction
- Intramolecular forces of attraction are the
interactions within a molecule.
Covalent Bond- Formed by sharing of one or more
pairs of electrons between two atoms.
Ionic Bond- Formed between two or more atoms by
the transfer of one or more electrons between
atoms
Metallic Bond- chemical bonds that hold atoms
together in metals
Identify the type of bond present.
1. Carbon disulfide
2. Sodium Iodide
3. Diphosphorus pentasulfide
4. Nitrogen tribromide
5. Carbon dioxide
6. Sodium selenide
7. Cobalt (II) bromide
8. Dinitrogen monosulfide
9. Lead (II) chloride
10. Iron (III) iodide
Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
- interaction that exists between two or more
molecules.
Types of Intermolecular Forces of Attraction
1. Dipole-dipole Forces
- An intermolecular force of attraction that
exists between polar molecules. This
attraction usually exists when there is a
partially positive region and a partially
negative region in the molecule.
- Examples: hydrochloric acid, sulfuric
2. Hydrogen Bonding
- Hydrogen bonding exists only when a
molecule has hydrogen that is attached
to a highly electronegative atom such as
nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), and fluorine
(F).
- Examples: Water, ammonia, and
alcohols
3. Ion-dipole Forces
- An attraction between ions and polar
molecules.
- One of the main reasons why salts can
be easily dissolved in water, a polar
molecule. This is due to the breakage of
ions in salts. Hence, ions will interact
with water, due to the intermolecular
forces of attraction.
4. Dispersion Forces
- Dispersion forces are the intermolecular
forces of attraction that are existing to
non-polar atom/molecules.
SOLUTIONS
A solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of
two or more substance. In such a mixture, a solute
is a substance dissolved in another substance
known as solvent.
Concentration of a Solution
- Refers to the among of solute dissolved
in a fixed amount of solvent.
- A solution containing a small amount of
solute is known as dilute solution.
- A solution containing large amount of
solute is known as concentrated
solution.
Types of Solution
1. Unsaturated Solution- a solution in which more
solute can be dissolved at a given temperature.
2. Saturated Solution- a solution containing the
maximum amount of solute that will dissolve at a
given temperature.
3. Supersaturated Solution- a solution that contains
more solute than would dissolve in a saturated
solution at a given temperature.
Concentration Units
1.1
Sample Problem:
A salt solution contains 3.45g salt in 250g solution.
What is the mass percent of the solution?
Sample Problem:
Calculate the percent by volume of a solution if the
volume of antifreeze required to make a 10 L
solution is 4 L.
1.2.
1.3 Parts Per Million
- Part per million is the concentration unit
that is used if the solute is too minute in
the solution.
- This is usually used to describe the
concentration of metals or any organic
material in the solution to describe their
toxicity level.
- To get the calculate the parts per million
in the solution, you can use the formula.
Sample Problem:
Calculate the concentration (ppm) of a solution
that has 30.75 mg Pb(NO3)2 in a 1.5 L solution
ppm = 30.75 mg / 1.5 L = 20.5 ppm Pb(NO3)2
Molarity
- Molarity (M) is expressed as moles of solute
per volume of solution
- Unit: mol/L or molar
Sample Problem:
Determine the molarity of 0.000889 g of
glycerine (C2H5NO2) in 1.05 mL solution.
Sample Problem:
Determine the molarity of 0.000889 g of
glycerine (C2H5NO2) in 1.05 mL solution.
Sample Problem:
Determine the molarity of 1.457 mol KCl in
1.500 L of solution.
Molality
- Molality (m) is expressed as moles of solute
per kilogram of solvent
- Unit: molal (m)

Sample Problem:
A solution is prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of
methanol (CH3OH) in 72.0 g of water. Calculate
Sample Problem: the mole fraction of methanol in the solution.
Calculate the molal concentration of a solution
that contains 18 g Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) in
100 mL of water. (Molar mass of NaOH is
40g/mol)
Note: ( 1 g = 1 mL )

Sample Problem:
Calculate the molal concentration of a solution
that contains 3.0 moles of NaCl dissolved in
2000 g of water.
Solution Stoichiometry
Steps:
1. Express the given amount of substance
in mole
2. Convert the moles of the given substance
to the moles of the desired substance using a
stoichiometric factor derived from the balanced
chemical equation.
3. Convert the moles of the sought
substance to any other desired units or
expression.

Sample Problem:
Calculate the mass (g) of Calcium nitrate
[Ca(NO3)2] that can be produced by reacting
Mole Fraction
136mL of 4.00 M nitric acid (HNO3) with excess
- the ratio of the number of moles of a given
calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]. (Molar mass of
component to the total number of moles of the
Ca(NO3)2 is 164.1 g/mol)
solution
- Represented by XA or XB ( XA for solute, XB
2 HNO3 + Ca(OH)2 2 H2O + Ca(NO3)2
for solvents)

Sample Problem:
A solution is prepared by dissolving 32.0 g of
methanol (CH3OH) in 72.0 g of water. Calculate
the mole fraction of methanol in the solution. Sample Problem:
Calculate the mass (g) of Calcium nitrate
 [Ca(NO3)2] that can be produced by reacting
136mL of 4.00 M nitric acid (HNO3) with excess
calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]. (Molar mass of
Ca(NO3)2 is 164.1 g/mol) Where:

P = vapor pressure of solvent in the solution

X1 = mole fraction of solvent in the solution

Po = vapor pressure of the solvent at a

given

Sample Problem: Sample problem:

Calculate the mass (g) of Calcium nitrate
[Ca(NO3)2] that can be produced by reacting
136mL of 4.00 M nitric acid (HNO3) with excess
calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]. (Molar mass of
Ca(NO3)2 is 164.1 g/mol)
30g of glucose (C6H12O6) is dissolved in 500mL of
water at 25 ⁰C. What is the vapor pressure of the
solution? (The vapor pressure of water is 23.8 torr
at 25 ⁰C and the density of water

Factors affecting Solubility

1. Nature of solute and solvent
- solubility of solutes in solvents is based on
the principle “like dissolves like” which pertains
to the similarity in the polarity of the
substances.
2. Temperature
3. Pressure
- increasing the pressure will increase the
solubility of a gas in a solvent.

Colligative Properties of Solutions

Vapor Pressure Boiling Point Elevation

- Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted
by the vapor that is in dynamic
equilibrium with its liquid in a closed
system at a specified temperature.
- When nonvolatile solute is dissolved in
solvent, the vapor pressure is lowered.
Vapor Pressure
- Raoult’s Law: The vapor pressure of the
solution (P), is equal to the mole fraction
of the solvent (X), multiplied to the vapor
pressure of the pure solvent (Po)
- Boiling point is the temperature at which
the vapor pressure of liquid is equal to
the atmospheric pressure above the
liquid.
- The boiling point elevation is the
difference between the boiling point of
the solution and the boiling point of the
pure solvent. It is directly proportional to
the molality (m) of the solution.
 Where:
∆Tb = boiling point elevation (Celsius)
Kb = boiling point elevation constant
m = molality of the solution (mol/kg)
Sample problem:
What is the boiling point of a 1.5 m solution of
sucrose in water?
(Kb = 0.51⁰C/m) (BP of water is 100 ⁰C)
302 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is added to 698
g of water. Calculate the boiling point of the
solution.
(Kb = 0.51⁰C/m) (BP of water is 100 ⁰C)
m = molality of the solution (mol/kg)
What is the freezing point of a 1.5 m solution of
sucrose in water?
(Kf = 1.86 ⁰C/m) (FP of water is 0 ⁰C)
Osmotic Pressure
- The minimum pressure that needs to be
applied to a solution to prevent the
inward flow of its pure solvent across a
semipermeable membrane.
Equation:

302 g of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2) is added to 698
g of water. Calculate the boiling point of the
solution.
(Kb = 0.51⁰C/m) (BP of water is 100 ⁰C)
Freezing Poinit Depression
- Freezing point is a colligative property
observed in solutions that results from
the introduction of solute molecules to a
solvent.
- Addition of solute will decrease the
vapor pressure and so will decrease the
freezing point.
- The freezing point depression is
proportional to the cryoscopic constant
of the pure solvent multiplied by the
molality of the solution.
Where:
∏ = osmotic pressure
M = molarity of the solution
R = rate of ideal gas law (0.08206 L – atm/mol – K)
T = temperature ( in Kelvin = Celsius + 273.15)
When placed in a concentrated salt solution, certain
yeasts are able to produce high internal
concentrations of glycerol to counteract the osmotic
pressure of the surrounding medium. Suppose that
the yeast cells are placed in an aqueous solution
containing 4.0% NaCl by mass; the solution density
is 1 g/mL at 25 ⁰C, calculate the osmotic pressure.
Colligative Properties of Electrolyte Solutions
- The following equations for the boiling
point elevation and freezing point
depression for solutions with electrolyte
solutes are as follows: ( i = van’t Hoff
factor)

Where:
∆Tf = freezing point depression
kf = cryoscopic constant / freezing point depression
constant
THERMOCHEMISTRY endothermic reaction (absorbs heat) has a positive
∆U.
- the study of heat change in chemical reactions.
+ q = heat is absorbed on the system
- q = heat is released by the system
Terms Related to Thermochemistry
+ w = work is done on the system
1. System – the set of substance being studied.
- W = work is done by the system
1.1 Open System – a system wherein heat
and matter (mass) can transfer from the
Sample Problems:
system to surroundings or vice-versa.
Calculate the change in energy in the following
1.2 Closed System – a system wherein only
processes. Identify if the process is endothermic or
heat can transfer from the system to the
exothermic.
surroundings, and vice-versa
1. A gas releases 35 J of heat as 84 J of work was
1.3 Isolated System – a system that DOES
done to compress it.
NOT interact with its surroundings
2. Surroundings – the part of space that is
outside our focus (system). For example, if
the system is everything inside a jar of a
solution, the surroundings is anything
outside the jar.
2. A system absorbs 50 J of heat during a
3. Universe – the part of space wherein system and
transformation. Determine the change in internal
surroundings exist.
energy if the system performs 15 J of work on the
4. Heat (q) – energy transferred between a system surrounding.
to surroundings because of the difference between
temperature. Heat always flow from higher
temperature to lower temperature.
5. Temperature (T) – average kinetic energy of an
object.
6. Thermal energy – kinetic energy that is
associated with random molecular motion. Enthalpy of Chemical Reaction
7. Work – force acted upon a distance.
8. Endothermic reaction – a type of reaction if the - Consider the hypothetical equation, where the
small letters are the coefficients and big letter are
system absorbs heat from its surroundings.
the chemical elements/compounds.
9. Exothermic reaction – a type of reaction if the
system gives off heat to the surroundings.

First Law of Thermodynamics

- “energy cannot be created or destroyed but can
simply be converted to other forms of energy”
- The first law of thermodynamics, also known as
the law of conservation of energy can be written
mathematically as follows:
The standard molar heat of formation of reactants
and products can be calculated using the equation
∑∆H⁰f (reactants) = a ∆H⁰f (A) + b ∆H⁰f (B)
∑∆H⁰f (products) = c ∆H⁰f (C) + d ∆H⁰f (D)

Internal Energy (U) is the total energy content of
the system. An exothermic reaction (releases heat)
is characterized by negative ∆U, while an
Sample Problem:
Calculate the standard heat of reaction
(∆H⁰reaction) for the reaction of nitrogen monoxide
gas with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide gas.
Given:
∆H⁰f NO2 = 34.019 KJ/mol
∆H⁰f NO = 90.25 KJ/mol
∆H⁰f O2 = 0 KJ/mol
∆H⁰reaction = ?