Dr. YILDIRIM Dr.

YILDIRIM

CE- 231 EARTH SCIENCES

Earthquakes

Instructor: Dr. I. Zeynep YILDIRIM

Boğaziçi University
Bebek/İstanbul

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Outline

 Earthquake-Basics!

 Faults & Earthquakes

 Seismology & Waves

 Earthquake Intensity vs Magnitude

 Earthquake Damage

 Earthquake Belts & Plate Boundaries

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

What Is an Earthquake?
 An earthquake is ground shaking caused by the sudden and rapid
movement of one block of rock sliding past another.

 Rocks slide past one another along fractures in the crust called
faults
 Most earthquakes occur along preexisting faults

 Rock slippage originates in the ground at the focus or

hypocenter
 Stored up energy is released as seismic waves that radiate in
all directions from the focus
 The epicenter is the point on the ground surface directly
above the focus

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Plate Movement: Convection & Detachment

of Astenosphere and Litosphere

Major Plates
• Many of the Plates have continent in the middle, ocean on the edges!

Earthquakes occur at all plate boundaries

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Continental-Oceanic Convergence

Site of largest earthquakes

Not all BUT Most, seismicity occurs near

plate boundaries

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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

What Is an Earthquake?
 An earthquake is ground shaking caused by the sudden and rapid
movement of one block of rock sliding past another.

 Rocks slide past one another along fractures in the crust called
faults
 Most earthquakes occur along preexisting faults

 Rock slippage originates in the ground at the focus or

hypocenter
 Stored up energy is released as seismic waves that radiate in
all directions from the focus
 The epicenter is the point on the ground surface directly
above the focus

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

What Is an Earthquake?
 Discovering the Causes of Earthquakes

 Over tens to hundreds of years,

stress builds up from plate
movement. Eventually, stress
along the fault overcomes the
frictional resistance, and slip
initiates as the rocks break

 The deformed rocks “snap back”

to their original position in a
process called elastic rebound

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Earthquake hypocenter and epicenter

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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Summary:
Earthquake -Basics
 Earthquake: sudden and rapid movement
of one block of rock slipping past another
along fractures in Earth’s crust called
faults.
 Hypocenter/Focus: is the location where
slippage begins.
 Epicenter: Point on earth vertically directly
above the hypocenter.
 Seismic Waves: a form of energy
released by large earthquakes.
 After-shocks: Follower earthquakes
taking place later than the actual/main ©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

earthquake and are weaker than the

actual earthquake.
 Foreshocks: Preceding earthquakes
taking place earlier than the actual/main
earthquake and are weaker than the
actual earthquake.

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Faults and Associated Plate Boundaries!

 Types of faults: three major types of faults
 Normal – associated with divergent plate boundaries

 Reverse and thrust – associated with convergent plate

boundaries
 In a subduction zone, the boundary between the
subducting and overlying plate is called a megathrust
fault
 Produce most of Earth’s powerful earthquakes

 Strike-slip – large faults associated with transform plate

boundaries
 Small strike-slip faults associated with divergent plate
boundaries

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Faults &
Earthquakes
 Earthquakes can take place at
both new and pre-existing faults.

 Normal Faults
 Reverse (and Thrust) Faults ©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Megathrust Faults
 Strike-Slip Faults

©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

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©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Dr. YILDIRIM Dr. YILDIRIM

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Fault Rupture and Propogation

 Most faults are locked except for brief, abrupt movements

 Faults do not slip all at once
 Initial slip begins at hypocenter and propagates along the
fault surface
 Slippage adds strain to adjacent sections triggering more
slippage
 Slippage mainly travels in one direction

 Fault slip is the amount of displacement on the fault

surface
 San Andreas is the most studied fault system in the world
 Some portions exhibit slow, gradual displacement known
as fault creep
 Other segments regularly slip, producing small earthquakes

Other segments remain stuck and store elastic energy

for a few hundred years before they break loose,
resulting in a major earthquake

Fault Propagation
(1)

(2)

(3)

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

of a fault plane,
a rock layer,
Strike and dip or a subducting slab

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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves

 Seismology is the study of earthquake waves
 Earliest studies of earthquake waves date back almost 2000
years to the Chinese

 Instruments That Record Earthquakes:

 Seismographs record the movement of Earth in relation

to a stationary mass on a rotating drum or magnetic
tape
 Seismometers are digitized
 More than one type of seismograph is needed to record
horizontal and vertical ground movement
 Accelerometers are requierd for strong ground motion

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves

 Seismic Waves
 Records obtained are called seismograms
 Types of seismic waves
 Body waves travel through Earth’s interior

 Primary (P) waves are compression waves

 Can travel through all materials
 Secondary (S) waves are shear waves
 Can only travel through solid material
 Surface waves travel in the rock layers just below
Earth’s surface
 Love Waves
 Rayleigh Waves

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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Body Waves: P WAVES

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Body Waves: S WAVES

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Seismology: The Study of

Earthquake Waves
 Surface waves

 Two general directions of motion

 RAYLEIGH WAVES: One

causes the ground to move up
and down, similar to the
movement of ocean cells

 LOVE WAVES: The second

causes the ground to move side
to side
 Causes the greatest
destruction

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Body Waves Versus Surface Waves

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Summary:
Seismology
 Seismology is the study of
earthquakes.
 Seismographs, or seismometers are instruments
recording the earthquake tremors.
Types of Waves:
 Surface waves: travels in rock layers just below the surface
 Body Waves: travels in earth interior
 Primary or P Waves: Push & pull waves
 Secondary or S Waves ©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Seismology: The Study of Earthquake Waves

 Seismic Waves
 Body waves versus surface waves
 P waves are the first to arrive at a recording station, but
have the lowest amplitude
 S waves are the second to arrive at a recording station

 Surface waves have the lowest velocity, are the last to

arrive at a recording station, and have the highest
amplitude
 Surface waves cause the greatest property damage

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Typical Seismograph & Seismogram

HOW TO DETERMINE THE EPICENTER??

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)
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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Accelerograph /Accelorometer
& Accelorogram
 Accelerograph (or strong ground motion accelerometers)
are used to record strong shakings!
 Accelorogram: The recording of the acceleration of the
ground during a strong ground motion (earthquake).

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Strong Ground Motion Measurements

 Strong ground motion

 Amplitude (PGA)

- Maximum ground
acceleration that occurred
during earthquake shaking
at a location

 Frequency Content

 Duration

Determining the Size of Earthquakes

 Two measurements are used to describe the size of an
earthquake

 Intensity: a measure of the degree of earthquake

shaking at a given locale based on the amount of
damage

 Magnitude: an estimate of the amount of energy

released at the source of the earthquake

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Determining the Size of Earthquakes

 Intensity scales

 The Modified Mercalli Intensity scale was developed using

California buildings as its standard
 Based on property destruction in a region

 Values change based on the distance from the epicenter

 The drawback of intensity scales is that destruction may not

be a true measure of the earthquake’s actual severity

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson) 12
Dr. YILDIRIM Dr. YILDIRIM

Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Determining the Size of Earthquakes

 Magnitude scales

 1) Richter magnitude (ML) L is for local!

 Concept introduced by Charles Richter in 1935

 The Richter scale is calculated by measuring the

amplitude of the largest seismic wave recorded on
a seismogram

 Logarithmic scale that accounts for the

decrease in wave amplitude with increased
distance

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Determining the
Richter Magnitude
(ML) of an Earthquake

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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa,
D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)
Dr. YILDIRIM Dr. YILDIRIM

Determining the Size of Earthquakes

 Magnitude scales

 2) Moment magnitude (Mw)

 measures the total energy released during an
earthquake

 Calculated by the average amount of slip on the

fault, the area of the fault surface that slipped, and
the strength of the faulted rock

 Can also be calculated by modeling data from

seismograms

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Moment Magnitude

©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

Summary : Earthquake
Intensity & Magnitude
 Size of an Earthquake and Severity
defined with: Intensity & Magnitude

 Intensity: a measure of ground

shaking based on observed property
damage. ©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale

 USGS Community Internet
Intensity Map

 Magnitude: a quantitative measure of

energy released, using ground motion
instruments.

 Richter Magnitude
 Moment Magnitude

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson) 14
Dr. YILDIRIM Dr. YILDIRIM

Richter Magnitude (ML)

I is the intensity of the earthquake (measured by the amplitude of a

seismograph reading taken 100 km from the epicenter of the earthquake) and S
is the intensity of standard earthquake.

Richter Magnitude (ML)

• The Richter scale is logarithmic, meaning that whole-number jumps indicate a

tenfold increase. In this case, the increase is in wave amplitude. That is, the
wave amplitude in a level 6 earthquake is 10 times greater than in a level 5
earthquake, and the amplitude increases 100 times between a level 7
earthquake and a level 9 earthquake.

• A better measure of the size of an earthquake is the amount of energy released

by the earthquake, which is related to the Richter Scale by the following
approximate equation: Log E = 11.8 + 1.5 M (where Log refers to the logarithm
to the base 10, E is the energy released in ergs and M the Richter magnitude).

• The amount of energy released increases 31.7 times between whole number
values.

Many other magnitudes are present,

(Mw)- Moment Magnitude
 Many other magnitudes are proposed:

 One of the most important and widely used is moment magnitude:

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Moment Magnitude: Mw

Moment Magnitude (Mw)

Moment
mgnitude is
widely used,
as it is a
better
measure for
higher
magnitude
earthquakes!

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Earthquake Destruction
 Amount of destruction attributable to an earthquake varies based on:
 Magnitude of the earthquake
 Proximity to the epicenter
 Destruction from Seismic Vibrations
 The amount of damage to structures depends on:
 The earthquake intensity

 The duration of the vibrations

 The nature of the /ground geologic formation beneath the

structures
 The nature of building materials and construction practices of
the region
 Destruction from Seismic Vibrations
 Amplification of seismic waves
 Soft sediments amplify seismic waves more than solid bedrock

 Liquefaction is the process where loosely packed, waterlogged

sediments behave as a fluid during the intense shaking of an
earthquake
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Earthquake Destruction
 Destruction from Seismic Vibrations
 Seiches
 Rhythmic sloshing of water in lakes, reservoirs, and enclosed
basins
 Can be dangerous to small watercraft or if the sloshing causes
water to spill over the dams of reservoirs

 Landslides and Ground Subsidence

 Ground shaking causes loose sediments on a slope to slump

 Fire
 Can start when gas and electrical lines are destroyed by an
earthquake
 Broken water lines make fire control problematic

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Earthquake Destruction
(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

 What Is a Tsunami?
 A tsunami is a series of large ocean waves

 Most are generated by displacement from a

megathrust fault
 In open water, the wave amplitude is less than 1 meter
and the wavelength can be larger than 700 meters
 Close to shore, the water “piles up” and some tsunamis
can exceed 30 meters in height

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Earthquake Damage
 Destruction of Infrastructure from
seismic vibrations depend on: ©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Intensity
 Duration of Vibrations
 Ground Conditions (e.g.,
liquefaction)
 Construction Materials &
Quality

 Landslide ©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Ground Subsidence

 Tsunami

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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Earthquake Belts and Plate Tectonics

 95 percent of energy released from earthquakes originates along
the circum-Pacific belt
 Most earthquakes occur along megathrust faults of convergent
plate boundaries

 The Alpine-Himalayan belt is another region of strong earthquakes

 Tectonic activity is attributed to the collision of the African

and Indian Plates with the Eurasian Plate

 Divergent plate boundaries are associated with frequent but weak

seismic activity

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Earthquake Belts & Plate Boundaries

©2014 Pearson Education, Inc.

(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?

 Short-Range Predictions

 The goal is to provide a warning of the location and magnitude

of a large earthquake within a narrow time frame
 Research has concentrated on monitoring possible precursors
of major earthquakes:

 Monitor changes in ground elevation

 Measure strain in the rocks
 Measure changes in groundwater level
 Frequency of foreshocks

 Must have a small range of uncertainty in regards to location

and timing
 Must produce few failures and false alarms

 Currently, no reliable methods exist for making short-range

earthquake predictions
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(Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. 2014. Earth, from Pearson)

Can Earthquakes Be Predicted?

 Long-Range Forecasts

 Give the probability of earthquakes of a certain magnitude

occurring on a time scale of 30 to 100 years (or more)
 Useful guide for building codes

 Example: Building the Trans-Alaskan Pipeline over the

Denali Fault

 Seismic gaps are tectonically quiet zones along a fault where

strain is currently building up

 The stored strain will be released in a future earthquake

 Paleoseismology is the study of prehistoric earthquakes

 By digging a trench across a fault zone, scientists look for
evidence of ancient faulting (mud volcanoes and offset
sedimentary strata)

Resources

1. Tarbuck E.J., Lutgens, F. K., Tasa, D.G. (2012). Earth An Introduction to

Physical Geology, 11th Edition, Pearson, ISBN13:978-0321820945 ISBN-
10:0321820940

 Thank you & see you all in the classroom!!!

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