asphalt, black or brown petroleum-like material that has a consistency varying from

viscous liquid to glassy solid. It is obtained either as a residue from

the distillation of petroleum or from natural deposits. Asphalt consists of compounds of
hydrogen and carbon with minor proportions of nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen. Natural
asphalt (also called brea), which is believed to be formed during an early stage in the
breakdown of organic marine deposits into petroleum, characteristically contains
minerals, while residual petroleum asphalt does not.

atmosphere, the gas and aerosol envelope that extends from the ocean, land, and ice-

covered surface of a planet outward into space. The density of the atmosphere decreases
outward, because the gravitational attraction of the planet, which pulls the gases and
aerosols (microscopic suspended particles of dust, soot, smoke, or chemicals) inward, is
greatest close to the surface. Atmospheres of some planetary bodies, such as Mercury,
are almost nonexistent, as the primordial atmosphere has escaped the relatively low
gravitational attraction of the planet and has been released into space. Other planets,
such as Venus, Earth, Mars, and the giant outer planets of the solar system, have
retained an atmosphere. In addition, Earth’s atmosphere has been able to
contain water in each of its three phases (solid, liquid, and gas), which has been
essential for the development of life on the planet.

The evolution of Earth’s current atmosphere is not completely understood. It is thought

that the current atmosphere resulted from a gradual release of gases both from the
planet’s interior and from the metabolic activities of life-forms—as opposed to the
primordial atmosphere, which developed by outgassing (venting) during the original
formation of the planet. Current volcanic gaseous emissions include water vapour
(H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), carbon
monoxide (CO), chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), and diatomic nitrogen (N2; consisting of two
atoms in a single molecule), as well as traces of other substances. Approximately 85
percent of volcanic emissions are in the form of water vapour. In contrast, carbon
dioxide is about 10 percent of the effluent.

During the early evolution of the atmosphere on Earth, water must have been able to
exist as a liquid, since the oceans have been present for at least three billion years. Given
that solar output four billion years ago was only about 60 percent of what it is
today, enhanced levels of carbon dioxide and perhaps ammonia (NH3) must have been
present in order to retard the loss of infrared radiation into space. The initial life-forms
that evolved in this environment must have been anaerobic (i.e., surviving in the
absence of oxygen). In addition, they must have been able to resist the biologically
destructive ultraviolet radiation in sunlight, which was not absorbed by a layer
of ozone as it is now.