CO2 pipelines are not the same as natural gas pipelines, though they may appear to be on the

surface.

CO2 is usually transported over long distances in the dense phase (above the CO2 critical
pressure of ~74 bar). This significantly increases CO2 density and enables much more capacity for
the pipeline, meaning a smaller (and lower cost) pipeline can be specified for a given flow,
compared to gas-phase transport.

It also significantly reduces the compressibility of the CO2, reducing energy requirements of
pressure boosting stations along the pipeline route enabling low-energy pumps rather than gas
compressors to be used.

However, dense phase transport does come with some operational and design issues not present
in natural gas pipelines:

- The system needs to be designed to not exceed the design pressure of the pipeline (as with all
pipelines) but in addition must also ensure the CO2 remains comfortably above its critical
pressure. CO2 should not be allowed to drop into the 2-phase or gas-phase region during
normal operation as this reduces pipeline capacity (increased pressure drop) and can cause
damage to downstream equipment through vibration, hydraulic surging or erosion through
impingement. This means there are upper AND lower limits for operating pressure in CO2
pipelines.

- The need to boost pressure above 74 bar, regardless of pipeline pressure drop, imposes an
energy load on the CO2 compressors well above an equivalent duty for natural gas. If the CO2
source is at low (ambient) pressure, as is common in post-combustion capture plants, this means
a substantial CO2 compression system will need to be provided.

- Pressure relief needs close assessment. CO2 is heavier than air and is a potential asphyxiant if
released close to people. For natural gas pressure relief this is less of an issue as methane is
lighter than air and disperses rapidly. Proper exclusion zones around relief points can address this
point, as can the relief stack design.

- Pipeline mechanical design needs to account for a decompression scenario to provide

toughness against a running ductile fracture in the event that dense phase CO2 drops down into
a less dense two-phase or gas-phase state. This may mean a greater pipe wall thickness than
would be required solely for pressure containment.

- As with natural gas pipelines, it is important that moisture be reduced to very low levels before
CO2 enters the pipeline. However, the corrosion risk of CO2 with water is much greater than with
natural gas, as CO2 reacts with water to form low pH carbonic acid. The compression plant's
dehydration system must be highly reliable at keeping moisture out of the pipeline.

All of these issues are manageable with good engineering practice. There is a long history of
design and operation of CO2 pipelines, particularly in the United States, which industry can build
upon as it rolls out large scale CCS.
For more info, reach out to us at ERM