EG Unit II

Notes on Engineering Geology for Civil engg
UNIT: II - MINERALOGY
Mineral: The study of the characters of minerals ( eg: quartz, pyroxene,
amphibole, mica, chlorite, garnet) is known as Mineralogy. A mineral is a naturally
occurring homogeneous substance, inorganically formed with a definite chemical
composition, with a certain physical properties and crystalline structures
Under favourable conditions, the internal atomic structure of minerals result in

the development of a definite external geometrical shape ie crystal form.
The stability of minerals depends on temperature, pressure and chemical

composition of the environment. At present more than 3000 mineral species
have been established.
The earth’s crust is mainly composed of feldspars and quartz and accounts
55% and 10% respectively. Pyroxenes, amphiboles, chlorites, micas, clay
carbonates are widely spread too. Following a few rare minerals are also common:
Phenacite …Be2 (SiO4) Bertrandite … Be4 (Si2O7) (OH)4
Baddeleyite …Zr O2 Cordierite … Hg3 S2 Cl2
Explanation:
Homogeneous : all parts of the minerals should possess the same physical and
chemical characters.
Crystalline: possess atomic structure in a mineral.
Crystal: A crystal may be defined as a natural solid body bounded by smooth

and plain surfaces, arranged geometrically.
Crystals develop under favourable conditions depending on: (1) slow cooling (2)
surroundings to facilitate the crystal growth in different directions. (3) non-
interference by the adjacent growing minerals during solidification.
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Exceptions for Definition of Mineral:
l. Precious gemstones like diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds are

synthetically produced under controlled laboratory conditions.
2. Coal, amber, petroleum, etc., are typical organic substances which can be
considered as minerals.
3. Amethyst, smoky quartz, citrine, cat's eye, aventurine quartz are some varieties of
quartz. Colour or appearance peculiarity in them is because they possess some
impurities or inclusions or in homogeneities.
4. Asphalt ( a variety of bitumen, semi-solid in nature, black in color) , mercury and

natural gas are semisolids, liquids or gases. Though these are called minerals, they
are not solid substances.
5. A good number of minerals are now found to be members of isomorphic groups.

Isomorphic minerals do not have a definite chemical composition, but have a definite
range of composition.
6. Some minerals like flint, chert, jasper and agate are cryptocrystalline, i.e., they do
not have a well-developed crystal structure. A few others like opal, bauxite,
Psilomelane, pitchblende etc are typically amorphous, i.e., they do not possess any
regular internal atomic structure.
The most widespread elements in minerals are: O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, Mg, K, Ti
while S, Cl, C, Mn, H are moderately spread. B, Be, Pb, Sb, As, Bi, Se, U, etc
are either rare earth elements or not spread at all.
Minerals are broadly grouped into
(a) Rock forming minerals ( constitute a rock ) and

(b) Ore–forming minerals (composition of an ore which is economically imp ).
The term ore mineral embraces minerals from which valuable metallic elements
can be extracted. Eg; Cu, Ag, Fe, Al.
Minerals are extremely important economically, aesthetically, industrially and

scientifically.
Economically, utilization of minerals is necessary to maintain anything for

standard of living. Gold, silver, copper, iron, aluminum etc are economically
important minerals for human beings.
Aesthetically, minerals of diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald shine as gems

and enrich our lives. Gems in jewellery, crown jewel collections attract the
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attention of millions of people.

All in all, approximately 10% of all mineral species are used at present for
industrial purposes.
Scientifically, minerals comprise the data bank from which we can learn about
our physical earth and its constituent materials.
Chemistry has developed on the basis of the study of the chemical composition
and the properties of various minerals and ores. Mineralogical methods are widely
used in Petrology, Geochemistry, soil study, Paleontology (in the study of
fossils), in medicine, in archeology.
All the minerals are grouped into 8 classes:
1. Native elements (Eg: Au, Ag, Cu, Arsenic, Bismuth, Platinum, Diamond)
2. Sulphides ( Eg: Galena, Pyrite, Cinnabar, Stibnite, Pyrrhotite)
3. Oxides (Magnetite, Haematite, Rutile, Brookite) and hydroxides (Eg:
serpentine; amphiboles)
4. Halides (Eg: Fluorite, Halite)
5. Carbonates ( Eg: calcite, Magnesite), nitrates and borates
6. Sulphates ( Eg: Barytes, Gypsum), chromates (Eg: Uvarovite)
7. Phosphates ( Eg: Apatite, Monazite)
8. Silicates ( eg: Quartz, feldspars, Muscovite, Biotite, Hornblende, Tourmaline,
Zerolite, Topaz ) .
Since silicates are the most common rock forming minerals, it is desirable to
know some relevant aspects about these.
In all silicate structures, the silicon atoms are in fourfold coordination with
oxygen. The bonds between silicon and oxygen are so strong that the 4 oxygen’s
are always at the corners of a tetrahedron of nearly constant dimensions.
O Si
O O
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STRUCTURE OF SILICATES / CLASSIFICATION OF SILICATES
Silicate classification for most silicate minerals is based on the types of

linkages as follows:
1. NESO SILICATES
2. SORO SILICATES
3. INO SILICATES
4. CYCLO SILICATES
5. PHYLLO SILICATES
6. TECTO SILICATES
1. NESOSILICATES: ( independent tetrahedral groups ): in this group SiO4

tetrahedra occur as independent units in mineral structure.
Si : O : : 1 : 4
One silicon – oxygen tetrahedron
Eg: Olivine family;
Aluminum silicate family ( kyanite , sillimanite; Andalusite )
Garnet family.
OLIVINE FAMILY
OLIVINES are nesosilicates in atomic structure with the general formula

R2 ( SiO4) in which R = Mg or Fe. Olivine family consists of
Forsterite ( Mg2SiO4 )
Fayalite ( Fe2 SiO4 )
Olivine (Mg Fe)2 SiO4
Olivine is one of the first minerals to form alongwith calcic plagioclase feldspars
during the solidification of magma. As magma cools down, olivine reacts with
silica content of parent magma and changes over to pyroxene.
PERIDOT is a transparent, pale green gem variety found in Egypt, Burma, Brazil )
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Alteration: olivines are highly susceptible to decomposition. Hydrothermal
alteration of olivines produces serpentine.
3 Mg2 SiO2 + H2O + SiO2 2 Mg3 Si2O5 (OH)4

Forsterite serpentine
Occurrence: Occurs in Ultrabasic igneous rocks such as Dunite, Peridotite,
Picrite . Also occurs as accessory mineral in Basalts, Dolerites, Gabbros.
Uses: Due to its high melting point, olivine is used in the manufacture of
refractory bricks.
ALUMINUM SILICATES
In nature, totally, three minerals with different physical properties with same
composition occurs as Al2 SiO5, which are called as aluminum silicates.
ANDALUSITE formed under high temperature & low stress conditions of

metamorphism.
SILLIMANITE formed under high temperature & high stress conditions of

metamorphism.
KYANITE formed under moderate temperature and high stress conditions of

metamorphism. Kyanite is a product of high grade metamorphism. It will not
form either as a primary mineral or as a product of weathering.
GARNET FAMILY
This family is also belonging to nesosilicates and consist of the following

minerals:
Grossular Ca3 Al2 (SiO4)3

Almandine Fe3 Al2 (SiO4)3
Pyrope Mg3 Al2 (SiO4)3
Spessartite Mn3 Al2 (SiO4)3

Andradite Ca3 Fe2 (SiO4)3
Uvarovite Ca3 Cr2 (SiO4)3
Under microscope, garnet can be seen rounded crystals , traversed by branching
cracks and having no cleavage.
Occurrence: Gneisses, Kyanite Schists; Syenites etc

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Uses: used as abrasive in the polishing of wood and as a gemstone.

2. SOROSILICATES: (Double tetrahedral structures): in this group of minerals,
SiO4 tetrahedra occur in pairs in which one oxygen is shared between the two
silicon atoms. The epidotes are all similar in their atomic structure, a mixed
type containing both SiO4 and Si2O7 groups forms a different types of minerals
eg: Idocrase.
(Si : O : : 2 : 7) Two silicon – oxygen tetrahedron
O
O
O
Si O Si
O
O
O
Epidote family consists of Zoisite .. Ca2 Al3 (SiO4)3 OH

Epidote.. Ca2 (Al, Fe)3 (SiO4)3 OH
Allanite.. (Ca, Fe)2 (Al,Fe,Ce)3 (SiO4)3 OH
Melilite …. Ca2 Mg Si2O7

Hemimorphite Zn4Si2O7 (OH)2 H2O
Idocrase .. Ca10 Al4 (Mg,Fe)2 (Si2O7) (SiO4)5 (OH)4
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3. INOSILICATES: Two varieties of inosilicates (single chain & double chain
structures) occur in nature.
SINGLE CHAIN SILICATES Si : O : : 1 : 3
In this group of minerals, SiO4 tetrahedra occur as chains resulting in more

growth of minerals along one direction. The chains consist of a large number of
linked SiO4 tetrahedrons, each sharing two oxygen’s. Eg: pyroxenes
Si
Si Si
Si Si Si Si
The pyroxenes are a group of minerals which possess the Si2O6 chain
structure. Pyroxenes consist of:
Pyroxens Composition Occurs in

Enstatite Mg Si O3 or Mg2 Si2 O6 Igneous rocks such as Gabbros,
Diorites; Peridotites, Serpentinites
Hypersthene (Mg, Fe ) SiO3 Norite, Gabbros; Andesite;
Charnockites; Schists; Hornfels
Diopside Ca Mg Si2 O6 Pegmatites; Granites
Hedenbergite Ca Fe Si2 O6 At contact of granitic rocks with
limestones
Pigeonite (Ca Mg) (Mg Fe) Si2 O6 In volcanic rocks
Augite (Ca Mg Fe Al)2 (Al ) Si2 O6 Occurs as short prismatic crystals in
volcanic rocks such as Andesite,
Basalts. Basic igneous rocks of
Gabbros; dolerites, diorites and in
Ultrabasic igneous rocks such as
Peroxenites; Peridotites.
Aegirite Na Fe Si2 O6
Jadeite Na Al Si2 O6
Spodumene Li Al Si2 O6 Pegmatites.
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AUGITE : It is a silicate of calcium, magnesium, iron and aluminum with a
composition of (Ca Mg Fe Al)2 (Al ) Si2 O6. It forms as a crystals, lamellar and
sometimes fibrous.. Augite occurs in Black and greenish black in color.
Varieties: Diallage is a variety of augite which in hand-specimen appears as

lamellar ( lamellar structure is due to a parting parallel to the planes ).
Diallage is characteristic of Gabbros.
Occurrence: augite occurs as short prismatic crystals in volcanic rocks,

Andesite, basalts etc.. and as crystals or plates in dykes and in plutonic rocks
such as gabbros, dolerite and in diorite. It also occurs in Ultrabasic rocks
such as pyroxenites and Peridoties.
DOUBLE CHAIN SILICATES Si : O : : 4 : 11
The amphibole group possess Si4 O11 double chain type of structure where
Tetrahedra are joined together to produce chains of indefinite extent. The
general formula for amphibole group is X 7 – 8 (Si4O11)2 (OH)2 where x = Ca,
Na, Mg, Fe+2; Al; Fe+3 .
Amphiboles Composition Occurs in

Anthophyllite ( Mg,Fe+2)7 (Si8O22) (OH)2 Anthophyllite schists, gneisses
Cummingtonite ( Mg,Fe)7 (Si8O22) (OH)2 In metamorphic rocks
Grunerite ( Fe, Mg )7 (Si8O22) (OH)2
Tremolite Ca2 Mg5 Si8 O22 (OH)2 In Serpentinites, greenstones,
Actinolite Ca2 (Mg,Fe)5 Si8 O22 (OH)2 Actinolite schists
Hornblende (Ca Na Mg Fe Al)7-8 Si8 O22 Granites; Syenites; diorites, Hbl
(OH)2 gneisses; hbl schists, amphibolites
Glaucophane Na2 (Mg Fe)3 (Al Fe+3) Si8 Soda rich ig rocks ie glaucophane
O22 (OH)2 schists
Riebeckite (Na2 Fe+2) (Fe+2)3 (Fe+3)2 Nepheline schists, pegmatites.
Si8 O22 (OH)2
HORNBLENDE: It is a silicate of aluminium, calcium, magnesium and iron

with sodium represented by the formula (Ca Na Mg Fe Al) 7-8 Si8 O22 (OH)2.
Hornblende occurs as crystals, prismatic in habit.
Varieties: Edenite is a light coloured hornblende poor in iron where as

Pargasite is a dark – green or bluish green variety and basaltic hornblende is
a brown or black variety containing titanium and sodium.
Occurrence: It occurs as a primary mineral in acid and intermediate igneous

rocks such as granites, Syenites, diorites etc and Ultrabasic rocks viz.,
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hornblendite and common in metamorphic rocks of hornblende – gneisses,

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hornblende schists and amphibolites.

ASBESTOS: The term “asbestos” is a commercial name which indicates fibrous
varieties of several minerals differing widely in composition. The fibres are
flexible and easily separated by the fingers. The color of asbestos varies from
white to greenish and brownish. Asbestos is classified in two different groups:
(1) the serpentine group which includes the elastic and silky chrysotile variety
and the woody fibre variety—picrolite and
(2) the amphibole group which comprises the short and brittle – fibred type ie
anthophyllite, crocidolite, amosite, tremolite and actinolite.
The commercial asbestos include the following fibrous minerals:
CHRYSOTILE (fibrous serpentine of hydrous magnesium silicate with a

composition of Mg6 (Si4 O10 ) (OH)8).
AMOSITE (fibrous anthophyllite of magnesium iron silicate with a composition of

( Mg,Fe+2)7 (Si8O22) (OH)2.Occurs in metamorphic rocks usually derived from
anthophyllite schists & gneisses.
CROCIDOLITE ( a fibrous soda amphibole which is a variety of Riebeckite,

indigo- blue in colour found in A. Africa. Occurs in acid igneous rocks rich in
Na ie Riebeckite-granite, Riebeckite granophyres etc.
ASBESTOS DEPOSITS OF INDIA: Most of the Indian asbestos deposits belong

to the tremolite–actinolite variety. It occurs in tremolite-act schists, amphibolites etc.
Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat, AP ( Kurnool and Cuddapah and anantapur districts)
and Tamil Nadu producing the commercial asbestos.
GENESIS OF ASBESTOS: Three main factors are responsible for the

formation of asbestos in schistose rocks, Peridotites, Dunites and Serpentinites.
The factors : (1) serpentinisation in the formation of chrysotile asbestos
(2) transformation of non-fibrous serpentine into the fibrous mineral and
(3) the gradual change of chrysotile into tremolite asbestos.
Uses: The usefulness of asbestos depends upon its resistance to heat property.
1. used for gaskets & insulating material and for spark plug gaskets.
2. Asbestos fibres are mixed with Portland cement for the manufacture of
corrugated and plain sheets and different types of asbestos pipes.
3. Asphalt asbestos used for roofing purposes.
4. Asbestos cheaper grade is utilized for the manufacture of asbestos paper.
5. Asbestos paper is extensively used for heat and electrical insulation
purposes and also for spark plug gaskets.
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6. Used as a refractory material by mixing asbestos powdered with Magnesite

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4. CYCLO SILICATES (Ring structures): When each SiO4 tetrahedron shares
two of its oxygens with neighbouring tetrahedra, they may be linked into rings.
( closed rings of tetrahedra each sharing two oxygens ) - These are also called
ring silicates.
In this group of minerals, 3 or 4 or 6 tetrahedra occur in ring form.
Eg for 3 tetrahedra : Bentonite ( Ba Ti Si3 O9 )
Eg for 4 tetrahedra : Axinite Ca2 (Fe,Mn) Al2 (BO3) (Si4O12) (OH)

Eg for 6 tetrahedra : Beryl ( Be3 Al2 Si6 O18 )
Cordierite (Mg Fe)2 (Al3 Al Si6 O18)
Tourmaline: X Y3 B3 ( Al, Fe)6 O27 (OH,F)4 where
x = Na, Ca and Y = Mg. Fe, Al, Li
Si : O :: 3 : 9 Si : O :: 4 : 12 Si : O :: 6 : 18
Varieties: Rubellite --- red or pink in color.
Indicolite --- Indigo – blue color
Brazilian emerald --green in color ( transparent )
Schorl --- Black in color ( opaque )
Occurrence: these minerals occur as accessory in Granites, Syenites,

Pegmatites,, Mica – schists and Gneisses.
Uses: some of the minerals are used as gemstone. The main producers are
Brazil, Russia, Madagascar, United States.
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5. PHYLLOSILICATES (SHEET STRUCTURES): These are also called sheet
silicates. They possess the SiO4 sheet structure resulting in more growth
along two directions of a mineral. Eg: Mica family, Chlorite family , Talc,
Serpentine, Kaolinite. (Si : O : : 2 : 5) or (Si : O : : 4 : 10)
Mica Family: MICA is the family name of some silicate minerals. These are
silicates of aluminum, potassium together with magnesium. Some varieties
contain sodium, lithium or titanium.
The hydroxyl radical is always present and is commonly replaced partially by

Fluorine. Hence, all mica minerals possess ( Al Si3 ) O10 (OH,F)2 as a common
radical. Micas may be divided into : 1) Muscovite group & 2) Biotite group.
Muscovite group Composition Usual name

Muscovite K Al2 (Al Si3) O10 (OHF)2 Potassium mica
Paragonite Na Al2 (Al Si3) O10 (OHF)2 Sodium mica
Lepidolite K (Al Li)3 (Al Si3) O10 (OHF)2 Lithium-pot mica
Biotite group Composition

Biotite K (Mg,Fe)3 (Al Si3) O10 (OHF)2 Iron-mag mica / black mica
Phlogophite K (Mg)3 (Al Si3) O10 (OHF)2 Magnesium mica
Zinnwaldite K (Li Fe Al) (Al Si3)O10 (OHF)2 Lithium mica
Glauconite K (Fe Al)2 (Si Al)4 O10 (OH)2
Margarite Ca Al2 (Si2 Al2) O10 (OH)2
Atomic structure: all micas are phyllosilicates ie in their atomic structure SiO4
tetrahedra are arranged in sheet pattern ( growth in two dimensions).
Varieties: when thin mica layers are punched by a steel rod, a small six-rayed
figure known as a “percussion” figure appears.
Sericite: is a fine grained muscovite found in Gneisses and Schists

Illite: is a clay mica found in sedimentary rocks.
Mineral Occurrence
Muscovite Found as accessory mineral in acid ig rocks such as Granites
and Pegmatites. In metamorphic rocks of Gneisses & mica-schists.
Biotite Igneous rocks such as Granites, Diorites; Gabbros. Also in Biotite
gneisses; biotite schists; biotite hornfels.
Phlogophite Found in crystalline limestones and peridotites.
Lepidolite In Pegmatites.
Uses: Muscovite used to be to cover lanthorns in electrical industry as an
insulating material. In the manufacture of rubber tyres; powdered mica is used
to give the frost effect on Christmas cards.
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Lepidolite is mined as an ore of lithium & used in lithium batteries. Phlogophite

mica is superior to muscovite mica
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Chlorite Family
Generally chlorite is considered as Hydrous silicates of aluminum, iron and
magnesium. Chlorite is a green coloured mineral. Chlorite resembles to some
extent biotite (mica ) in physical properties but has no alkalies..
Composition: the formula for chlorite is (Mg Fe)5 (Al Si3) O10 (OH)8 .
Atomic structure: This is a phyllosilicate with silicon oxygen ratio of 4 : 10.

Chlorite is formed as a product of alteration of mafic minerals such as biotite
or hornblende.
Occurrence: chlorite occurs in chlorite schists and phyllite. It also occurs as

amygdale.
Varieties: Clinochlore ; penninite; ripidolite.
Talc
Talc is a hydrous magnesium silicate. Its chemical composition is
Mg3 (SiO3)4 H2O containing 63.5% of SiO2 ; 31.7% of MgO and 4.7% of H2O .
Properties: having a good lustre and high lubricating power, particularly for oil
and grease absorption, high fusibility very low shrinkage value. It has a low
electrical and thermal conductivity and a good resistance to heat shock.
Atomic structure: Talc is a phyllosilicate with a Si: O ratio of 4 : 10 . It is a

metamorphic mineral and formed due to alteration of magnesium - bearing rocks
like peridotites; dolomites; gabbros.
Varieties: Steatite or soapstone is a massive variety of Talc, mostly white or

grey or pale green in color. Potstone is an impure massive talc, green in
color or brownish black in color. French chalk is a steatite used by tailors for
marking on clothes.
TALC DEPOSITS: Bihar; UP; AP ; Tamil Nadu; Rajasthan M.P; Maharashtra;

Karnataka are producing talc / steatite deposits.
Uses: as a filler for paints, paper, rubber , cosmetics, and textiles ;

removing grease from clothes;
in leather making; talcum powder ;
in switch boards, in lab table tops.
50% used in paper industry; 15% pesticide industry; 3% talcum powder industry
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and remaining in textile, ceramics; rubber industry etc..

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6. TECTO SILICATES ( Frame work structures ): In this group, SiO4
tetrahedra occur in a three dimensional framework, resulting equidimensional
growth of a mineral. (Si : O : : 1 : 2) or every SiO4 tetrahedron shares all of
its corners with other tetrahedron giving a three dimensional network . In this
framework structures, Si is generally replaced by Aluminum thus making them
aluminum silicates.
Minerals which this structure include: eg: quartz, other forms of silica (Flint ;
Jasper; Chalcedony etc..); Feldspars family, zeolite family, feldspathoids family;
Scapolite family.
FELDSPARS FAMILY
It refers to a group of different minerals which possess similar chemical
composition, atomic structure; physical and optical properties. These are
aluminous silicates of K. Na; Ca or Ba and may be considered as isomorphous
compounds.
Feldspars are sub-divided into: PLAGIOCLASE FELDSPARS and
ALKALI FELDSPARS
The Plagioclase feldspars may be defined as
Feldspar group Range composition Occurrence

Albite Ab 100 - An 0 Granites; Syenites;
Oligoclase Ab 90 – An 10 Diorites; Rhyolites;
Andesite Na Al Si3 O8 Ab 70 - An 30 Trachytes;
Labradorite to Ab 50 - An 50 Gabbros;
Bytownite Ca Al2 Si2 O8 Ab 30 – An 70 Sandstones;
Anorthite Ab 10 - An 90 Schists &
Gneisses;
Uses: Feldspars are used in the manufacture of Porcelain; Pottery; glazes on

earthware; Sanitary ware; in the manufacture of glass and ceramic industries.
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FORMS OF SILICA ( QUARTZ; FLINT; JASPER )
The forms of silica, including the hydrated forms can be grouped as:
Silica occurs in nature as crystalline ( eg: Quartz; Tridymite; Cristobalite )

as cryptocrystalline ( eg: chalcedony; Flint; Chert; Jasper; Agate )
as Hydrous / amorphous forms ( eg: opal )
QUARTZ: Next to feldspars and mafic minerals, quartz is the most

common rock forming mineral. It is SiO2 in composition and may be treated
as an oxide or as a silicate. Structurally, it is a tectosilicate ie; in its atomic
structure, the SiO4 tetrahedra are arranged in a three dimensional network
pattern.
Quartz, Tridymite and Crystabalite are important crystalline forms of silica with
SiO2 composition but possess different physical properties and hence these
are called POLYMORPHS.
Varieties of Quartz:
Rock crystal: Transparent form of quartz and purest.
Amethyst: Purple / violet colored; transparent form of quartz
Rose quartz: Pale pink / rose colored variety of quartz
Smoky quartz: smoky yellow / brown color of quartz
Milky quartz¨ milky white in color due to a large no. of mica cavities
Ferruginous quartz: contains iron oxides which impart reddish color
Uses: employed in jewellery ( eg: amethyst ); Making spectacle glasses;

Sand papers; toothpaste; Pottery; silica bricks.
Depend on its piezo – electric properties, a certain type of quartz is used to
control the frequency of radio-circuits.
FLINT: It is a compact cryptocrystalline silica of a black color or various shades

of grey occur as irregular nodules. Flint breaks with a well marked conchoidal
fracture and affords sharp cutting edges.
Flint was extensively used by prehistoric man for the fabrication of weapons,
chisels.. Flint generates sparks when struck with steel . Flint is used in tube
mills; pottery industry; for road making and building properties. Flint nodules
occur in limestone formations in North Wales.
JASPER: it is an opaque form of silica, usually of red, brown yellow color and
rarely green. Egyptian or Ribbon Jasper are beautifully banded with different
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shades of brown. Porcelain Jasper is merely clay altered by contact with a hot
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igneous rocks.
CALCIUM MINERALS:
Calcium doesn’t occur in the free state but its compounds are extremely
abundant. Calcium occurs in limestone as CaCO3. Calcium also enters into
the composition of many rock forming silicates such as :
Anorthite ( feldspar group ) ….. Ca Al2 Si2 O8 and in
Pyroxenes; amphiboles; garnets; scapolites; epidotes; zeolites and wollastonites.
Calcite is a non-silicate mineral and of great economic value. The following are
the important non-silicate calcium minerals:
Mineral Composition Class
Calcite Ca CO3
Aragonite Ca CO3
Siderite Fe CO3 Carbonates
Dolomite Ca Mg (CO3)2
Anhydrite Ca SO4
Gypsum Ca SO4 2 H2O Sulphates
Glauberite Na2 Ca (SO4)2
Apatite Ca5 (F, Cl) ( PO4)3 Phosphates
Fluorspar Ca F2 Fluorides
Ulexite Na Ca B5 O9 8 H2O
Colemanite Ca2 B6 O11 5 H2O Borates
POLYMORPHISM: Aragonite and calcite are having the same chemical

composition but differ in physical properties.
Varieties:
Nail - head spar crystals showing combination of flat rhombohedron and prism.
Ice – land spar is a fibrous form of calcite whereas Aphrite & Argentine are
unimportant varieties of calcite.
Stalactites are pendent columns formed by the dripping of water charged with
CaCO3 from the roofs of caverns in limestone rocks whereas Stalagmite, the
surplus dripping of water gives rise to a similar deposit which forms one above
the other on the floors of the caverns.
Chalk, soft, white earth form of Ca CO3 and Limestones, marbles are forms
of carbonate of lime.
Occurrence: calcite may be either of an organic or of an inorganic and

chemical origin.
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Uses: in the manufacture of bleaching powder; calcium carbide; in glass

industry; in soap, paper; paint industries; in cement manufacturing ; in printing
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process; in optical apparatus etc..

DIFFERENT METHODS OF STUDY OF MINERALS
According to the mineral definition, every mineral has its own chemical composition
and atomic structure and it is unique for every mineral. This fact facilitates the study
of mineral in different ways. Common methods of study and identification of minerals
based on their
(i) physical properties
(ii) chemical properties
(iii) optical properties and
(iv) x-ray analysis.
(i) Study of Physical properties: Physical properties like Color, Form, lustre,
Hardness (resistance to scratching), Density (Specific Gravity), cleavage etc., can
be studied with simple observations. These properties are dependent on chemical
composition and atomic structure i.e., if the atomic structure and chemical
composition remains the same, the resulting properties should also be similar.. This
principle is the basis for the study of minerals.
For example, any galena mineral irrespective of its place of occurrence, size, shape,
association ,consistently exhibits lead grey colour, metallic shine, opaque
character, high Sp gr (density = 7.4 – 7.6), tendency to break easily along three
different directions and is scratched easily by knife. This set of physical properties is
never exhibited by any other mineral .Therefore, if such properties are observed an
unknown mineral it must be only galena.
(ii) Study of Chemical composition: According to the definition, every mineral

which is expected to have its own individual chemical composition, which is not to be
found in any other mineral. Therefore, by chemical analysis if composition is known
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it should be possible to identify the mineral.

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For example, if the composition of an unknown mineral is found to be lead sulphide
(PbS), then that must be only galena because galena always has the composition
lead sulphide and no other mineral has this composition.
(iii) Study of optical properties: In this method of study, the minerals are made
very fine (0.03 mm ) and fixed over glass slide by means canadabalsam such
skillfully prepared slides are called thin sections. They are studied under
petrological microscope. Different optical properties such as interference colours,
their order, interference figures, optic sign, twinning, alteration etc., are studied under
crossed nicols with help of some other accessories, if necessary.
The optical properties of every mineral are also distinctive and hence helpful in the
identification of minerals. For example, quartz is characterized by: anhedral
shape, clourless, no cleavage, transparent, low relief, non-pleochroic, grey or
yellow, interference colours of first order, positive uniaxial interference figure,
positive elongation, no alteration etc,.
(iv) Study of X-ray analysis: When a beam of x-rays falls on a crystal, it is

diffracted by the layers of the atoms within the crystal. In making an x-ray analysis of
atomic structure of the crystal, the diffracted x-rays are allowed to fall on the on
photographic plate and resulting photograph shows a series of spots or lines which
form more or less symmetrical pattern. From measurements made on the
photograph, the arrangement of the atoms in the crystal can be deduced and also
the distances between them. The results of x-ray analysis of minerals reveal their
atomic structure, which is distinctive, for each mineral. This enables the accurate
identification of minerals.
17
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study of physical properties of minerals
Form: The form of mineral is defined as its shape. The external shape of mineral
reflects the internal arrangement of atoms. When a mineral occurs as a well
developed crystal, it is called crystallized. If the growth of the crystals is hampered
due to interference of other crystal grains then the resulting form is called
crystalline. When just traces of crystalline structures are present, it is called
cryptocrystalline. Due to random network of ions or the total absence of
crystalline structure, amorphous (or) shape less forms result. Some of important
forms are listed below.
S.No Name of the form Description Mineral Examples

1. Lamellar Form Mineral appears as thin Muscovite, Biotite
separable layers
2. Tabular Form Minerals appears as slabs of Feldspars, Gypsum
uniform thickness
3. Fibrous Form Mineral appears as fine Asbestos
threads
4. Pisolitic Form Mineral appears as sphericals Bauxite
5. Rhombic Form Rhombic shape Calcite, garnet
6. Bladed Form Minerals appear as independent Kyanite
blade or lath-shaped grains
7. Granular Form innumerable equidimensional grains Chromite, graphite,
of coarse/medium/fine size Magnetite
8. Reni Form Kidney-shaped Hematite
9. Prismatic Form Elongated crystals Olivine, Augite
10. Spongy Form Porous Pyrolusite, Bauxite
11. Cubic Form Geometrical Shapes Garnet, Pyrite, Galena
12. Massive Form No definite shape Graphite, Olivine, Quartz,
haematite, Magnesite,
Jasper, Pyrolusite
13. Nodular Form Irregularly shaped compact Flint
bodies with curved surfaces
18
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Color: Minerals show great variety of colors and can be identified by their color.
Color wise the minerals are of two types (i) Dark colored minerals and (ii) Light
colored minerals. Mineral colors are generally related to the spatial arrangement of
the constituent atoms or the impurities present in the minerals or all of these.
For example: (i)The color related to atomic structure. Diamond is colorless and
transparent where as Graphite is black and opaque even though both contain
carbon. (ii) The color related to impurities: Generally pure quartz colorless and
transparent. But commonly due to impurities it shows colors such as pink, purple etc.
Mineral Color Mineral Color

Calcite Colorless / white / red / grey / yellow
Feldspar White / grey / red / green / dirty white
Quartz Colorless / white / green / violet / grey / yellow / pink
hornblende Dark green Augite Greenish black

ruby Red Biotite Black, greenish black
Pyrite Brass yellow Chalcopyrite Golden yellow
Emerald Green Chlorite Grassy green
graphite Shining black Coal Black
barytes White / pale grey Gypsum Colorless / white
galena Dark lead grey Haematite Dark steel grey
Microcline White/pink/green Kyanite Blue
Chromite Black magnetite Black
Sapphire Blue Muscovite Silver white
Malachite Dark green Olivine Olivine green
orthoclase White / red plagioclase Grey / white
Garnet red Talc White/yellow
opal Milky white Tourmaline Jet black
Streak: The streak of mineral is color of its powder. Many minerals exhibit a
different color in the powder form compared to form of mass. The powder of the
mineral is obtained either by scratching the mineral with a pen knife or rubbing it
across piece of unglazed porcelain plate called streak plate. Most transparent
minerals show a white streak. colored minerals show a dark color streak of
the mineral. Sometimes the streak is altogether different in color from the color of
the mineral.
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S.No Streak minerals
1 Dark brown, black Pyrite, magnetite, chromite, Pyrolusite, biotite, graphite.
2 Bluish black Pyrolusite.,
3 Cherry red Haematite
4 Dark grey Galena
5 white Calcite, jasper, olivine, muscovite, asbestos, Kyanite, garnet,
talc, calcite, Magnesite,
6 colorless Quartz
7 White to grey Augite, biotite,
8 Grey to greenish grey Hornblende,
9 Silver white Muscovite
10 Greenish black Biotite, pyrite,
11 Red or reddish brown Haematite,
Lustre: Lustre is the nature of shining on the surface of the mineral under reflected
light. It varies considerably depending upon the amount and type of light reflected.
Based on the type of shining, lustres are grouped as metallic and non-metallic.
Metallic lustre is the type of shining that appears on the surface of the metal. Non-
metallic lustres are named considering the type of shining that appears in some
common materials. Some important non-metallic lustres that are observed mainly in
rock-forming minerals are:
S.No Non-metallic Lustre Description Minerals

1. Vitreous lustre Shining like a glass Quartz, Calcite, Feldspar
2. Subvitreous lustre Subvitreous lustre is similar to Pyroxenes (augite)
vitreous lustre but with less
shining
3. Pearly lustre Shining like pearl Talc, Muscovite(mica)
4. Silky lustre Shining like silk Asbestos
5. Resinous lustre Shining like resin Opal, Agate
6. Greasy lustre Shining like grease Graphite, Serpentine
7. Adamantine lustre Shining like diamond Garnet, Diamond
8. Earthy or Dull lustre No shining like earth or chalk Magnesite, Bauxite
20
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Cleavage: The definite direction or plane along which a mineral tends to break
easily is called the cleavage of that mineral. Crystallized and crystalline minerals
can have cleavage. Amorphous minerals do not show cleavage. Cleavage, if
present , occurs as innumerable planes along which mineral is equally weak. Hence
all such parallel planes of weakness are referred to as a set.
Depending upon their atomic structure, crystalline minerals will have 1 set of
cleavage (or) 2 sets (or) 3 sets (or) 4 sets (or) 6 sets of cleavages (or) no cleavage.
Since atomic structure of a mineral is definite, the cleavage character of the
mineral will also be definite. Depending upon the degree of perfection, cleavage
may be described as perfect or eminent or excellent (mica) , good (calcite) ,
imperfect or poor or indistinct (apatite).
S.No cleavage Sets Minerals
1 None Quartz, Flint, Jasper, Olivine, garnet, haematite,
2 indistinct Pyrolusite, Graphite, apatite
5 Present 1 mica, chlorite, talc, Asbestos
6 perfect 3 Calcite, Magnesite, galena
7 perfect 2 Feldspars, hornblende, Kyanite, augite
Fracture: Fracture is the nature of randomly broken surface of mineral. Based on

the nature of a broken surface, fractures are described as even fracture, uneven
fracture, hackly fracture, and conchoidal fracture.
S.No Name of fracture Description Minerals example

1. Even Fracture If the broken surface of a Magnesite, Chalk
mineral is plain and
smooth, it is called even
fracture
2. Uneven Fracture If the broken surface is Augite, hornblende, mica, chlorite, talc,
rough and irregular pyrite, haematite, magnetite, Pyrolusite,
graphite, bauxite.
3. Hackly Fracture If the broken surface is Asbestos, Kyanite, chlorite,
very irregular like the end
of a broken stick
4 Conchoidal If the broken surface is Agate, Flint, Jasper, galena, bauxite.
Fracture smooth and curved
5 Even to uneven Olivine, Magnesite
6 Conchoidal to sub- Garnet,
21
conchoidal
Page
Tenacity: The tenacity is a measure of the cohesiveness of minerals as shown by its
resistance to breaking, crushing or other deformation methods. The different kinds of
tenacity are classified as follows
(i) Brittle: The minerals breaks into powder

(ii) Malleable: The minerals be beaten into sheets
(iii) Ductile: The mineral can be drawn into thin wires
(iv) Sectile: The mineral can be cut into thin sheets
(v) Elastic: The minerals bend on the application of pressure but regains the
original shape when the pressure is released.
Hardness: Hardness may be defined as the resistance offered by the mineral to

abrasion or scratching.
For example, if mineral specimen is muscovite (mica), when it is tested on the mohs’
scale of hardness, it should not scratched by gypsum but by calcite. The
composition of the mineral appears to have less influence over hardness.
For example, graphite and diamond which possess the same composition, but
different atomic structures, represent nearly two extremes of the hardness in the
mineral kingdom i.e. graphite is extremely soft and diamond is extremely hard.
Mohs’ Scale of Hardness: In 1882 an Australian mineralogist, Mohs proposed a

relative scale for hardness of minerals. The standard set of ten reference minerals
used to determine the hardness of any unknown mineral is called Mohs’ scale of
hardness. The actual minerals of the set and their hardness are as follows:
Talc = 1; Feldspar = 6;
Gypsum = 2; Quartz = 7;
Calcite = 3; Topaz = 8;
Fluorite = 4; Corundum = 9;
Apatite = 5; Diamond = 10;
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Page
Thus Talc is the least hard mineral and Diamond is the most hard mineral. The
relative hardness of an unknown mineral is determined by scratching it with the
Mohs’ scale of hardness starting with Talc and followed by minerals of increasing
hardness. Common minerals like finger nail (H = 2.5) , a copper coin (H=3.5), a
broken glass piece (H=5.5) and pen knife (H=6.5) may be used to fix the lower limit.
Specific Gravity ( density ) : Specific gravity of mineral depends on their chemical

composition. and atomic structure. The specific gravity of a mineral is the weight
of it to the weight of an equal volume of water. In the laboratory, specific gravity
of minerals is determined using either Walker’s steel yard or Jolly’s spring balance.
In determining specific gravity care should be taken to select only fresh (ie un
weathered ) minerals free from inclusions, impurities etc,.
For routine identification of minerals based on physical properties, determination of

actual specific gravity is tedious and unnecessary because most of the rock-
forming minerals have specific gravity range of 2.5 to 3.5, while common ore
minerals like magnetite, hematite, ilmenite, galena, pyrite, Pyrolusite and
Psilomelane, have specific gravity over 3.5. Only few minerals have a specific gravity
less than 2.5. Thus based on this range of specific gravity of minerals, the density
character of minerals may be described as high, medium or low.
The medium density refers to the common rock-forming minerals and higher density
refers to the common ore minerals.
Sp. Gravity Minerals

Low Density < 2.5 Talc, graphite,
Medium Density 2.5 to 3.5 Feldspars, quartz, flint, jasper, olivine,
augite, hornblende, mica, chlorite,
asbestos, calcite, Magnesite, bauxite
High Density > 3.5 Kyanite, garnet, pyrite, haematite,
magnetite, chromite, galena, Pyrolusite,
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Transparency –translucency:
A mineral is transparent when the outlines of objects seen through it appear

sharp and distinct. Eg: quartz … transparent
Selenite … transparent
Fluorite ; Topaz … sub-transparent
A mineral which, though capable of transmitting light, cannot be seen through

is translucent.
When no light is transmitted the mineral is opaque.
Phosphorescence – Fluorescence:
Phosphorescence is the property possessed by some substances of emitting

light after having been subjected to certain conditions such as heating, rubbing
or exposure to electric or UV light.
Eg: pieces of quartz when rubbed together in a dark room emit a

phosphorescent light. Diamond, ruby etc when exposure to x-rays show
phosphorescent property.
Some minerals such as fluorspar emit light when exposed to certain electrical
radiations ( means giving off a certain kind of light ) is called as Fluorescence.
Depending upon certain senses …… taste; odour, feel etc
TASTE:
When the minerals are soluble in water, generally possess a characteristic

taste which may be designated as follows:
Taste Result
Saline The taste of common salt , eg: halite
Alkaline That of potash & soda
Acidic / sour The sour taste of H2SO4
Cool The taste of potassium chlorite
Sweetish astringent That of alum
Bitter That of Epsom salt
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ODOUR: Some minerals have characteristic odours when struck, rubbed,
breathed, heated etc… terms used are::
Odour Result on smell
Alliaceous Garlic odour when arsenic compounds are heated .
eg: arsenopyrite, orpiment, realgar
Horse-radish odour The odour of decaying horse radish when selenium
compounds are heated
Sulphurous The odour of burning sulphur when sulphides heated
Foetid The odour of rotten eggs given by heating
Clayey The odour of clay. Eg: kaolin
FEEL: Rough feeling of touch………. Eg chalk
Depending upon the state of aggregation……. Gases & liquids

Form
Hardness
Tenacity
Fracture
Cleavage
Gases & liquids
O2; N2; CO2 are examples for natural gases

H2O ; Hg ; HYDRO-CARBONS are examples for natural liquids.
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Page
MODE OF FORMATION OF MINERALS
Minerals are the products of natural physic – chemical processes and the
conditions in which they originate are various. The conditions include the
temperature, pressure and the interaction of minerals with country rocks.
Since, minerals are hard crystalline substances, their origin is restricted

From its liquid into its solid form eg: rock salt
From its gaseous into its solid form eg: sassoline, cinnabar, NH4Cl
From one hard form into another.
The crystallization of HALITE (Rock salt / common salt ) during the evaporation of
sea water serve as a good example for the formation of minerals from solutions
The formation of Ammonium Chloride ( NH4Cl );
sassoline (H3BO3 ) or Native boric acid;
Cinnabar (HgS) ie mercury sulphide etc
clearly indicates the emergence of minerals from a gaseous phase.
The formation of minerals during the transition from one solid state into
another solid state is typical of the process of RECRYSTALLIZATION;
METAMORPHISM & METASOMATISM.
Eg: Limestone is transformed into marble

Quartz in sandstone becomes into quartzite
Clay changes into Phyllites & mica schists.
The majority of the minerals in the earth’s crust have been formed by
crystallization of molten melt ie magma. It is estimated that 95% of the earth’s
crust is composed of igneous rocks which were resulted from solidification of
magma. The chief modes of formation of minerals are .
From Fusion ( solidification from fused rock material ie magma )

From solution ( crystallization from a solution )
From Vapour ( crystallization from a gas )
Formation of minerals from Fusion: An igneous magma ( complex solution )

in which the various elements present are free to circulate under the proper
conditions to form mineral molecules.
The composition of the magma determine the character of the minerals. The
elements O, Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, Na, K etc occur in varying proportions in
26
igneous magmas.
Page
Eg: quartz, feldspars, olivine, Enstatite, hypersthenes, Augite silicates
Hornblende, biotite, muscovite
Apatite, monazite ….. Phosphates
Magnetite, ilmenite, chromite …… oxides
Pyrite, pyrrhotite ….. sulphides
Platinum, diamond …. Elements
Formation of minerals from vapours:
The formation of minerals from vapours is confined such volcanic regions where
mineral gases are discharged from fumeroles.
Minerals deposited in this way include sulphur, Tellurium, Arsenic sulphides,

boric acid, chlorides etc…
Eg: quartz, opal, zeolites …. Silicates

Gypsum … sulphates
Haematite, magnetite … oxides
Halite … halides
Pyrite, cinnabar, stibnite … sulphides
Sulphur …,, elements
Formation of minerals from solutions : By the evaporation of saline water

(sea water / salt lakes) causing certain mineral deposits.
Eg: carbonates of lime ( CaCO3 ) and magnesia ( MgCO3)

Calcium sulphate ( CaSO4) and Sodium Chloride ( NaCl)
Sodium Sulphate ( NaSO4) and Potassium Chloride ( KCl)
The factors of concentration, temperature, proportion of various constituents in

the solution control the character of the minerals formed.
Eg: Quartz, feldspars, muscovite, chlorite, hornblende,

Tourmaline, zeolites, topaz silicates
Barytes .. sulphates
Calcite, Magnesite …. Carbonates
Magnetite, haematite, rutile, Brookite … oxides
Fluorite .. halides
Galena, pyrite, Cinnabar .. sulphides
Gold, silver, arsenic, bismuth …. Elements
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Physical properties of minerals
Form: The form of mineral is defined as its shape. The external shape of mineral reflects the
internal arrangement of atoms. When a mineral occurs as a well developed crystal, it is
called crystallized. If the growth of the crystals is hampered due to interference of other
crystal grains then the resulting form is called crystalline. When just traces of crystalline
structures are present, it is called cryptocrystalline. Due to random network of ions or the
total absence of crystalline structure, amorphous (or) shape less forms result. Some of
important forms are listed below.
S.No Name of the form Description Mineral Examples

1. Lamellar Form Mineral appears as thin Muscovite, Biotite
separable layers
2. Tabular Form Minerals appears as slabs of Feldspars, Gypsum
uniform thickness
3. Fibrous Form Mineral appears as fine Asbestos
threads
4. Pisolitic Form Mineral appears as sphericals Bauxite
5. Rhombic Form Rhombic shape Calcite, garnet
6. Bladed Form Minerals appear as independent Kyanite
blade or lath-shaped grains
7. Granular Form innumerable equidimensional grains Chromite, graphite,
of coarse/medium/fine size Magnetite
8. Reni Form Kidney-shaped Hematite
9. Prismatic Form Elongated crystals Olivine, Augite
10. Spongy Form Porous Pyrolusite, Bauxite
11. Cubic Form Geometrical Shapes Garnet, Pyrite, Galena
12. Massive Form No definite shape Graphite, Olivine, Quartz,
haematite, Magnesite,
Jasper, Pyrolusite
13. Nodular Form Irregularly shaped compact Flint
bodies with curved surfaces
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Page
Color: Minerals show great variety of colors and can be identified by their color.
Color wise the minerals are of two types (i) Dark colored minerals and (ii) Light
colored minerals. Mineral colors are generally related to the spatial arrangement of
the constituent atoms or the impurities present in the minerals or all of these.
For example: (i)The color related to atomic structure. Diamond is colorless and transparent
where as Graphite is black and opaque even though both contain carbon.
(ii) The color related to impurities: Generally pure quartz colorless and transparent. But
commonly due to impurities it shows colors such as pink, purple etc.
Streak: The streak of mineral is color of its powder. Many minerals exhibit a different color
in the powder form compared to form of mass. The powder of the mineral is obtained either
by scratching the mineral with a pen knife or rubbing it across piece of unglazed porcelain
plate called streak plate. Most transparent minerals show a white streak. colored
minerals show a dark color streak of the mineral. Sometimes the streak is altogether
different in color from the color of the mineral.
S.No Streak minerals

1 Dark brown, black Pyrite, magnetite, chromite, Pyrolusite, biotite, graphite.
2 Bluish black Pyrolusite.,
3 Cherry red haematite
4 Dark grey galena
5 white Calcite, jasper, olivine, muscovite, asbestos, Kyanite,
garnet, talc, calcite, Magnesite,
6 colorless quartz
7 White to grey Augite, biotite,
8 Grey to greenish grey Hornblende,
9 Silver white Muscovite
10 Greenish black Biotite, pyrite,
11 Red or reddish brown Haematite,
Lustre: Lustre is the nature of shining on the surface of the mineral under reflected
light. It varies considerably depending upon the amount and type of light reflected.
Based on the type of shining, lustres are grouped as metallic and non-metallic.
Metallic lustre is the type of shining that appears on the surface of the metal. Non-
29
metallic lustres are named considering the type of shining that appears in some
common materials. Some important non-metallic lustres that are observed mainly in
Page
rock-forming minerals are:

S.No Non-metallic Lustre Description Minerals
1. Vitreous lustre Shining like a glass Quartz, Calcite,
Feldspar
2. Subvitreous lustre Subvitreous lustre is similar Pyroxenes (augite)
to vitreous lustre but with
less shining
3. Pearly lustre Shining like pearl Talc, Muscovite(mica)
4. Silky lustre Shining like silk Asbestos
5. Resinous lustre Shining like resin Opal, Agate
6. Greasy lustre Shining like grease Graphite, Serpentine
7. Adamantine lustre Shining like diamond Garnet, Diamond
8. Earthy or Dull lustre No shining like earth or chalk Magnesite, Bauxite
Cleavage: The definite direction or plane along which a mineral tends to break
easily is called the cleavage of that mineral. Crystallized and crystalline minerals
can have cleavage. Amorphous minerals do not show cleavage. Cleavage, if
present , occurs as innumerable planes along which mineral is equally weak. Hence
all such parallel planes of weakness are referred to as a set.
Depending upon their atomic structure, crystalline minerals will have 1 set of
cleavage (or) 2 sets (or) 3 sets (or) 4 sets (or) 6 sets of cleavages (or) no cleavage.
Since atomic structure of a mineral is definite, the cleavage character of the

mineral will also be definite. Depending upon the degree of perfection, cleavage
may be described as perfect or eminent or excellent (mica) , good (calcite) ,
imperfect or poor or indistinct (apatite).
S.No cleavage Sets Minerals

1 None Quartz, Flint, Jasper, Olivine, garnet, haematite,
2 indistinct Pyrolusite, Graphite, apatite
5 Present 1 mica, chlorite, talc, Asbestos
6 perfect 3 Calcite, Magnesite, galena
7 perfect 2 Feldspars, hornblende, Kyanite, augite
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Page
Fracture: Fracture is the nature of randomly broken surface of mineral. Based on
the nature of a broken surface, fractures are described as even fracture, uneven
fracture, hackly fracture, and conchoidal fracture.
S.No Name of fracture Description Minerals example

1. Even Fracture If the broken surface Magnesite, Chalk
of a mineral is plain
and smooth, it is
called even fracture
2. Uneven Fracture If the broken surface Augite, hornblende, mica,
is rough and chlorite, talc, pyrite, haematite,
irregular magnetite, Pyrolusite, graphite,
bauxite.
3. Hackly Fracture If the broken surface Asbestos, Kyanite, chlorite,
is very irregular like
the end of a broken
stick
4 Conchoidal If the broken surface Agate, Flint, Jasper, galena,
Fracture is smooth and bauxite.
curved
5 Even to uneven Olivine, Magnesite
6 Conchoidal to Garnet,
sub-conchoidal
Tenacity: The tenacity is a measure of the cohesiveness of minerals as shown by its

resistance to breaking, crushing or other deformation methods. The different kinds of
tenacity are classified as follows
(vi) Brittle: The minerals breaks into powder

(vii) Malleable: The minerals be beaten into sheets
(viii) Ductile: The mineral can be drawn into thin wires
(ix) Sectile: The mineral can be cut into thin sheets
31
(x) Elastic: The minerals bend on the application of pressure but regains the
Page
original shape when the pressure is released.

Hardness: Hardness may be defined as the resistance offered by the mineral to
abrasion or scratching.
For example, if mineral specimen is muscovite (mica), when it is tested on the mohs’ scale
of hardness, it should not scratched by gypsum but by calcite. The composition of the
mineral appears to have less influence over hardness.
For example, graphite and diamond which possess the same composition, but different
atomic structures, represent nearly two extremes of the hardness in the mineral kingdom i.e.
graphite is extremely soft and diamond is extremely hard.
Mohs’ Scale of Hardness: In 1882 an Australian mineralogist, Mohs proposed a relative

scale for hardness of minerals. The standard set of ten reference minerals used to determine
the hardness of any unknown mineral is called Mohs’ scale of hardness. The actual minerals
of the set and their hardness are as follows:
Talc = 1; Feldspar = 6;
Gypsum = 2; Quartz = 7;
Calcite = 3; Topaz = 8;
Fluorite = 4; Corundum = 9;
Apatite = 5; Diamond = 10;
Thus Talc is the least hard mineral and Diamond is the most hard mineral. The
relative hardness of an unknown mineral is determined by scratching it with the
Mohs’ scale of hardness starting with Talc and followed by minerals of increasing
hardness. Common minerals like finger nail (H = 2.5) , a copper coin (H=3.5), a
broken glass piece (H=5.5) and pen knife (H=6.5) may be used to fix the lower limit.
Specific Gravity ( density ) : Specific gravity of mineral depends on their chemical

composition. and atomic structure. The specific gravity of a mineral is the weight
of it to the weight of an equal volume of water. In the laboratory, specific gravity
of minerals is determined using either Walker’s steel yard or Jolly’s spring balance.
32
In determining specific gravity care should be taken to select only fresh (ie un
Page
weathered ) minerals free from inclusions, impurities etc,.

For routine identification of minerals based on physical properties, determination of
actual specific gravity is tedious and unnecessary because most of the rock-
forming minerals have specific gravity range of 2.5 to 3.5, while common ore
minerals like magnetite, hematite, ilmenite, galena, pyrite, Pyrolusite and
Psilomelane, have specific gravity over 3.5. Only few minerals have a specific gravity
less than 2.5. Thus based on this range of specific gravity of minerals, the density
character of minerals may be described as high, medium or low.
The medium density refers to the common rock-forming minerals and higher density
refers to the common ore minerals.
Sp. Gravity Minerals
Low Density < 2.5 Talc, graphite,
Medium Density 2.5 to 3.5 Feldspars, quartz, flint, jasper, olivine,
augite, hornblende, mica, chlorite, asbestos,
calcite, Magnesite, bauxite
High Density > 3.5 Kyanite, garnet, pyrite, haematite,
magnetite, chromite, galena, Pyrolusite,
MINERALS
S no Mineral hardness Density (sp gr) Cleavage
1 Feldspar 6 – 6.5 2.6 – 2.73 2 sets
2 Quartz 7 2.6 – 2.7 Absent
3 Flint 7 2.65 Absent
4 Jasper 6.5 – 7 6.5 – 7 Absent
5 Olivine 6.5 3.34 Absent
6 Augite 5–6 5–6 2 sets
7 Hornblende 5–6 5–6 2 sets
8 Muscovite 2.5 – 3 2.8 – 2.9 1 set
9 Biotite 2.5 – 3 2.7 – 3.3 1 set
10 Asbestos 2.9 – 3.2 Perfect
11 Chlorite 1.5 – 2. 5 2.7 – 3.0 1 set
12 Kyanite 4- 5 length & 3.6 - 3.7 2 sets
6–7breadth
13 Garnet 6.5 – 7.5 3.5 – 4.3 Absent
33
14 Talc 1 2.7 1 set

15 Calcite 3 2.7 3 sets
Page
ECONOMIC MINERALS
S no Mineral hardness Density ( sp gr) Cleavage
1 Pyrite 6–7 5 2 -3 sets
2 Haematite 5–6 5. 2 Absent
3 Magnetite 5–6 5. 2 Absent
4 Chromite 5.5 – 6 4.1 – 5.1 Absent
5 Galena 2.5 – 3.0 7.5 Perfect
6 Pyrolusite 4.5 – 5 Indistinct
7 Graphite 1–2 2 – 2.3 indistinct
8 Magnesite 4–5 3.0 – 3.2 3 sets
9 Bauxite 2-4 2 – 3.5 Absent
Degree of Transparency: This is also known as “diaphaneity”. Depending up on the

resistance offered by the minerals to the passage of light through them, they may be
classified as transparent, translucent and opaque. This character of a mineral depends on
chemical composition, impurities, inclusions, weathering and also thickness.
Rock-forming minerals usually appear to be opaque when they are thick, but lose this
opaque character if they are made thinner. But metallic ore minerals remain mostly opaque,
even when they are made thinner. Therefore, the distinction between a really opaque
mineral and other not opaque minerals will help to distinguish ore minerals from rock-forming
minerals.
Relative advantages and disadvantages of different methods of study: Among

different methods of study made in the identification of a mineral, definitely x-ray
analysis is best, because it is accurate and there is no scope for wrong
identification. But disadvantage is that for such study many facilities, a lot of
infrastructure, costly equipment and accessories are necessary.
The constraints, in the study by optical properties method, are (i) opaque minerals
are not amenable for study under ordinary petrological microscopes, special
reflective ore microscopes are needed for their study (ii) amorphous minerals, by
34
virtue of their irregular arrangement, cannot be identified by optical methods. (iii)

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cost involved in procuring the required equipment

The method of chemical analysis, this is fairly good in giving correct
identification of minerals, but the constraints are (i) impossible to identify the
mineral exclusively based on chemical analysis (ii) cost of equipment, reagents, and
facilities required
Lastly coming to the method of study of minerals by physical properties, it is most

suitable for the following reasons
(i) The unique advantage is that it makes possible the study of rocks or minerals
in the field itself.
(ii) It does not require any equipment worth mentioning.
(iii) It does not involve the use of chemicals and it does not need additional
facilities.
(iv) It involves no loss or wastage
(v) It is the quickest, simplest and least tedious method for identification of
minerals i.e., money, energy, and time are spent to the minimum extent.
However, the disadvantages in this method are
(i) In some cases even slight variation in chemical composition results in

considerable change in colour.
(ii) Weathering alters many physical properties significantly and makes
identification difficult.
(iii) Further, some minerals formed under different conditions show light
variations in physical properties.
Polymorphism: polymorphism is a phenomenon where by different minerals

possessing different physical properties occur despite having the same chemical
composition. For example: Al2SiO5 is the composition of different minerals like
Andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite.
35
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Study of physical properties of rock forming minerals: It is necessary to
know about the common minerals which actually make up different rocks and determine their
properties.
Name of the Mineral: 1. Feldspars
S No Properties Observations
1 Form Tabular
2 Color Pale pink, whitish blue, grayish
3 Streak
4 Lustre Vitreous
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage 2 sets
7 Hardness 6 – 6.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.6 – 2.73
9 Varieties Plagioclase feldspars include:
ALBITE; OLIGOCLASE ANDESINE

LABRADORITE BYTOWNITE ANORTHITE.
Potash feldspars include:
Hyalophane (KAlSi3O8)
Orthoclase (KAlSi3O8)
Microcline (KAlSi3O8)
Anorthoclase (Na KAl Si3 O8)
10 Occurrence In granites, Syenites, diorite, rhyolite, Trachyte,
sandstones, schists, gabbros, gneisses.
11 Uses In the manufacture of porcelain & pottery,
earthernware, sanitary ware, bricks manufacture,
glasses, electronic products etc.
12 Chemical composition NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8
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Name of the Mineral: 2. Quartz
1 Form Massive, crystals
2 Color Quartz occurs in different colors. Common colors
are white, grey, purple, brown, pink etc
3 Streak Colorless ( harder than streak plate )
4 Lustre Vitreous
5 Fracture Conchoidal
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 7
9 Varieties Flint, Jasper, Amethyst (purple or violet color), Opal,
rose quartz ( pale pink color). Milky quartz ( milky
white in color ) .
10 Occurrence Occurs in almost igneous( granites, rhyolites),
sedimentary (sandstones) and metamorphic rocks (
quartzites ).
11 Uses Glass making, optical materials, polishing / grinding
compounds, components in electronic products,
12 Chemical composition SiO2
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Name of the Mineral: 3. Flint
1 Form Irregular nodules, massive
2 Color Grey, brownish, black
4 Lustre Resinous
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 7
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.65
9 Varieties Hornstone, Chert
10 Occurrence In sedimentary rocks such as Limestones
11 Uses Used in tube mills, pottery industry, as road and
building material.
Name of the Mineral: 4. Jasper
1 Form Massive
2 Color Red, Grey, brown
4 Lustre Dull, vitreous, greasy
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 6.5 - 7
9 Varieties
10 Occurrence In Igneous, sedimentary & metamorphic rocks
11 Uses Ornaments, gemstones
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Name of the Mineral: 5. Olivine
1 Form MASSIVE or no definite shape
2 Color OLIVE GREEN. Mg rich types are PALE whereas
iron rich types are DARK COLOURED
3 Streak WHITE
4 Lustre VITREOUS but OFTEN DULL
5 Fracture EVEN TO UNEVEN
6 Cleavage ABSENT
7 Hardness 6–7
9 Varieties FORSTERITE IS MAGNESIUM OLIVINE
FAYALITE IS FERROUS IRON TYPE
PERIDOT is a gem variety of olivine.
10 Occurrence IGNEOUS ROCKS such as Peridotites, Dunites,
Gabbro, Basalt, Dolerites.
11 Uses PERIDOT IS a GEM VARIETY
manufacture of REFRACTORY BRICKS
12 Chemical composition (Mg,Fe)2 SiO4
Name of the Mineral: 6. Augite
1 Form granular, prismatic crystals
2 Color Greenish black TO Brownish black
3 Streak WHITE TO GREY
4 Lustre VITREOUS TO SUB VITREOUS
5 Fracture UNEVEN
6 Cleavage 2-SETS
7 Hardness 5–6
9 Varieties Diallage
10 Occurrence Basalts, Andesites, Tuffs, Gabbros, Pyroxenites,
Andesites
11 Uses
12 Chemical composition (Ca, Na) (Mg,Fe+2, Fe+3, Al) [(Si Al)2 O6]
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Name of the Mineral: 7. Hornblende
1 Form GRANULAR OR PRISMATIC or AGGREGATE
2 Color DARK GREENISH BLACK
3 Streak GREY TO GREENISH GREY
4 Lustre VITREOUS TO SUB VITREOUS
5 Fracture UNEVEN
6 Cleavage 2 sets
7 Hardness 5–6
8 Density (Sp gravity) 3 – 3.47
9 Varieties Edenite, Paragasite
10 Occurrence In IGNEOUS ROCKS such as Granites, Syenites, Diorites,
Hornblendite and in METAMORPHIC ROCKS such as
Gneisses, Schists, Amphibolites.
11 Uses 1.DECORATION
2.USED AS INSULATING MATERIAL
3.USED AS ELECTRIC COMMUTATORS
12 Chemical composition (Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, Al)7-8 (Al Si)8 O22 (OH)2
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Name of the Mineral: 8. Muscovite
1 Form LAMELLAR (layers are separable and occurs in
book form ); some occur as flaky minerals.
2 Color Brownish black, silver white, brownish yellow
3 Streak white
4 Lustre Vitreous, pearly
5 Fracture EVEN / HACKLY
6 Cleavage 1 set
7 Hardness 2 - 2.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2.76 - 3.0
9 Varieties PARAGONITE- SODIUM MICA
LEPIDOLITE- LITHIUM MICA
SERICITE is a fine grained muscovite type found in
gneisses and schists.
Gilbertite ……
Illite, a variety of mica is found in sedimentary
rocks
10 Occurrence found in igneous rocks such as Granites,
Pegmatites and Phlogophites..
11 Uses Electrical industry,, wall finishes, thin transparent
sheets are used as an insulator and used in circuit
boards.
12 Chemical composition KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2
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Name of the Mineral: 9. Biotite
1 Form LAMELLAR (layers are separable and occurs in
book form ); some occur as flaky minerals.
2 Color dark brown, black, dark greenish black
3 Streak white to gray
4 Lustre Vitreous, pearly
5 Fracture EVEN / HACKLY
6 Cleavage 1 set
7 Hardness 2.5 - 3
9 Varieties LEPIDOMELANE
PHLOGOPITE: Mg .MICA
ZINNWALDITE: LITHIUM MICA (pale white)
10 Occurrence found in igneous ROCKS such as Granites,
Diorites, Gabbros, and in metamorphic rocks viz.,
Biotite gneisses, Schists, Hornfels.
11 Uses 1.USED AS INSULATING MATERIAL
2.USED AS ELECTRIC COMMUTATORS
12 Chemical composition K(Mg,Fe)3(Si3Al)O10(OH,F)2
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Name of the Mineral: 10. Asbestos
1 Form Fibres / FIBROUS
2 Color Pale green / whitish green
3 Streak white
4 Lustre SILKY
5 Fracture UNEVEN TO HACKLY
6 Cleavage Perfect
7 Hardness 5–6
9 Varieties Nephrite, Uralite
10 Occurrence Occurs in actinolite schistose rocks
11 Uses Fire proof fabrics, brake linings, manufacture of
asbestos sheets, boards, roofing tiles, fire proof
paints.
12 Chemical composition Ca2 (Mg Fe)5 Si8 O22 (OH)2
Name of the Mineral: 11. chlorite
1 Form FOLIATED
2 Color GREEN usually dark grass green
3 Streak
4 Lustre Vitreous to earthy
5 Fracture
6 Cleavage
7 Hardness 2.5
9 Varieties Chamosite ( iron-rich chlorite),
Ripidolite, Penninite, Clinochlore.
10 Occurrence In igneous rocks due to alteration of biotite and in
metamorphic rocks such as chlorite Phyllites,
chlorite schists.
11 Uses
12 Chemical composition Mg,Fe, Al (Al, Si3) O10 (OH)8
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Name of the Mineral: 12. Kyanite
1 Form Long blades, fibres
2 Color Light blue
3 Streak White
4 Lustre Vitreous to pearly
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage 2 sets
7 Hardness 4-5 along length and 6 – 7 along breadth
8 Density (Sp gravity) 3.6 – 3. 7
9 Varieties Andalusite
10 Occurrence In Gneisses, Schists, Eclogites
11 Uses In refractories. As heating element, in ceramic
industry.
12 Chemical composition Al2 Si O5
Name of the Mineral: 13. Garnet
1 Form Rhombohedron / Rhombododecahedron
2 Color Red, brownish red, pink
3 Streak Colorless
4 Lustre Vitreous
5 Fracture Uneven or sub-conchoidal
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 6.5 – 7.5
9 Varieties Grossularite; Pyrope, Almandine, Spessartite,
Andradite, Uvarovite
10 Occurrence In Syenites and in Gneisses, schists,
11 Uses An abrasive and as a gemstone
12 Chemical composition (R2+3, R3+ 2 (SiO4)3 where
R2+ = Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn) and R3+ = Fe, Al, Cr, Ti
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Name of the Mineral: 14. Talc
1 Form FOLIATED
2 Color White, green, grayish
3 Streak White
4 Lustre Pearly
5 Fracture Even
6 Cleavage 1 set
7 Hardness 1
9 Varieties Steatite, soapstone
10 Occurrence Peridotites, Gabbros, Dolomites, Schists,
11 Uses Talcum powder industry, paper industry, as a filler
in pains, rubber industry, in electrical industry.
12 Chemical composition Mg3 ( Si4 O10) (OH)2
Name of the Mineral: 15. Calcite
1 Form Rhombic / tabular
2 Color White
3 Streak White
4 Lustre Vitreous
5 Fracture Even
6 Cleavage 3 sets
7 Hardness 3
9 Varieties Iceland spar
10 Occurrence In limestones and marbles
11 Uses In cement industry, manufacture of bleaching
powder,, as a calcium carbide ,
12 Chemical composition CaCO3
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STUDY OF COMMON ECONOMIC MINERALS
BAUXITE is an amorphous mineral which consists of the metallic element
of aluminum. Bauxite is formed under tropical weathering from different
rocks. Such weathering results in leaching of all soluble matter and leaving
behind enriched residues of oxides and hydroxides of aluminum , ferrous,
ferric , manganese, titanium and silica. Aluminum is not found in a free state,
but it is the most abundant metal in earth’s crust.
Chemical composition: Bauxite, a mixture of aluminum hydroxides such as

diaspore ( H Al O2 ), boehmite (AlO (OH) ) and gibbsite (Al ( OH)3 ) together with
impurities of iron oxide, phosphorus compounds and titania. The following is the
range of oxide percentage of bauxite:
Al2O3 55 – 65%
Fe2O3 2 - 20%
SiO2 2 - 10 %
TiO2 1 – 3%
H2O 10 – 30%
Physical Properties: mentioned separately
Occurrence: Bauxite results from the decay and weathering of aluminum –

bearing rocks.
Uses: For the manufacture of aluminum. Aluminum is used as abrasives; as

refractory bricks.; in making cables ; household vessels, wrapping aluminum foil,
cans, etc.. Owing to its low specific gravity 2.58, it is of great value in the
manufacture of many articles .
PYRITE :Though there are no native sulphur deposits in India, Pyrite

serve the purpose of producing sulphur by eliminating sulphur from iron
pyrites ( FeS2), which contains 53 % of sulphur and 47% Fe. It has a brass
yellow color. Pyrrhotite, which also contains iron and sulphur, has a formula
of Fe11S12.
Pyrite occurs as massive or lumps or as fines.
Chemical composition: Fe S2.
Occurrence: The principal sources of pyrites and pyrrhotite in India are the
sedimentary pyrite deposits of Bihar and Rajasthan. Karnataka, also producing
pyrite deposits and the deposits are restricted to ultra basic igneous rocks.
46
Uses: The main use of pyrite is to manufacture sulphuric acid, in the

manufacture of phosphatic fertilizers.. Motion picture films consume a good
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amount sulphuric acid.

GRAPHITE: Graphite is one of the principal allotropic modifications of
carbon, the other two are coal and diamond. Carbon is known in three
different conditions –
Transparent and crystallized as diamond, Scaly and crystalline as Graphite and

Amorphous as charcoal, coal. These different forms, though chemically
identical, vary in hardness, specific gravity and other physical properties.
Native carbon occurs as two important minerals viz., diamond and graphite
while amorphous carbon is coal. Again, carbon forms with oxygen and
hydrogen many series of compounds known as the Hydrocarbons.
The sp gravity of graphite is 2.1 and hardness varies between 1 and 2. It is

absolutely opaque in character and resistant to heat and a very good
conductor of heat and electricity.
Chemical composition: It is a pure carbon and sometimes contaminated

with a small amount of silica, iron-oxides , clay etc.
Occurrence: Graphite is the stable form of carbon at a high temperature. The

majority of graphite deposits are formed by the metamorphism of carbonaceous
matters particularly anthracite coal. .
Graphite occurs in Bihar, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Rajasthan; WB; Sikkim;
J & K; Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. In A.P., East Godavari district ( kothala
village ) is identified with veins in khondalites. In Bhadrachalam graphite
deposits occur as veins in khondalites ( pulikonda area, Rachakonda area ).
Uses: Low grade graphite is used in the paint and varnish industries whereas
the high grade variety is used in batteries, lubricants, and brushes.
Graphites are used for the manufacture of crucibles for melting of metals. It is
required for lead pencil manufacturing industry. Graphite is also used for dry
lubrication where oil or grease is harmful.
Graphite is very much in demand for the manufacture of electric motor

brushes. ( eg: mixy motor or generators etc..)
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MAGNESITE : Magnesite, which is a carbonate of magnesium
( MgCO3), contains about 47% of MgO and 53% of CO2. Magnesite is considered
as an ore for the extraction of metallic magnesium.
When Magnesite is Calcined at a temperature of 1500 o C, the magnesia is

converted to a crystalline form known as Periclase which has a sp gravity of
3.68.
Chemical composition: It is a magnesium carbonate ( Mg CO3). Magnesite is

commonly massive and fibrous, sometimes very compact.
Physical Properties: ( mentioned separately )
Occurrence: Economically important deposits of Magnesite occur as irregular

veins in serpentinite rocks and it is found as alteration of serpentinite rocks.
In India Magnesite occurs extensively in Salem district of Tamil Nadu where
the Magnesite deposits were formed in the ultra basic rocks of chalk hills. In
addition, Magnesite occurs in Karnataka as a decomposition product of ultra
basic rocks.
Uses: Magnesite required as fertilizer. It is also used as filler in paint and

glass industries. Calcined magnesia is useful in manufacturing paper pulp
from wood and bamboo.
Magnesia powder is used in furnace - linings and crucibles; also employed in

the manufacture of special cements and sugar industries.
Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 1. PYRITE
1 Form Cube, Granular
2 Color Bronze yellow
3 Streak greenish black / brownish black
4 Lustre metallic
5 Fracture Conchoidal / Uneven
6 Cleavage 3 sets
7 Hardness 6 – 6.5
9 Varieties Marcasite, Pyrrhotite, Pyrrhotite
10 Occurrence Accessory mineral in IGNEOUS ROCKS
11 Uses PRODUCTION OF sulphur and sulphuric acid
48
12 Chemical composition FeS2,

Page
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 523 – 524)

Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 2. HAEMATITE
1 Form Massive / Rhombohedron
2 Color Steel grey
3 Streak Cherry red / red to reddish brown
4 Lustre Metallic to Sub-metallic
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage Absent / poor
7 Hardness 5.5 - 6.5
8 Density (Sp gravity) 4.9 – 5.35.2
9 Varieties Specular iron, kidney ore, Reddle, Martite
10 Occurrence IGNEOUS,SEDIMENTARY, METAMORPHIC
11 Uses 1. Iron ore
2.PIGMENT
12 Chemical composition Fe2O3,
Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 3. MAGNETITE
1 Form Granular / octahedral
2 Color Iron black
3 Streak Black
4 Lustre Metallic to Sub-metallic
5 Fracture Sub-conchoidal
6 Cleavage Absent / poor
9 Varieties
10 Occurrence In igneous / sedimentary rocks
11 Uses Valuable ore of iron
12 Chemical composition Fe3O4
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Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 4. CHROMITE
1 Form Granular
2 Color Black / BROWNISH BLACK
3 Streak Brown
4 Lustre Sub-metallic
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 5.5
9 Varieties Picotite, lead chromite m
10 Occurrence In Peridotites, Serpentinites, gabbros
11 Uses The only source of chromium
12 Chemical composition FeCr2O4
Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 5. GALENA
1 Form Cube or Rectangular Blocks or octahedral
2 Color Lead Grey
3 Streak Lead Grey
4 Lustre Metallic but often dull
5 Fracture Even, sub-conchoidal
6 Cleavage 3 sets
7 Hardness 2.5
9 Varieties Minium, Cerussite, Phosgenite, Leadhillite, anglesite
10 Occurrence
11 Uses ore of pb, cable covers, foils, lead sheets, piping,
soldering,
12 Chemical composition PbS
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Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 6. PYROLUSITE
1 Form Massive, reniform, fibrous
2 Color Iron grey or dark steel-grey
3 Streak Black / bluish black
4 Lustre Metallic
5 Fracture Uneven
6 Cleavage Indistinct
7 Hardness 2 - 2.5
9 Varieties Polianite, Psilomelane, Rhodochrosite, Rhodonite
10 Occurrence In Sedimentary
11 Uses Important manganese ore
12 Chemical composition MnO2
Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 7. GRAPHITE
1 Form Crystalline , scaly, masses, granular
2 Color Iron grey to dark steel grey
3 Streak Black
4 Lustre Metallic
5 Fracture
6 Cleavage Perfect
7 Hardness 1–2
8 Density (Sp gravity) 2 – 2.3
9 Varieties
10 Occurrence In igneous rocks.
11 Uses Facings in foundry moulds, paints, crucibles, stove
polish, lead pencils, electrodes
12 Chemical composition Pure C
( refer RUTLEY’S elements of Mineralogy by HH Read, pp 340-341)
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Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 8. MAGNESITE
1 Form Massive, compact, crystals
2 Color White, grayish white, yellowish, brown
3 Streak Blacken
4 Lustre Vitreous / dull/ earthy
6 Cleavage Present but not distinct
9 Varieties Broocite, Epsomite, Periclase Kieserite
10 Occurrence As irregular veins in serpentine masses
11 Uses To produce CO2 , magnesium salts, refractory
bricks, furnace linings, crucibles
12 Chemical composition MgCO3
Name of the ECONOMIC MINERAL: 9. BAUXITE
1 Form Pisolitic Spongy, amorphous
2 Color Dirty white , grayish, brown, yellow, reddish brown
3 Streak
4 Lustre Dull,
5 Fracture Earthy , uneven
6 Cleavage Absent
7 Hardness 3- 4
9 Varieties Corundum, spinel, diaspore, boehmite, Gibbsite,
Cryolite, alunite, leucite
10 Occurrence Weathering of igneous rocks
11 Uses In manufacture of aluminum, refractory bricks, in
furnace linings
12 Chemical composition Al2O32H2O
52
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References:
Rutley’s Elements of Mineralogy by H H Read ( CBS publishers & distributors)
Industrial Minerals and Rocks of India by S. Deb ( Allied Publishers Pvt ltd )
Mineralogy by Berry Mason Dietrich ( CBS publishers & Distributors )
Ore deposits of India by KVGK Gokhale & TC Rao ( East West Press Private Ltd
)
Text book of Engineering Geology by N chenna Kesavulu ( MacMillan )
Principles of Engineering Geology by KVGK Gokhale
53
Page

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Notes on Engineering Geology for Civil engg

Under favourable conditions, the internal atomic structure of minerals result in

The stability of minerals depends on temperature, pressure and chemical

Phenacite …Be2 (SiO4) Bertrandite … Be4 (Si2O7) (OH)4

Baddeleyite …Zr O2 Cordierite … Hg3 S2 Cl2

Crystalline: possess atomic structure in a mineral.

Crystal: A crystal may be defined as a natural solid body bounded by smooth

l. Precious gemstones like diamonds, rubies, sapphires and emeralds are

4. Asphalt ( a variety of bitumen, semi-solid in nature, black in color) , mercury and

5. A good number of minerals are now found to be members of isomorphic groups.

Minerals are broadly grouped into

(a) Rock forming minerals ( constitute a rock ) and

Minerals are extremely important economically, aesthetically, industrially and

Economically, utilization of minerals is necessary to maintain anything for

Aesthetically, minerals of diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald shine as gems

attention of millions of people.

All the minerals are grouped into 8 classes:

Silicate classification for most silicate minerals is based on the types of

1. NESOSILICATES: ( independent tetrahedral groups ): in this group SiO4

One silicon – oxygen tetrahedron

Eg: Olivine family;

Aluminum silicate family ( kyanite , sillimanite; Andalusite )

OLIVINES are nesosilicates in atomic structure with the general formula

Fayalite ( Fe2 SiO4 )

Olivine (Mg Fe)2 SiO4

3 Mg2 SiO2 + H2O + SiO2 2 Mg3 Si2O5 (OH)4

ANDALUSITE formed under high temperature & low stress conditions of

SILLIMANITE formed under high temperature & high stress conditions of

KYANITE formed under moderate temperature and high stress conditions of

This family is also belonging to nesosilicates and consist of the following

Grossular Ca3 Al2 (SiO4)3

Spessartite Mn3 Al2 (SiO4)3

Occurrence: Gneisses, Kyanite Schists; Syenites etc

Uses: used as abrasive in the polishing of wood and as a gemstone.

(Si : O : : 2 : 7) Two silicon – oxygen tetrahedron

Epidote family consists of Zoisite .. Ca2 Al3 (SiO4)3 OH

Melilite …. Ca2 Mg Si2O7

Idocrase .. Ca10 Al4 (Mg,Fe)2 (Si2O7) (SiO4)5 (OH)4

SINGLE CHAIN SILICATES Si : O : : 1 : 3

In this group of minerals, SiO4 tetrahedra occur as chains resulting in more

Pyroxens Composition Occurs in

Varieties: Diallage is a variety of augite which in hand-specimen appears as

Occurrence: augite occurs as short prismatic crystals in volcanic rocks,

DOUBLE CHAIN SILICATES Si : O : : 4 : 11

Amphiboles Composition Occurs in

HORNBLENDE: It is a silicate of aluminium, calcium, magnesium and iron

Varieties: Edenite is a light coloured hornblende poor in iron where as

Occurrence: It occurs as a primary mineral in acid and intermediate igneous

hornblendite and common in metamorphic rocks of hornblende – gneisses,

hornblende schists and amphibolites.

The commercial asbestos include the following fibrous minerals:

CHRYSOTILE (fibrous serpentine of hydrous magnesium silicate with a

AMOSITE (fibrous anthophyllite of magnesium iron silicate with a composition of

CROCIDOLITE ( a fibrous soda amphibole which is a variety of Riebeckite,

ASBESTOS DEPOSITS OF INDIA: Most of the Indian asbestos deposits belong

GENESIS OF ASBESTOS: Three main factors are responsible for the

6. Used as a refractory material by mixing asbestos powdered with Magnesite

In this group of minerals, 3 or 4 or 6 tetrahedra occur in ring form.

Eg for 3 tetrahedra : Bentonite ( Ba Ti Si3 O9 )

Eg for 4 tetrahedra : Axinite Ca2 (Fe,Mn) Al2 (BO3) (Si4O12) (OH)

Varieties: Rubellite --- red or pink in color.

Indicolite --- Indigo – blue color

Brazilian emerald --green in color ( transparent )