EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

MODULE 2

Mineralogy is that branch of geology which deals with various aspects related to minerals such as their
individual properties, their mode of formation and mode occurrence. Some minerals are very common for example
quartz, feldspar, calcite etc. other are less common in general but may from huge deposits locally. For instance ores
of iron, aluminum, copper & zinc; still other are very rare such as diamond & sapphire.

Development of typical internal atomic structure and crystalline form is dependent on physico-chemical
conditions prevailing at the time of formation of mineral. The temperature, pressure and water play important role
in the formation of mineral. Mineral is formed by separation & precipitation from magma (Molten Rock Material)
or from fluid solutions or by alteration of preexisting minerals or by weathering of the rocks or by the process of
metamorphism.

The minerals may be divided into broad groups.

Rock forming Minerals: are those which are found in abundance in the rocks of the earth’s crust. They are the most
common minerals and include Olivine, Pyroxene, amphiboles, Mica, the clay minerals, Feldspar, Quartz, Calcite and
dolomite. The first six minerals in this list are mineral ‘Groups’ in which each group contains several verities with
similar chemical composition, crystalline
structure and appearance.

Ore forming Minerals: are those which are of economic value and which do not occur in abundance in rocks. Ore
forming minerals from which one or other elements can be extracted profitably. A few such as native gold and
native silver are composed of single elements. However most of the metals are chemically bonded to anions.
Copper, lead and zinc are commonly bonded to sulfur to form the important ore minerals chalcopyrite (CuFeS2),
Galena (PbS), Sphalerite (Zn, Fe, S)

About 20 elements occur naturally in their native state as minerals. Such minerals are called native
elements.

For example – Gold, Silver, Platinum and Copper. Iron is rarely found in native state.
MINERAL PROPERTIES (PHYSICAL PROPERTIES)

Every mineral have as set of physical, chemical and optical properties that differs from one to other
minerals. It is an utmost important to study and identify these minerals in order to make an optimum utilization in
specified industrial and as building material uses.

1. Color: The passionate attraction of any object which can be seen with the naked eye only when the
light appears on it. It is the most important physical properties which occur due to impurities and
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 1
 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

isomorphous variation.
e.g., Galena and pyrite are cubic in structure but galena shows lead grey; while pyrite shows brass yellow color.

2. Streak: The color of fine powder scratched against a hard porcelain plate (Streak plate).
e.g., Minerals Color Streak color
i. Pyrite brass yellow dark green
ii. Magnetite black cherry red

3. Luster: The surface appearance of the mineral in the reflected light. The luster depends upon the
amount of reflection of the light strikes the surface.
e.g., i. Vitreous luster: broken glass like shine (quartz).
ii. Silky luster: silk like shine (Asbestos).
iii. Resinous luster: Greasy shine (Talc).
iv. Metallic luster: metal like shine (Hematite; galena)
v. Pearly luster: pearl like shine (Muscovite)
vi. Dull luster: No luster.

4. Crystal System: The regular polyhedral form bounded by smooth surfaces due to intermolecular
forces. There are six groups of crystal systems for common practices.
a. Isometric/ Cubic b. Tetragonal c. Hexagonal
d. Orthorhombic e. Monoclinic f. Triclinic

Crystal structure:

Crystal models:

5. Structure/ Habit: The arrangement of atoms within the mineral to form a specific structure.
a. Columnar structure: Arrangement of e.g., Hornblende
minerals in the form of thin and thick columns.
b. Fibrous structure: Arrangement of minerals
in thread/ hair like structures.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 2

 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

f. Botryoidal structure: Minerals shows

aggregates of spheroidal mass resembling of
grapes.

e.g., Asbestos.

c. Bladed structure: Arrangement of minerals in

thin blade like parts.
e.g., Hematite.

g. Accicular structure: Arrangement of minerals

in thin sharp needle like structures.
e.g., Kyanite.

d. Granular structure: Arrangement of minerals

in numerous coarse and fine grains.
e.g., Muscocite mica.

h. Radiating: This forms when needles are

arranged around a central point.

e.g., Chromite.

e. Foliated: Minerals consists of thin separable

sheets. e.g., Iron pyrite.

e.g., Mica.

6. Specific gravity: The ratio of the mineral weight to an equal volume of water. The heavier and
closely spaced atoms will have high specific gravity; whereas lighter and widely spaced atoms will have
low specific gravity such as high, medium and low.

7. Hardness: The ability to scratch one mineral by another higher order of mineral. Friedrich Mohs
(1812), a German Mineralogist has selected ten minerals of distinctly different hardness that ranged
from a very soft mineral (talc) to a very hard mineral (diamond).

Moh’s Scale of Hardness

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 3

 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

Resistanc Name of the Composition Remarks

e Minerals
Number
1 Talc Mg3 (SiO10)(OH)2 (Hydrated Can be easily scratched by
silicate) Finger nail
2 Gypsum CaSO4 (Hydrated Calcium Sulphate)
3 Calcite CaCO3 (Calcium Carbonate) Can be hardly scratched
4 Fluorite CaF2 (Calcium Fluorite) by finger nail and easily
5 Apatite Ca3 (F, Cl, OH) (PO)4 by penknife
6 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 Can be hardly
7 Quartz SiO2 (Silicon di oxide) scratched with
8 Topaz Al2 (SiO4)(SOH)2 penknife
9 Corundum Al2O3 (Oxides of Al) Cannot be scratched
10 Diamond C (Pure Carbon)

8. Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral to split up in a specified direction. The different terms of
cleavage are perfect (mica) and imperfect (fluorite). Perfect cleavages are those minerals which splits up
to form smooth surface easily; whereas imperfect minerals do not split up evenly with an average force.

9. Fractures: The appearance of the mineral broken surface. The different terms of fractures are even,
uneven, conchoidal and hackly.
Even: Minerals break up with smooth and flat surface.
Uneven: Mineral breaks up with rough surface.
Conchoidal: Mineral breaks up with curved surface.

Hackly: Mineral breaks with irregular surface and having sharp edges.

These minerals were classified into 5 groups such as oxides, silicates, carbonates, sulfides and sulfates.

Sl No Groups Minerals Chemical Composition

1. Oxides i. Hematite Fe2O3
ii. Magnetite Fe3O4
2. Silicates i. Quartz SiO2
ii. Feldspars: a. Orthoclase K Al Si3O8
b. Plagioclase Na Al Si3O8 (Albite)
iii. Mica: a. Biotite K (Mg Fe) Al Si3O10 (OH)2
b. Muscovite K Al2 (Si2 Al10) (OH)2
3. Carbonates i. Limestone CaCO3
ii. Dolomite Ca Mg CO3
iii. Siderite FeCO3
4. Sulfides i. Pyrite FeS2
ii. Galena PbS
iii. Spharelite ZnS

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 4

 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

5. Sulfates i. Gypsum CaSO4 2H2O

ii. Barite BaSO4
iii. Monazite

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 5

 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

COMPOSITION AND THEIR USE IN THE MANUFACTURE OF CONSTRUCTION

MATERIALS

I. OXIDE GROUP OF MINERALS

1. HEMATITE and 2. MAGNETITE

Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals

No minerals
1. Name of the mineral Hematite Magnetite
2. Chemical composition Fe2O3 Fe3O4
3. Color Metallic grey, dull to bright Black
red
4. Streak Bright red to dark red Cherry red
5. Luster Metallic Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Trigonal Isometric
7. Structure/ Habit Radiating, fibrous, botryoidal Octahedral
8. Specific gravity 5 5
9. Hardness 6 6
10. Cleavage None Imperfect
11. Fracture Uneven Uneven
12. Uses Used as main ore of iron, Used as iron ore and conversion of
pigments, radiation steel, audio recording and magnetite
shielding, ballast and steel. powder as recording medium.

3. CHROMITE and 4. BAUXITE

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals

No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Chromite Bauxite
2. Chemical composition FeCr2O4 Al2O32H2O
3. Color Black Reddish brown, yellowish by iron
oxides
4. Streak Brownish black White stained red
5. Luster Sub metallic Dull
6. Crystal Structure Hexa-Octahedral Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline, Massive Pisolitic earthy, massive
8. Specific gravity 4.8 2.5
9. Hardness 5.5 3
10. Cleavage Nil Nil
11. Fracture Uneven Earthy, Uneven
12. Uses Refractory materials, ore of Ore of aluminum, refractory bricks,
Chromium porcelain cement
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 6
 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

II. SILICATE GROUP OF MINERALS

5. QUARTZ
Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals
No
1. Name of the mineral Quartz
2. Chemical composition SiO2
3. Color White, Pink, Grey and colorless
4. Streak White/ colorless
5. Luster Vitreous
6. Crystal Structure Hexagonal
7. Structure/ Habit Granular/ massive
8. Specific gravity 2.7 (medium)
9. Hardness 7 to 7.5
10. Cleavage Absent
11. Fracture Conchoidal
12. Uses Most important rock forming mineral in granite, gneisses, sandstone
and quartzite. Used as gemstones, ornamental stones, manufacturing
of oscillator plates, optical lenses and building stones etc.

6. KAOLIN and 7. ASBESTOS

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Kaolin Asbestos
2. Chemical composition China clay- H4Al2SiO9 2H2O, CaMg Silicate
3. Color Dull white Grayish, yellowish
4. Streak White Pale grayish white
5. Luster Greasy, pearly Silky
6. Crystal Structure Triclinic Orthorhombic
7. Structure/ Habit Powdery Fibrous
8. Specific gravity 2.65 3.2
9. Hardness 1 2.5
10. Cleavage Nil Perfect
11. Fracture Earthy Hackly
12. Uses Cement stiffener, bricks, Fire proof, Electrical & thermal
glazed tiles filler, ceramic and insulator, Ayurvedic medicine
refractory

VARIEITES OF QUARTZ

1. Quartz crystal: It is a transparent and colorless mineral of quartz having composition of pure
Silicon-di-oxide (SiO2).
2. Rose quartz: It’s a pink color and translucent variety of quartz mineral. The color of the mineral is
due to the mineral content of Dumortierite (aluminium boro-silicate).
3. Milky quartz: It’s a white color and commonest variety of quartz.
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 7
 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

4. Amethyst: It’s a purple/ violet variety of transparent mineral.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 8

 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

5. Flint: It’s a compact cryptocrystalline silica of black or various shades of grey color. This breaks up
with well marked conchoidal fracture and shows sharp cutting edges. This has main uses in fabrication
of weapons, jewellery industries and building materials.
6. Opal: It’s hydrated silica in chemical composition, compact form and occurs in various colors such as
white, grey, yellow, red and brown. This shows subvitreous to vitreous luster, conchoidal fracture,
hardness of 5 to 7 with medium specific gravity. This exhibits brilliant play of colors and used in
gemstone jewellery.

8. FELDSPAR: (a). ORTHOCLASE FELDSPAR and (b). PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPAR

Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Orthoclase feldspar Plagioclase feldspar
2. Chemical KAlSi3O8 NaAlSi3O8
composition
3. Color Pink, orange White
4. Streak White White
5. Luster Vitreous to pearly Vitreous, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Monoclinic Triclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Prismatic/ tabular Massive to granular
8. Specific gravity 2.6 2.7
9. Hardness 6 6
10. Cleavage Basal/ prismatic Perfect in two directions
11. Fracture Conchoidal to uneven ---
12. Uses Used in the manufacture of Important component of many
glass and ceramics; building stones. Labrodorite,
Moonstone orthoclase mineral spectrolite, sunstone and moonstone
used as gemstone. are gem-quality plagioclase feldspars.

9. MICA: (a). BIOTITE (b). MUSCOVITE

Sl Identification Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Biotite mica Muscovite mica
2. Chemical K (Mg,Fe)3 AlSi3O10 (F, OH)2 KAl2(AlSi3O10)(F,OH)2
composition
3. Color Dark brown White, silvery
4. Streak White White
5. Luster Vitreous to pearly Vitreous, silky, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Monoclinic Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Massive to platy Massive to platy
8. Specific gravity 3 2.7
9. Hardness 2.5 2
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Micaceous Micaceous

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 9

 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

12. Uses It is used extensively to constrain ages Used in fireproofing and

of rocks by either K-Ar dating. Used insulating materials and to
to assess the temperature of some extent as a lubricant.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 10

 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

metamorphic rocks due to partitioning

of iron and magnesium occurs
between biotite and garnet.

III. CARBONATE GROUP OF MINERALS

10. CALCITE AND 11. DOLOMITE
Sl Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals
No
1. Name of the mineral Calcite Dolomite
2. Chemical composition CaCO3 CaMgCO3
3. Color White Brown
4. Streak Granular White
5. Luster Vitreous Vitreous, pearly
6. Crystal Structure Rhombohedral Hexagonal
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline Granular
8. Specific gravity 2.7 2.9
9. Hardness 3 4
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Conchoidal Uneven
12. Uses Used in optical microscopes, Used in construction industry,
chemical industries, manufacture crushed and sized for road base
of bleaching powder, calcium material, production of cement,
carbide, glass, papers and paints. acid neutralization in the chemical
industry.

IV. SULPHIDE GROUP OF MINERALS

12. PYRITE and 13. GALENA
Sl Identification Physical properties of minerals Physical properties of minerals
No criteria
1. Name of the mineral Pyrite Galena
2. Chemical composition FeS2 PbS
3. Color Brass yellow Bright metallic lustre
4. Streak Dark green to dark brown Lead grey to black
5. Luster Metallic Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Isometric Isometric
7. Structure/ Habit Cubic Cubic
8. Specific gravity 5 7.5
9. Hardness 6.5 2.5
10. Cleavage Conchoidal Perfect
11. Fracture Uneven uneven

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 11

 EARTH RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING 21CV34

12. Uses Pyrite contains 0.25% of gold by Ore of lead used in residential
weight or more, also used for the paints, motor vehicle fuels,
production of sulfur and sulfuric ammunition, fishing weights,
acid and crude oil processing. ceramic glazes and pesticides.

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, JNNCE, SHIVAMOGGA 12

14. CHALCOPYRITE
Sl No Identification criteria Physical properties of minerals
1. Name of the mineral Chalcopyrite
2. Chemical composition CuFeS2
3. Color Golden yellow
4. Streak Black to greenish black
5. Luster Metallic
6. Crystal Structure Tetragonal
7. Structure/ Habit Crystalline
8. Specific gravity 4.3
9. Hardness 4
10. Cleavage Absent
11. Fracture Uneven
12. Uses Ore of copper & silver

V. SULFATE GROUP OF MINERALS

15. BARITE and 16. GYPSUM
Sl Identification Physical properties of Physical properties of minerals
No criteria minerals
1. Name of the mineral Barite Gypsum
2. Chemical composition BaSO4 CaSO4, 2H2O
3. Color White White
4. Streak Colorless Colorless
5. Luster Vitreous Vitreous
6. Crystal Structure Orthorhombic Monoclinic
7. Structure/ Habit Flaky Flaky
8. Specific gravity 4.5 2.3
9. Hardness 3.5 1.5
10. Cleavage Perfect Perfect
11. Fracture Uneven Fibrous
12. Uses Used in chemical & sugar Used in the manufacture of plaster of
industries, paper, paint, Paris, cement and other constructive
ceramic industries, glass and materials, fertilizers and as ornamental
paint. stones.

ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

 These are typically impervious, hard, strong and form very strong foundations for
most of Civil Engineering projects such as dams and reservoirs.
 Granite, syenite and dolerite possess very high crushing strength and most suitable
for construction works.
 Basalts are recommended for foundation of structures and roads only.
  Many of the igneous rocks are used extensively as materials for constructions.
 Joints and fractured granitic rocks permit passage for groundwater accumulation.

ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF SEDIMENATARY

ROCKS
 Sandstones are the biggest source of construction materials like building stones,
pavement stones, road aggregate and aggregate for making concrete. Sandstone can
also provide silica for glass production.
 Mined sandstone can be cut, polished and carved for use as ornamental rocks for
buildings, monuments, grave stones, tiles etc.
 Shale is used to manufacture bricks and tiles. Also the sources of alumina, paraffin and
oil.
 Limestones are the primary source of lime for cements. Also used as flux in
metallurgical industry.
 Gypsum used in the manufacture of plaster of paris.

ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 Marble is commonly used as decorative building stone, monuments and statues. Eg. Taj
Mahal.
 Slate used as roof tiles, floor tiles, pool tables, blackboards etc.
 Augen gneiss make very attractive building materials and exteriors of office
building when polished.
 Talc used in paints, rubber, paper, asphalt and cosmetics.
 Many economic deposits of gold, copper, tungsten and iron occur in metamorphic rocks.

SELECTION OF ROCKS AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

I. FOUNDATION
Properties and Requirements:-

1. Strength and Soundness: A satisfactory building stone must be strong with

crushing strength more than 1000kg/cm2, hard, compact, tough & sound. The rock
should bear all the stresses imposed upon it by the structure for many years.
2. Durability: Resistance to weathering and chemical action. The rocks must be
durable, unaffected by environmental factors such as temperature change, wind
abrasion, frost action immune to acid rains and fumes.
3. Permeability: It must be impermeable to moisture and rains or have low porosity
and adsorption in order to prevent chemical decay, frost action, discoloration and
formation of ugly stains.
4. Volume change: It should allow minimum volume change if any.
5. Workability: It must have favorable interlocking texture and grains for easy
sawing, dressing, planning and machining.
6. It should be free from micro joints, cracks, fractures and cavities.
7. Scratch with a penknife should leave no mark on it.
8. Rock should sufficiently tough (crushing strength).
9. Rock should possess more than 2.6 of specific gravity.
10. Rock which absorbs more than 5% of water should be avoided.
11. Important building stone are granite, sandstone, slate, limestone, marble, laterite,
charnockite etc.

II. DECORATIVE
1. Color, appearance, workability, polishing are important factors for any design and statue
making. E.g., Marble rocks have beautiful & pleasing colors and ability to take polish.
2. Artistically attractive with pleasing color, texture and appearance.
3. Easily worked-cut split and planned, curved with chisel and other cutting carving and
shaping tools.
4. Capable of taking high polish and preserve low absorption and resistance to chemical
abrasion.
5. Iron pyrites quickly decomposes liberating iron oxides and hydrates. These
produce undesirable dark ugly patches and streaks.

III. FLOORING STONE

1. Resistance to abrasion becomes very important for flooring purposes.
2. Rock should possess durable, comfortable, pleasing, walking and relaxing surface.
3. These are well implemented in residential buildings, office, schools, hospitals, factories
and garden stones.
4. Limestone and slate are used as black and white slabs like a chessboard for flooring.

IV. ROOFING STONES

1. Limestone and slate also provide good roofing material which protect roof from sun rains.
2. Durability becomes important for roofing stones or tiles.
3. Should provide structural support to the place.
4. Should be weather resistant such as controlling rainwater, air and heat flow
5. Should be of very heavyweight roof structure to make them storm proof.
V. PAVING STONES
1. Large flat squares stone on level surface for easy walking.
2. It should provide a durable and non slippery walking surface laid on footpaths and
sidewalks.
3. The stones should be hard, strong and granular.
4. Do not alter or crush soon.
 VI. ROAD METAL
1. The evenly graded crushed or broken stone used in a construction of roads as top
course for surfacing macadamized roads.
2. Good binding and hydrophobic properties become important for using rocks as road
aggregates.
3. To provide a sound base and durable skid resistant.
4. To provide a good long wearing or non-slippery road surface.
5. Heavy and fast vehicular traffic develops potholes and corrugations.
6. Rock should be quite tough and hard.
7. All minerals constituents should be equal hardness.
8. The rock should be preferably crystalline durable and strong.
9. Should have interlocking textures like equigranular and ophitic textures.
10. Should be tough in order to resist sudden impact of moving wheel loads.

VII. RAILWAY BALLAST:

1. Good bearing capacity and should not get crushed under the moving loads.
2. It should be generally cubical with sharp edges.
3. Tough and wear resistant.
4. Good drainage property.
5. Non-porous and should not absorb water.
6. Should resist attrition (rubbed by friction) and abrasion (wearing down by friction).
7. Should not disintegrate under adverse weather conditions.
8. Should be cheap and economical.

VIII. CONCRETE AGGREGATES

1. It’s an admixture of stone, sand, water and Portland cement which hardens like rock mass.
Concrete aggregate is of two kinds
a. Coarse aggregate:- Angular and sub angular fragments of dia 5 cm across
which may be natural gravel or manufactured by crushing and grading quarried
natural rock.
b. Fine aggregate:- Most natural sand are composed of 60 to 90% of quartz grains
that are either angular, sub angular or rounded.
2. Good in strength and chemically stable.
3. Compact and hard, break into cubical angular or sub angular fragments.
4. Not flaky, splintery, scaly, foliated.
5. Impervious and of low absorption.
6. Free from organic and other harmful impurities.
7. Have a good bond with cement.
 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES THAT INFLUENCE THE STRENGTH,
DURABILITY AND BEHAVIOR OF CONCRETE

a. Strength, hardness and durability: High strength of aggregates is beneficial to concrete

subjected to stress. Compressibility of aggregate influences the shrinkage of concrete during
drying. As cement paste shrinks the aggregate is compressed. If the aggregate is strong and the
cement bond is good, shrinkage is restrained.

b. Shape and surface texture: Shape of aggregate influences workability. The recognized
shapes of aggregates are rounded, irregular angular and flaky. Rounded aggregate contributes to
smooth and workable mix but the bond with cement becomes limited. Irregular and angular
fragments make harsh concrete but good bond with cement, and require more water. Flaky and
elongated fragments pack poorly, crush soon, decrease workability and tend to orient
themselves. This prevents percolation and accumulation of water between them thereby prevent
good bond with cement. Elongated and flaky fragments are obtained from banded, laminated or
schistose rocks or from crushing.

c. Surface texture:- The roughness and pore characteristics of the surface of aggregate
fragments are called surface texture. Surface texture of aggregate governs the bond with cement
and affects the strength of concrete. The important surface textures are
a. Crystalline
b. Rough and pitted
c. Glassy or smooth
d. Honey combed
A rough textured surface bonds better with cement that a smooth surface. Weathered surface,
adversely affect the reinforced cement concrete. Pitted and honey combed surfaces to some extent are
advantageous in getting a good bond with cement.

d. Thermal properties:- Highly siliceous aggregates like granite, quartzite and other are liable to
spalling and in some cases to shattering at high temperature around 570 0C due to dehydration of quartz
or component minerals or inversion of quartz from one form to another.

e. Organic matter:- Organic matter includes bark, peat, coal, shells and other vegetable and animal
matter and soil humus. Natural, gravel and sands are commonly contaminated with these. These
interfere with an effective bond with cement and with the functioning of air entraining agents.

APPREHENSION OF INDEX PROPERTIES OF ROCKS

Index properties of rocks are generally determined in the laboratory or in the field to provide
an initial quantitative description of the rocks. They can be used to estimate the mechanical and
hydraulic properties of the rocks.
2. Porosity: Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of pore space or voids in a total volume of
 rock.
Vv = Volume of voids/ pores; V = Total volume of rock mass
It is expressed as a decimal fraction or as a percentage. In a 5% pores/ voids are considered as
low porosity; 10% as average and 15% of pores or more is high. Many igneous and high grade
metamorphic rocks have very tiny cracks or micro fractures which are not interconnected.
3. Permeability: It is the measure of easy flow of fluids through a rock. It is related to the
hydraulic conductivity which evaluates the relative interconnection of pore spaces. Shale is
porous but not permeable; whereas sandstone both porous and permeable. This activity of fluid
movement in the sandstone rocks make more effective in hydrological studies.
4. Density: It is calculated by mass per unit volume. Building stones must be heavy and
denser. Anyrock having more than 2.4 of specific gravity will only consider for building
constructions.
Density = M/V
Porosity of rock can be considered as parameter for weight density. Specific gravity of the rocks
can be calculated as the weighted average of solid specific gravities of component grains and crystal.
5. Durability: Resistance to weathering and chemical action. The rocks must be durable,
unaffected by environmental factors such as temperature change, wind abrasion, frost action
immune to acid rains and fumes.
OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER IN SOIL AND ROCK:
The subsurface materials of earth can be divided into consolidated, semi-consolidated and
unconsolidated formations. Rocks show great variation in their water-bearing properties. Some
groundwater occurs in most geological formations because nearly all rocks in the uppermost part of
the earths crust, of whatever type, origin or age, possess openings called pores or voids. Several
factors relate to the occurrence and movement of groundwater like porosity, permeability etc.

Earths Formations

Unconsolidated Consolidated & Semi-consolidated

Igneous rocks Metamorphic rocks Sedimentary rocks

Unconsolidated formations (Soil): In unconsolidated rocks, granular materials (sand and gravels),
the voids or pore spaces between the grains are more which makes them good aquifer. The important
features of these formations are:
 Their thickness varies from several meters to several hundred meters.
 Compared to rocks these formations have considerable transmission and storage properties.
 Its easier to drill these formations resulting in rapid and relatively inexpensive
developments.
 They are frequently recharged naturally and can also be recharged artificially.
 Generally the water table is not at a great depth. Ex. Indo-Gangetic Plains if India.

Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks (Hard Rock):

Crystalline rocks (Igneous and Metamorphic rocks) are hard and compact. Sedimentary rocks are
formed by deposition of material, usually under water from lakes, rivers and the sea, and rarely from
the wind. In unconsolidated rocks, granular materials (sands and gravels), the voids or spaces between
the grains are more. These may become consolidated physically by compaction and chemically by
cementation to form typical sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, limestone and shale, with much
reduced voids between the grains.

Sandstones forms good source of groundwater depending upon their texture. Sandstones are highly
permeable with large openings like joints and bedding planes. When they are folded into synclines
they form artesian aquifers.

Limestones are soluble rocks, acted upon by water charged with carbon dioxide, forms large
interconnected openings like sinkholes, solution channels, cracks etc. These provide space for water
and its movement. So limestones form best aquifers with excellent yield of water.

Weathered Rocks:
Weathered rock holds good quantity of groundwater. The zone of groundwater saturation is topped by a
water table. Some predict weathering in only the acid, oxidizing upper zone, but weathering can
proceed at the base of the saturated zone by hydrolysis. Weathering products must be removed if the
reaction is to continue: in upper groundwater zones they are washed away; in lower zones chemical
diffusion removes weathering products from the weathering front to the zone of mobile groundwater.
Since deep weathering profiles may be tens of meters thick, the temperature at the ground surface does
not affect the temperature at depth.

Groundwater percolates downward through the regolith which is a layer of weathered rock, alluvium,
colluvium, and soil to fractures in underlying bedrock. The water moves from highland recharge areas
to discharge areas, such as springs and streams at lower altitudes.
Rocks like granites, quartzites and hard schists are usually impermeable because of their texture and
do not form good aquifers. But weathered, disintegrated and fractured rocks, with interconnected
cracks, joints, faults and shear zones below loose permeable product of weathering form excellent
aquifers to a depth of 30-50m.

They are characterized by insignificant primary porosity and primary permeability. Due to weathering
and fracturing, such rocks contain secondary porosity and permeability which isn’t constant in every
location. Igneous and metamorphic rocks fall into this group because hydraulic properties of these
rocks are mainly controlled by secondary porosity and permeability. The main source of generation of
porosity in hard rocks are the rock discontinuities which are caused due to many forces like tectonic
stresses, residual stresses, contraction-cooling and desiccation, unloading and weathering. The main
rock discontinuities are foliation, fractures (joints), faults and lineaments. Although fractures and
other discontinuities are the most important factors which contribute to the hydro-geological
properties of the hard rocks, some discontinuities like faults and dykes may act as barriers to
groundwater flow.

Basalt, Gabbro, Granite, Marble are favorable water bearing rocks. In Basalt, intertrappean flows
cause various aquifer formations. Volcanic rocks like Basalt are highly permeable because of their
interconnected weathered zones, vesicles, cavities, joints, fractures and other networks form good
aquifers. Large quantities of groundwater move and collect in these rocks and extracted through wells
freely.

Sedimentary / Stratified Rocks:

Most sediments are deposited in layer (beds) that have a distinct grain size, sorting, or mineral
composition. Where adjacent layers differ in one of these characteristics or more, the deposit is said to
be stratified, and its layered structure is referred to as stratification.

AQUIFER
Aquifer is derived from the Latin term meaning water bearer. An aquifer is a large body of
permeable material where groundwater is present in the saturated zone. It is a geologic formation that
is water bearing or saturated with water and is capable of yielding sufficient quantity of water for
exploitation. Aquifer serves as a transmission conduit from storage reservoir. It transports water from
recharge area to surface bodies of water and other collecting devices. Good aquifers are those with
high permeability such as poorly cemented sands, gravels, and sandstones or highly fractured rock.
Large aquifers can be excellent sources of water for human usage.
Aquitard- A saturated strata which yields inappreciable quantity of water compared to an aquifer, but
through which appreciable leakage of water is possible, is known as aquitard or a semi-confining
layer.
An aquifer underlain by an aquitard is termed a sleaky or semi confined aquifer. The permeability of
semi-confining layer is usually very small as compared to the permeability of the main aquifer.
Aquiclude- An aquiclude is a saturated bed formation which yields inappreciable quantity of water
and does not permit any appreciable leakage. An impermeable layer of rock that does not allow water
to move through it. Some shales, for example, have such low permeability that they effectively form
an aquiclude.
Aquifuge- A mass of rock matrix which neither transmits nor stores water in significant quantity is
called an aquifuge.

Aquifers can be of two types:

1. Confined aquifer: If the water within an aquifer is confined i.e., held under pressure by
an overlying impervious strata, the aquifer is known as confined aquifer. The confining bed
has a significantly lower hydraulic conductivity than the aquifer.

Artesian aquifer is a confined aquifer developed in suitable geological situations where the
piezometric surface is above the groundwater level. A well in such an aquifer flows without pumping.
The imaginary surface to which water rises in well tapping the artesian aquifer is known as
piezometric surface.
2. Unconfined aquifer: If the aquifer is exposed to atmosphere or possesses a free surface
open to the atmosphere, it is termed as unconfined aquifer. There will be a water table in an
unconfined aquifer. Sometimes called water table aquifer. The term phreatic aquifer is also
frequently applied to denote an unconfined aquifer. Unconfined aquifers usually receive
recharge water directly from surface, from precipitation or from a body of surface water (e.g.
a river, stream or lake) which is in hydraulic connection with it.

Perched aquifer: A special case of an unconfined aquifer is the perched aquifer that occurs whenever
an impervious (or relatively impervious) layer of limited horizontal area is located between the water
table of a phreatic aquifer and the ground surface.

Ground

Perched Water

Impervious layer

AQUIFER PARAMETERS
The principal hydrologic properties of rocks are porosity, effective porosity or specific yield, specific
retention, permeability and direction of maximum ease of percolation. These properties control the
entrance of water into water bearing formations or rocks. Hydrologic properties depend chiefly on
porosity, size of openings or interstices and their shape, arrangement, interconnection and continuity.

Rock formations and the openings are the result of primary geologic processes which form the rock
and secondary processes that modify them, either decreasing their permeability and porosity. The
rocks contain numerous open spaces called voids or interstices and these open spaces are the
containers that hold the water. There are many kinds of rocks, and they differ greatly in size, shape
and arrangement of their interstices. Most rocks have numerous interstices of very small size, but
some are characterized by a few large openings such as joints or caverns. In most rocks the interstices
are connected so that the water can move through the rocks by percolating from one interstice to
another. The interstices are generally irregular in shape but different types of irregularities are
characteristic of different kinds of rocks.

Porosity and permeability:

The rate of groundwater flow is controlled by two properties of the rock: porosity and permeability.
Porosity (η) is a measure of the interstices or voids or pore spaces present in a rock
formation. It is defined as the percentage of ratio of volume of voids (Vv) to the total volume
(V) of the rock mass. This determines the amount of water that a rock can contain.

η = ( Vv / V ) * 100 where, η = Porosity in % Vv= Volume of voids

V= Total Volume of Rock

Porosity is given as a % or decimal fraction. Porosity may be primary or secondary. Primary
porosity is inherent character of rock which is developed during its formation. Secondary
porosity is developed subsequently due to various geological processes viz. fracturing
weathering and solution activity. Porosity is controlled by shape and arrangement of
constituent grains, degree of sorting, compaction and cementation, fracturing and solution.

In sediments or sedimentary rocks the porosity depends on grain size, the shapes of the grains, and
the degree of sorting, and the degree of cementation. Well-rounded coarse-grained sediments usually
have higher porosity than fine-grained sediments, because the grains do not fit together well. Poorly
sorted sediments usually have lower porosity because the fine-grained fragments tend to fill in the
open space. Since cements tend to fill in the pore space, highly cemented sedimentary rocks have
lower porosity. In igneous and metamorphic rocks porosity is usually low, because the minerals tend
to be intergrown, leaving little free space. Highly fractured igneous and metamorphic rocks,
however, could have high porosity

Permeability is a measure of the degree to which the pore spaces are interconnected, and the size of
the interconnections. The permeability of rock is its capacity to transmit water under differential
pressure, and is measured by the rate at which it will transmit water through a unit cress section
under unit pressure differential per unit distance.

Low porosity usually results in low permeability, but high porosity does not necessarily imply high
permeability. It is possible to have a highly porous rock with little or no interconnections between
pores. A good example of a rock with high porosity and low permeability is a vesicular volcanic
rock, where the bubbles that once contained gas give the rock a high porosity, but since these holes
are not connected to one another the rock has low permeability.

A thin layer of water will always be attracted to mineral grains due to the unsatisfied ionic charge on
the surface. This is called the force of molecular attraction. If the size of interconnections is not as
large as the zone of molecular attraction, the water can't move. Thus, coarse-grained rocks are
usually more permeable than fine-grained rocks, and sands are more permeable than clays.
Specific yield (effective porosity): It may be defined as the ratio expressed as a percentage of the
volume of the water, which after being saturated can be drained by gravity to the total volume of
fully saturated aquifer material. Measures water moved by gravity. It increases with size of grains
and sorting. Specific yield depends upon the duration of drainage, temperature, mineral composition
of water, grain size and other textural characters of an aquifer material.

Sy = (Wy / V) *100
Where, Sy = Specific yield in %

Wy = Volume of water drained by gravity

V = Total Volume of aquifer.

Specific retention: It may be defined as a percentage of ratio of the volume of water retained by
molecular and surface tension forces, after saturation against the forces of gravity to its own volume.
It decreases with increase in size of grains & assortment. Specific retention or field capacity depends
on the specific surface of constituent mineral grains and in turn is influenced by the grain size,
shape, distribution of pores, compaction of the stratum, time of drainage and type of clay minerals
present.

Sr= 100 Wr / V
Where, Sr = Specific retaintion
Wr =the volume occupied by retained water V= Total Volume of rock or soil.
It should be noted that fine grained materials yield little water, whereas coarse-
grained materials permit a substantial release of water and hence serve as aquifers.

Porosity = Specific yield + specific retention

Transmissibility (T): This is defined as the rate of flow of water at the prevailing field temperature
under a unit hydraulic gradient through a unit width of aquifer and extending through entire saturated
thickness of aquifer. It is expressed in m2/ day or m2/ second.
It is the rate at which water of prevailing density and viscosity is transmitted through a unit width of an
aquifer or confining bed, under a unit hydraulic gradient. It is a function of properties of the liquid, the
porous material, and the thickness of the porous material.
It is defined as the product of the hydraulic conductivity and the saturated thickness of the aquifer.
T= Kb where, T = Transmissibility
K = hydraulic conductivity b = thickness of the aquifer.
Storage coefficient or Storativity (S): The storage coefficient is defined as the volume of water that
an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area of aquifer per unit change in the
component of head normal to that surface. Every aquifer whether under the water table or in a
confined condition has the capacity to store water which is expressed as a coefficient. Storage
coefficients can best be determined from pumping tests of wells or groundwater fluctuations in
response to atmospheric pressure or ocean tide variations.

Storativity (S) = Volume of water / (Unit area X Unit Head

change) S = m3/ (m2 X m)
Storativity is a non-dimensional parameter.