BASICS OF COMPUTER NETWORKING

Computer Networking is the practice of connecting computers together to

enable communication and data exchange between them. In general,
Computer Network is a collection of two or more computers. It helps users to
communicate more easily. In this article, we are going to discuss the basics
which everyone must know before going deep into Computer Networking.

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Basics building blocks of a Computer network are Nodes and Links. A Network
Node can be illustrated as Equipment for Data Communication like a Modem,
Router, etc., or Equipment of a Data Terminal like connecting two computers
or more. Link in Computer Networks can be defined as wires or cables or free
space of wireless networks.

The working of Computer Networks can be simply defined as rules or

protocols which help in sending and receiving data via the links which allow
Computer networks to communicate. Each device has an IP Address, that
helps in identifying a device.

Basic Terminologies of Computer Networks

Network: A network is a collection of computers and devices that are
connected together to enable communication and data exchange.
 Nodes: Nodes are devices that are connected to a network. These can
include computers, Servers, Printers, Routers, Switches, and other
devices.
Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules and standards that govern how data
is transmitted over a network. Examples of protocols include TCP/IP,
HTTP, and FTP.
Topology: Network topology refers to the physical and logical
arrangement of nodes on a network. The common network topologies
include bus, star, ring, mesh, and tree.
Service Provider Networks: These types of Networks give permission to
take Network Capacity and Functionality on lease from the Provider.
Service Provider Networks include Wireless Communications, Data
Carriers, etc.
IP Address: An IP address is a unique numerical identifier that is assigned
to every device on a network. IP addresses are used to identify devices
and enable communication between them.
DNS: The Domain Name System (DNS) is a protocol that is used to
translate human-readable domain names (such as www.google.com) into
IP addresses that computers can understand.
Firewall: A firewall is a security device that is used to monitor and control
incoming and outgoing network traffic. Firewalls are used to protect
networks from unauthorized access and other security threats.

Types of Enterprise Computer Networks

LAN: A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that covers a small area,
such as an office or a home. LANs are typically used to connect computers
and other devices within a building or a campus.
WAN: A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a network that covers a large
geographic area, such as a city, country, or even the entire world. WANs
are used to connect LANs together and are typically used for long-
distance communication.
Cloud Networks: Cloud Networks can be visualized with a Wide Area
Network (WAN) as they can be hosted on public or private cloud service
providers and cloud networks are available if there is a demand. Cloud
Networks consist of Virtual Routers, Firewalls, etc.

These are just a few basic concepts of computer networking. Networking is a

vast and complex field,
and there are many more concepts and technologies involved in building and
maintaining networks. Now we are going to discuss some more concepts on
Computer Networking.

Open system: A system that is connected to the network and is ready for
communication.
Closed system: A system that is not connected to the network and can’t
be communicated with.

Types of Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network falls under these broad Categories:

Client-Server Architecture: Client-Server Architecture is a type of
Computer Network Architecture in which Nodes can be Servers or Clients.
Here, the server node can manage the Client Node Behaviour.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture: In P2P (Peer-to-Peer) Architecture, there is not
any concept of a Central Server. Each device is free for working as either
client or server.

Network Devices

An interconnection of multiple devices, also known as hosts, that are

connected using multiple paths for the purpose of sending/receiving data or
media. Computer networks can also include multiple devices/mediums which
help in the communication between two different devices; these are known as
Network devices and include things such as routers, switches, hubs, and
bridges.
Network Topology

The Network Topology is the layout arrangement of the different devices in a

network. Common examples include Bus, Star, Mesh, Ring, and Daisy chain.

OSI Model

OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection. It is a reference model that

specifies standards for communications protocols and also the functionalities
of each layer. The OSI has been developed by the International Organization
For Standardization and it is 7 layer architecture. Each layer of OSI has
different functions and each layer has to follow different protocols. The 7
layers are as follows:

Physical Layer
Data link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules or algorithms which define the way how two
entities can communicate across the network and there exists a different
protocol defined at each layer of the OSI model. A few such protocols are
TCP, IP, UDP, ARP, DHCP, FTP, and so on.

Unique Identifiers of Network

Hostname: Each device in the network is associated with a unique device

name known as Hostname. Type “hostname” in the command
prompt(Administrator Mode) and press ‘Enter’, this displays the hostname of
your machine.

IP Address (Internet Protocol address):

Also known as the Logical Address, the IP Address is the network address of
the system across the network. To identify each device in the world-wide-
web, the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) assigns an IPV4 (Version
4) address as a unique identifier to each device on the Internet. The length of
an IPv4 address is 32 bits, hence, we have 232 IP addresses available. The
length of an IPv6 address is 128 bits.
Type “ipconfig” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the IP
address of the device.
MAC Address (Media Access Control address):

Also known as physical address, the MAC Address is the unique identifier of
each host and is associated with its NIC (Network Interface Card). A MAC
address is assigned to the NIC at the time of manufacturing. The length of the
MAC address is: 12-nibble/ 6 bytes/ 48 bits Type “ipconfig/all” in the
command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this gives us the MAC address.

Port: A port can be referred to as a logical channel through which data can be
sent/received to an application. Any host may have multiple applications
running, and each of these applications is identified using the port number on
which they are running.
A port number is a 16-bit integer, hence, we have 216 ports available which
are categorized as shown below:

Number of posts: 65,536

Range: 0 – 65535
Type “netstat -a” in the command prompt and press ‘Enter’, this lists all the
ports being used.
Socket: The unique combination of IP address and Port number together is
termed a Socket.

Other Related Concepts

DNS Server: DNS stands for Domain Name System. DNS is basically a server
that translates web addresses or URLs (ex: www.google.com) into their
corresponding IP addresses. We don’t have to remember all the IP addresses
of each and every website. The command ‘nslookup’ gives you the IP address
of the domain you are looking for. This also provides information on our DNS
Server. \

ARP: ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. It is used to convert an IP

address to its corresponding physical address(i.e., MAC Address). ARP is used
by the Data Link Layer to identify the MAC address of the Receiver’s machine.
RARP: RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol. As the name
suggests, it provides the IP address of the device given a physical address as
input. But RARP has become obsolete since the time DHCP has come into the
picture.
 GOALS OF NETWORK
Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous (standalone)
computers for information exchange. The connecting media could be a
copper wire, optical fiber, microwave, or satellite.
Networking Elements – The computer network includes the following
networking elements:
1. At least two computers
2. Transmission medium either wired or wireless
3. Protocols or rules that govern the communication
4. Network software such as Network Operating System
Network Criteria:
The criteria that have to be met by a computer network are:

1. Performance – It is measured in terms of transit time and response time.

Transit time is the time for a message to travel from one device to another
Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and a response.
Performance is dependent on the following factors:
The number of users
Type of transmission medium
The capability of connected network
Efficiency of software
Bandwidth
Network topology
Network protocols
Distance
Network congestion
Network Hardware

2. Reliability – It is measured in terms of

Frequency of failure
Recovery from failures
Robustness during catastrophe
Quality of service (QoS)
Reducing single points of failure
Capacity planning
Network architecture

3. Security – It means protecting data from unauthorized access.

4. Network topology - is another crucial factor to consider when designing a
computer network.
devices and links are arranged in a network. Common topologies include bus,
star, ring, mesh, and hybrid, each with its own advantages and disadvantages
in terms of cost, scalability, reliability, and performance. The choice of
topology depends on the specific needs and constraints of the network.
Other important criteria that must be met by a computer network include
performance, reliability, and security.
Goals of Computer Networks: The following are some important goals of
computer networks:

1. Resource Sharing – Many organizations have many computers in

operations, which are located apart. Ex. A group of office workers can
share a common printer, fax, modem, scanner, etc.
2. High Reliability – If there are alternate sources of supply, all files could be
replicated on two or more machines. If one of them is not available, due to
hardware failure, the other copies could be used.
3. Inter-process Communication – Network users, located geographically
apart, may converse in an interactive session through the network. In
order to permit this, the network must provide almost error-free
communications.
4. Flexible access – Files can be accessed from any computer in the network.
The project can be begun on one computer and finished on another.
5. Security– Computer networks must be secure to protect against
unauthorized access, data breaches, and other security threats. This
includes implementing measures such as firewalls, antivirus software, and
encryption to ensure data confidentiality, integrity, and availability.
6. Performance– Computer networks must provide high performance and
low latency to ensure that applications and services are responsive and
available when needed. This requires optimizing network infrastructure,
bandwidth utilization, and traffic management.
7. Scalability- Computer networks must be designed to scale up or down as
needed to accommodate changes in the number of users, devices, and
data traffic. This requires careful planning and management to ensure the
network can meet current and future needs. Other goals include
Distribution of processing functions, Centralized management, and
allocation of network resources, Compatibility of dissimilar equipment
and software, Good network performance, Scalability, Saving money,
Access to remote information, Person to person communication, etc.
 TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGY
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via
sender and receiver is referred to as network topology. The various network
topologies are:

Mesh Topology:
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a
particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These

channels are known as links.

Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a

mesh topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device
is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the
total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total number of
ports required*(N-1).
Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to connect
them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to
each other, hence the total number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.
Communication is very fast between the nodes.
It is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred
among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
Provides security and privacy.

Problems with this topology:

Installation and configuration are difficult.

The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various
internet service providers are connected to each other via dedicated
channels. This topology is also used in military communication systems and
aircraft navigation systems.

Star Topology:
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an
active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45
cables are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular
Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier
Sense Multiple Access), etc.
 Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point
of connection i.e. hub.

Advantages of this topology:

If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the
total number of ports required is N.
It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than
that.
Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Problems with this topology:
If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the
whole system will crash down.
The cost of installation is high.
Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office
where all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also
used in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless
access point.

Bus Topology:
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device
is connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes. In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control)
protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha,
CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are
connected to the channel via drop lines.

Advantages of this topology:

If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone
cable, and N drop lines are required.
Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that
support up to 10 Mbps.
The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used
to build small networks.
Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
Problems with this topology:
A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To
avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure
Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices
are connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is
also used in cable television networks.

Ring Topology:
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two
neighboring devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the
ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99
nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are
used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e.., it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol
is used by the workstations to transmit the data.
Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a
ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed
from one node to another node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
The following operations take place in ring topology are :
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the
responsibility for performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in
the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release
releases the token just after transmitting the data and Delayed token
release releases the token after the acknowledgment is received from the
receiver.
Advantages of this topology:
The data transmission is high-speed.
The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
Cheap to install and expand.
It is less costly than a star topology.
Problems with this topology:
The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to
fail.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb
the whole topology.
Less secure.

A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices
are connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is
also used in cable television networks.

Tree Topology :
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC
(Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the
central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top
i.e. devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-
point connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails
the topology crashes.

Advantages of this topology :

It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it
decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the
devices.
It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
We can add new devices to the existing network.
Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Problems with this topology :
If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
The cost is high because of the cabling.
If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization.

At the top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different
departments or divisions (child nodes) of the company. Each department has
its own hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild
nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy,
connected to their respective managers and departments

Hybrid Topology :
This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of
topologies we have studied above. It is used when the nodes are free to take
any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or
can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above. Each
individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As
seen it contains a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of this topology :
This topology is very flexible.
The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Problems with this topology :
It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of
cabling and network devices.

A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The

network may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building
connected to the backbone through a switch or router. Within each building,
there may be a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and
offices. The wireless access points also create a mesh topology for wireless
devices. This hybrid topology allows for efficient communication between
different buildings while providing flexibility and redundancy within each
building.
Types of area networks – LAN, MAN and WAN

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different

computers via any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of
networks designed to operate over the area they cover. There are some
similarities and dissimilarities between them. One of the major differences is
the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers the smallest area, MAN
covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largest of all.
There are other types of Computer Networks also, like :

PAN (Personal Area Network)

SAN (Storage Area Network)
EPN (Enterprise Private Network)
VPN (Virtual Private Network)

Personal Area Network (PAN)-

PAN is a personal area network having an interconnection of personal

technology devices to communicate over a short distance. It covers only less
than 10 meters or 33 feet of area. PAN has fewer users as compared to other
networks such as LAN, WAN, etc. PAN typically uses some form of wireless
technology. PAN involves the transmission of data between information
devices such as smartphones, personal computers, tablet computers, etc.

Advantages:
Allows for easy communication between personal devices in close
proximity.
Can be set up easily and quickly.
Uses wireless technology, which eliminates the need for wires and cables.
PANs are designed to be energy efficient, which means that devices can
communicate with each other without draining their batteries quickly.
PANs are typically secured using encryption and authentication
protocols, which helps to prevent unauthorized access to data and
resources.
Disadvantages:
Limited coverage area.
May not be suitable for large-scale data transfer or communication.PANs
typically have limited bandwidth, which means that they may not be able
to handle large amounts of data or high-speed communication.
May experience interference from other wireless devices.
Local Area Network (LAN) –

LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that
personal computers and workstations can share data, tools, and programs.
The group of computers and devices are connected together by a switch, or
stack of switches, using a private addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP
protocol. Private addresses are unique in relation to other computers on the
local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a LAN, connecting them
to the larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is
limited. By definition, the connections must be high-speed and relatively
inexpensive hardware (Such as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables).
LANs cover a smaller geographical area (Size is limited to a few kilometers)
and are privately owned. One can use it for an office building, home, hospital,
school, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A Communication medium
used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It covers a short
distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.

Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are
normally 100 or 1000 Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The
smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can
accommodate thousands of computers. LAN has a range up to 2km. A LAN
typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and
security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault
tolerance of a LAN is more and there is less congestion in this network. For
example A bunch of students playing Counter-Strike in the same room
(without internet).
Advantages:
Provides fast data transfer rates and high-speed communication.
Easy to set up and manage.
Can be used to share peripheral devices such as printers and scanners.
Provides increased security and fault tolerance compared to WANs.
Disadvantages:
Limited geographical coverage.
Limited scalability and may require significant infrastructure upgrades to
accommodate growth.
May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that covered by
a LAN and a smaller area as compared to WAN. MAN has a range of 5-50km. It
connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in the same or
different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP
(Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-
speed connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to
design and maintain a Metropolitan Area Network.

The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the
network. It is costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization.
The data transfer rate and the propagation delay of MAN are moderate.
Devices used for transmission of data through MAN are Modem and
Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are part of the telephone company network
that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the cable TV
network in a city.
Advantages:
Provides high-speed connectivity over a larger geographical area than
LAN.
Can be used as an ISP for multiple customers.
Offers higher data transfer rates than WAN in some cases.
Disadvantages:
Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
May experience congestion and network performance issues with
increased usage.
May have limited fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
Wide Area Network (WAN) –

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large
geographical area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state
or country. WAN has a range of above 50 km. A WAN could be a connection of
LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves and may
be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to
the public. The technology is high-speed and relatively expensive.

There are two types of WAN: Switched WAN and Point-to-Point WAN. WAN is
difficult to design and maintain. Similar to a MAN, the fault tolerance of a
WAN is less and there is more congestion in the network. A Communication
medium used for WAN is PSTN or Satellite Link. Due to long-distance
transmission, the noise and error tend to be more in WAN.
WAN’s data rate is slow about a 10th LAN’s speed since it involves increased
distance and increased number of servers and terminals etc. The speed of
WAN ranges from a few kilobits per second (Kbps) to megabits per second
(Mbps). Propagation delay is one of the biggest problems faced here. Devices
used for the transmission of data through WAN are Optic wires, Microwaves,
and Satellites. An example of a Switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer
mode (ATM) network and Point-to-Point WAN is a dial-up line that connects a
home computer to the Internet.

Advantages:
Covers large geographical areas and can connect remote locations.
Provides connectivity to the internet.
Offers remote access to resources and applications.
Can be used to support multiple users and applications simultaneously.
Disadvantages:
Can be expensive to set up and maintain.
Offers slower data transfer rates than LAN or MAN.
May experience higher latency and longer propagation delays due to
longer distances and multiple network hops.
May have lower fault tolerance and security compared to LANs.
 Conclusion –
There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as LAN
provides excellent reliability, a high data transmission rate, and can
easily be managed and shares peripheral devices too. Local Area
Network cannot cover cities or towns and for that Metropolitan Area
Network is needed, which can connect a city or a group of cities
together. Further, for connecting a Country or a group of Countries one
requires a Wide Area Network.

Introduction of Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET)

also called a wireless Adhoc
MANET stands for Mobile Adhoc Network
network or Adhoc wireless network that usually has a routable networking
environment on top of a Link Layer ad hoc network.. They consist of a set of
mobile nodes connected wirelessly in a self-configured, self-healing network
without having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move
randomly as the network topology changes frequently. Each node behaves as
a router as they forward traffic to other specified nodes in the network.

MANET may operate in a standalone fashion or they can be part of larger

internet. They form a highly dynamic autonomous topology with the
presence of one or multiple different transceivers between nodes. The main
challenge for the MANET is to equip each device to continuously maintain the
information required to properly route traffic. MANETs consist of a peer-to-
peer, self-forming, self-healing network MANETs circa 2000-2015 typically
communicate at radio frequencies (30MHz-5GHz). This can be used in road
safety, ranging from sensors for the environment, home, health, disaster
rescue operations, air/land/navy defense, weapons, robots, etc.

Dynamic Topologies: Network topology which is typically multi-hop may

change randomly and rapidly with time, it can form unidirectional or bi-
directional links.
 Bandwidth-constrained, variable capacity links: Wireless links usually
have lower reliability, efficiency, stability, and capacity as compared to a
wired network
Autonomous Behavior: Each node can act as a host and router, which
shows its autonomous behavior.
Energy-Constrained Operation: As some or all the nodes rely on batteries
or other exhaustible means for their energy. Mobile nodes are
characterized by less memory, power, and lightweight features.
Limited Security: Wireless networks are more prone to security threats. A
centralized firewall is absent due to the distributed nature of the
operation for security, routing, and host configuration.
Less Human Intervention: They require minimum human intervention to
configure the network, therefore they are dynamically autonomous in
nature.

Pros and Cons of MANET –

Pros:
1. Separation from central network administration.
2. Each node can play both the roles ie. of router and host showing
autonomous nature.
3. Self-configuring and self-healing nodes do not require human
intervention.
4. Highly scalable and suits the expansion of more network hub.
Cons:
1. Resources are limited due to various constraints like noise, interference
conditions, etc.
2. Lack of authorization facilities.
3. More prone to attacks due to limited physical security.
4. High latency i.e. There is a huge delay in the transfer of data between two
sleeping nodes.

Improvement in MANET:
1. Quality of Service (QoS): Researchers are working to improve the quality
of service of MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that
provide better bandwidth, throughput, and latency.
 Security: To ensure the security of the MANET, researchers are
developing efficient security mechanisms that provide encryption,
authentication, and authorization facilities.
Power management: To enhance the lifetime of MANET nodes,
researchers are working on developing efficient power management
techniques that reduce the energy consumption of nodes.
Multimedia support: Researchers are working to provide multimedia
support to MANET by developing efficient routing protocols that can
handle multimedia traffic efficiently.
Standardization: To ensure the interoperability of different MANET
devices, researchers are working on developing standard protocols and
interfaces that can be used by different MANET devices.

Mobile Adhoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network made up of a collection

of mobile nodes connected wirelessly and free of any fixed infrastructure. It
is self-configuring and self-healing. MANET provides a lot of benefits, but it
also has several drawbacks that need to be fixed. Researchers are always
trying to make MANET’s features better in order to get over these
constraints. Future advancements in new technology and methodologies
might make MANET a dependable and effective wireless network.

Advantages:

Flexibility: MANETs are highly flexible, as they can be easily deployed in

various environments and can be adapted to different applications and
scenarios. This makes them ideal for use in emergency situations or
military operations, where there may not be a pre-existing network
infrastructure.
Scalability: MANETs can easily scale to accommodate a large number of
nodes, making them suitable for large-scale deployments. They can also
handle dynamic changes in network topology, such as the addition or
removal of nodes.
Cost-effective: Since MANETs do not require any centralized
infrastructure, they are often more cost-effective than traditional wired
or wireless networks. They can also be used to extend the range of
existing networks without the need for additional infrastructure.
Rapid Deployment: MANETs can be rapidly deployed in areas where
infrastructure is not available, such as disaster zones or rural areas.
Disadvantages:

Security: MANETs are vulnerable to security threats, such as attacks by

malicious nodes, eavesdropping, and data interception. Since the network
is decentralized, there is no central authority to ensure the security of the
network.
Reliability: MANETs are less reliable than traditional networks, as they are
subject to interference, signal attenuation, and other environmental
factors that can affect the quality of the connection.
Bandwidth: Since MANETs rely on wireless communication, bandwidth
can be limited. This can lead to congestion and delays, particularly when
multiple nodes are competing for the same channel.
Routing: Routing in MANETs can be complex, particularly when dealing
with dynamic network topologies. This can result in inefficient routing and
longer delays in data transmission.
Power Consumption: Since MANETs rely on battery-powered devices,
power consumption can be a significant issue. Nodes may need to
conserve power to extend the life of the battery, which can limit the
amount of data that can be transmitted.
 Types of MANET in Computer Network

also called as wireless ad hoc
MANET stands for Mobile ad hoc Network
network or ad hoc wireless network. They consist of a set of mobile nodes
connected wirelessly in a self-configured, self-healing network without
having a fixed infrastructure. MANET nodes are free to move randomly as the
network topology changes frequently.

Types of MANET –

1. Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs) –

Enable effective communication with another vehicle or with

roadside equipment. Intelligent vehicular ad hoc networks(InVANETs) deal
with another vehicle or with roadside equipment. VANETs use wireless
communication technologies, such as WiFi or cellular, to enable vehicles to
communicate with each other and with infrastructure devices, such as traffic
lights or roadside units.

Uses: VANETs can be used to support a wide range of applications, such as:
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): VANETs can be used to improve
traffic flow and reduce congestion by providing real-time traffic
information and routing advice to drivers.
Road Safety: VANETs can be used to improve road safety by providing
information about the location of other vehicles, road conditions, and
potential hazards.
Entertainment and infotainment: providing in-vehicle entertainment and
internet access to the passengers
Emergency Services: VANETs can be used to support emergency services
by providing real-time information about accidents or other incidents on
the road.
Commercial Services: VANETs can be used for commercial services such
as providing location-based advertisement and other location-based
service to the driver or passengers.
VANETs are considered as one of the most critical application of the
Internet of Things (IoT) technology and the 5G technology.

Advantages:

Improves traffic flow and reduces congestion.

 Enhances road safety by providing real-time information about road
conditions, potential hazards, and the location of other vehicles.
Enables in-vehicle entertainment and internet access to passengers.
Supports emergency services by providing real-time information about
accidents or other incidents on the road.
Provides location-based advertising and other services to the driver or
passengers.

Disadvantages:

Vulnerable to attacks and security breaches.

Requires a large number of vehicles to form an effective network.
Limited coverage area, as VANETs rely on wireless communication
technologies such as Wi-Fi or cellular.

Smart Phone Ad hoc Network (SPANC) –

To create peer-to-peer networks without relying on cellular carrier
networks, wireless access points, or traditional network infrastructure. Here
peers can join or leave the network without destroying it. ad-hoc network
that utilizes smartphones as the primary nodes for communication. In
SPANC, smartphones can act as both routers and hosts, creating a
decentralized network without the need for a central infrastructure. This
allows for increased flexibility and scalability in wireless communication,
especially in emergency or disaster scenarios where traditional
communication infrastructure may be unavailable. Some examples of SPANC
applications include disaster response, search and rescue, and urban crowd
management.

Uses: Smart Phone Ad hoc Network (SPANC) can be used for a variety of
applications, including:
Emergency communication: In the event of a natural disaster or other
emergency, SPANCs can be used to establish a communication network
quickly, allowing people to contact emergency services or stay in touch
with loved ones.
Remote areas: SPANCs can be useful in remote areas where traditional
wireless networks are not available, such as rural communities or
wilderness areas.
Event networking: SPANCs can be used to create a temporary network for
events or gatherings, allowing attendees to communicate and share
information.
 Uses: There are several potential use cases for Internet-based Mobile Ad-
hoc Networks (iMANETs):
Smart Cities: iMANETs can be used to create smart city infrastructure,
enabling the real-time monitoring and management of urban services
such as traffic, parking, and energy use.
Internet of Things (IoT): iMANETs can be used to connect IoT devices and
enable communication and data transfer between them, even in areas
without a strong cellular or Wi-Fi signal.
Mobile Edge Computing (MEC): iMANETs can be used to support MEC,
enabling the processing of data and computation at the edge of the
network, rather than in a central location. This can reduce latency and
improve responsiveness for applications such as augmented reality and
autonomous vehicles.
Emergency and Disaster Response: iMANETs can be used to quickly
establish communication networks in emergency or disaster scenarios
where traditional infrastructure may be damaged or unavailable.
Military and Defence: iMANETs can be used for military and defense
communication, providing mobile and secure networking for military
operations in remote and rugged environments.
Remote Healthcare: iMANETs can be used to connect remote healthcare
facilities and patients, enabling real-time monitoring and consultation
with healthcare professionals.
Public Safety: iMANETs can be used to create communication networks
for public safety and security, such as for police and fire departments,
enabling real-time coordination and response in emergency situations.

Advantages:
Supports internet protocols such as TCP/UDP and IP.
Provides increased connectivity and global reach.
Enables the use of existing internet infrastructure for data transfer and
communication.
Useful in smart city infrastructure, IoT, and mobile edge computing.
Disadvantages:
Vulnerable to attacks and security breaches.
Requires a large number of mobile devices to form an effective network.
Limited coverage area, as iMANETs rely on wireless communication
technologies such as Wi-Fi or cellular.
 4. Hub-Spoke MANET:
Multiple sub MANET’s may be connected in hub-spoke VPN to create
a geographically distributed MANET. Normal Ad-hoc routing algorithm does
not apply directly. The hub node acts as a central point of communication
and routing, connecting the spoke nodes to each other and to other
networks, such as the Internet.
Uses: There are several potential use cases for Hub-Spoke Mobile Ad-hoc
Networks (MANETs):
Military and Defense: Hub-Spoke MANETs can be used for military and
defense communication, providing a central point of control for
communication and coordination in remote and rugged environments.
Emergency and Disaster Response: Hub-Spoke MANETs can be used to
quickly establish communication networks in emergency or disaster
scenarios where traditional infrastructure may be damaged or
unavailable. The hub node can be used to coordinate communication
among first responders and other emergency personnel.
Public Safety: Hub-Spoke MANETs can be used to create communication
networks for public safety and security, such as for police and fire
departments, enabling real-time coordination and response in emergency
situations.
Industrial and Mining: Hub-Spoke MANETs can be used for
communication and monitoring in industrial and mining operations, where
a central point of control is needed to coordinate communication and
data transfer among multiple mobile devices.
Transportation: Hub-Spoke MANETs can be used to coordinate
communication among vehicles and transportation infrastructure, such
as traffic lights and toll booths, to improve traffic flow and reduce
congestion.
Healthcare: Hub-Spoke MANETs can be used to connect remote
healthcare facilities and patients, enabling real-time monitoring and
consultation with healthcare professionals. The hub node can be used to
coordinate communication and data transfer among multiple mobile
devices in a healthcare facility.
Smart Grid: Hub-Spoke MANETs can be used to connect and control
distributed energy resources, such as solar panels and wind turbines, in a
smart grid network. The hub node can be used to coordinate
communication and data transfer among multiple mobile devices and to
monitor and control the power flow in the network.
Advantages:
Enables the creation of a geographically distributed MANET.
Provides a central point of communication and routing.
Useful in military and defense communication, public safety, and remote
healthcare.
Disadvantages:
Requires a hub node to act as a central point of communication and
routing.
Complex to configure and maintain.
Vulnerable to attacks and security breaches.

5. Military or Tactical MANETs –

This is used by the military units. Emphasis on data rate, real-time
demand, fast re-routing during mobility, security, radio range, etc. that are
designed specifically for use in military and tactical operations. They are
designed to provide mobile, secure, and reliable communication in
challenging environments, such as in remote or rugged terrain or in areas
with limited or no infrastructure.

Uses: Military or Tactical Mobile Ad-hoc Networks (MANETs) have several

potential uses in military and tactical operations, including:
Command and Control: Tactical MANETs can be used to provide real-time
communication and coordination among military personnel and units,
allowing for effective command and control in the field.
Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR): Tactical MANETs
can be used to provide real-time situational awareness and intelligence
gathering in the field, allowing for effective decision-making and mission
planning.
Situational Awareness: Tactical MANETs can be used to share real-time
information and location data among military personnel and units,
providing enhanced situational awareness and enabling more effective
decision-making in the field.
Logistics: Tactical MANETs can be used to coordinate logistics operations,
such as supply chain management, in the field.
Emergency Response: Tactical MANETs can be used to provide
communication and coordination among emergency responders in the
field, enabling effective response to natural disasters or other emergency
situations.
 Public Safety: Tactical MANETs can be used to provide communication
and coordination among public safety personnel, such as police and fire
fighters, in the field.
Search and Rescue: Tactical MANETs can be used to provide
communication and coordination among search and rescue teams in the
field, enabling efficient and effective search and rescue operations.
Disaster Recovery: Tactical MANETs can be used to provide
communication and coordination in the field following a disaster, allowing
for rapid response and recovery efforts.

These are some examples but not limited to these as the uses of Tactical
MANETs can be diverse based on the context and the requirements of the
operations.

Advantages:

Offers a self-healing and flexible network structure.

Provides better coverage and range than other MANET types.
Supports multi-hop communication and routing.
Suitable for military and tactical communication in remote and
challenging terrains.

Disadvantages:

Requires significant power and computational resources for routing.

Difficult to manage and configure.
May face interference and signal degradation in dense urban
environments.
May be vulnerable to jamming and denial of service attacks.

6. Flying Ad hoc Network (FANETs) –

This is composed of unmanned aerial vehicles (commonly known as drones).
Provides links to remote areas and mobility. Flying Ad-hoc Networks (FANETs)
are a specialized type of mobile ad-hoc network that are designed specifically
for use in aerial vehicles, such as drones, UAVs, and UGVs. They enable
communication and coordination among a group of flying vehicles in a
decentralized and self-organizing manner.
 FANETs provide a flexible and reliable communication infrastructure for
aerial vehicles, allowing for real-time data collection and transmission, as
well as navigation and control. They can operate in a standalone mode or
can be connected to other networks, such as satellite or cellular
networks, to provide extended communication capabilities.

Uses: FANETs have several potential uses in various fields such as:

Military and defense: FANETs can be used for reconnaissance,

surveillance, and intelligence gathering, as well as for communication and
coordination among military personnel and units.
Emergency response: FANETs can be used to provide communication and
coordination among emergency responders in the field, enabling effective
response to natural disasters or other emergency situations.
Civil aviation: FANETs can be used for air traffic management and control,
as well as for communication and coordination among commercial and
private aircraft.
Environmental monitoring: FANETs can be used to collect and transmit
data for environmental monitoring and research, such as for monitoring
air and water quality, or for monitoring wildlife populations.
Agriculture: FANETs can be used for precision agriculture, such as for
monitoring crop health and for controlling crop-dusting drones.
Search and Rescue: FANETs can be used to provide communication and
coordination among search and rescue teams, enabling efficient and
effective search and rescue operations.
Infrastructure inspection: FANETs can be used for inspecting and
monitoring large-scale infrastructure, such as bridges, buildings, and
power lines.
Media and Entertainment: FANETs can be used for live streaming and for
capturing high-quality video and images for use in media and
entertainment.

Advantages:

Provides flexibility and mobility as the network can be set up and moved
quickly.
Suitable for disaster response, search and rescue operations, and remote
sensing applications.
Can cover large areas with minimal infrastructure requirements.
 Can operate in harsh environments where traditional communication
infrastructure is not available.

Disadvantages:

Limited endurance of the flying platforms.

Communication range is affected by weather conditions.
Lack of standardization in FANETs technology.
Difficult to maintain and manage due to the dynamic nature of the
network.