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Psychology in English. The teacher's book.

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G. Hovhannisyan, S. Grigorian, H. Tatevian

PSYCHOLOGY IN ENGLISH

A CLIL Reader for University Students

THE TEACHER’S BOOK

Yerevan 2012
1
 Ձեռնարկը հասցեագրված է “Psychology in English” -
“Հոգեբանությունն անգլերենով” դասագրքերի համալիրով աշխատող
դասախոսներին: Դրանում տեղ են գտել բովանդակության և լեզվի
ինտեգրված ուսուցման մեթոդական արդի հայեցակարգերը,
դասախոսի և ուսանողի կառուցողական համագործակցման համար
անհրաժեշտ ցուցումներ, ինչպես նաև լեզվական իրազեկությունների
համաեվրոպական համակարգի հիմնական դրույթների կիրառական
մեկնաբանություններ: Ձեռնարկը ներառում է մեթոդական
ցուցումներ, ուսուցման կազմակերպման գործիքներ և
տեղեկություններ: Տերմինաբանական բառարանը նախատեսված է
ինչպես դասախոսների, այնպես էլ ուսանողների օգտագործման
համար: Լինելով ուսումնական փաթեթի գործածությունն ապահովող
ուղեցույց, ձեռնարկը ապահովում է բակալավրիատի ուսումնական
ծրագրերին անհրաժեշտ մի քանի գործոններ` գիտելիքների և
հաղորդակցական կարողությունների կառուցողականություն,
ինտեգրում և շարունակականություն:

2
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION4
CLIL IN ”PSYCHOLOGY IN ENGLISH”7
HOW TO PLAN A CLIL LESSON12
READING ACTIVITIES16
LANGUAGE AND CONTENT INTEGRATED CASE STUDY30
ABOUT THE AUTHORS43
GLOSSARY58
SUGGESTED READING IN ESP114
SUGGESTED READING IN PSYCHOLOGY114
REFERENCES122

3
 INTRODUCTION

Over the past few decades, language teachers and applied linguists have
shown a great deal of interest in content-based approach to language learning
and teaching mainly because of pedagogical concerns. This has been on the one
hand due to the need in motivating the non-native students to language study
and on the other to enhance their ability to independently collect broad
academic and scientific information for their own educational needs, to be able
to communicate in their professional sphere using subject specific language:
terminology, phrases and constructions particularly in English. Another issue is
the acquisition of learning-teaching materials according to the level of students’
language mastery and asses the learning outcomes in students according to
unified assessment standards.

CLIL Objectives

The idea of including content of a subject under study into a language

classroom was introduced in the 1970s by Hutchinson and Waters, the founders
of the ESP approach. They stated that the content of a subject, for example
economics or management, should be used for teaching a foreign language. The
focus however remained on the language. The idea of “natural” language
acquisition promoted by S.Krashen supported the approach as it was claimed
that the best way to learn a language was by using it for “meaningful” purposes.
The CLIL (content and language integrated learning) approach builds on and
brings the two ideas even further.

The term CLIL was launched in 1996 by UNICOM, University of

Jyvaskyla and the European Platform for Dutch Education. There are several
4
definitions of the term offered by its promoters: “CLIL refers to situations
where subjects, or parts of subjects, are taught through a foreign language with
dual focused aims, namely the learning of content and the simultaneous
learning of a foreign language.” (Marsh, 1994). “CLIL is an educational
approach in which non-language subjects are taught through a foreign, second
or other additional language.” (Marsh, 2001). According to the authors, this is
the generic “umbrella” term, which includes a range of educational approaches
where non-linguistic content is used to teach a language. They claim that it is a
very effective way of learning a language as provides the learners with
“comprehensible” (Krashen, 1981) input and authentic situations.
The following definitions articulate the concept of Content and Language
Integrated Learning (CLIL). CLIL is a dual-focused educational approach in
which an additional language is used for the learning and teaching of both
content and language (CCN 2008). Content and Language Integrated Learning
(CLIL) involves teaching a curricular subject through the medium of a
language other than that normally used.
The above definition is methodological rather than pedagogical in the
sense that it refers to the use of an additional language in teaching, which is
expected in the face of the short history of CLIL teaching in Europe and
consequent shortage of long-term research related to learning outcomes of the
method. However, the results of the research and the experiences accumulated
so far have been positive and the experience of the CLIL method is primarily
positive.
(http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/languageteaching/
doc236_en.htm)
‘CLIL induces the learner to be more cognitively active during the
learning process’, Van de Craen, P, Mondt, K, Allain, L and Gao, Y (2008)
Why and How CLIL Works.
5
 Available at http://www.univie.ac.at/Anglistik/ViewS (Accessed 26 April
2008)
It has been found that content and language integrated instruction builds
intercultural knowledge and understanding develops intercultural
communication skills improves language competence and oral communication
skills develops multilingual interests and attitudes provides opportunities to
study content through different perspectives allows learners more contact with
the target language does not require extra teaching hours complements other
subjects rather than competes with them diversifies methods and forms of
classroom practice increases learners' motivation and confidence in both the
language and the subject being taught.
http://ec.europa.eu/education/languages/language-teaching/doc236_en.htm

The ultimate goal of CLIL is achieving

- grade-appropriate levels of academic achievement in subjects;

- grade-appropriate functional proficiency in the four basic language
skills;
- an understanding/appreciation of the cultures associated with the CLIL
subjects;
- cognitive and social skills and habits required for success in the world.

Overall aim: supporting the holistic development of learners.

6
 CLIL IN ”PSYCHOLOGY IN ENGLISH”

Multiple focus: Scaffolding: Authenticity:

 Supporting language  Building on students’  Building on students’

learning in non-language existing knowledge, skills, existing ‘knowledge
classes interests and of
 Supporting content learning experience the world’
in language classes  Repackaging  Building a bridge
 Integrating several subjects nowledge/info between CLIL
 Organising learning through  Fostering creative thinking subjects
cross curricular (synthetising, evaluating and students’ own
themes/projects and lives
 Integrating cultural content applying knowledge and  Using current
into all subjects skills materials
acquired in several subjects) from the media and
 Challenging students to take other sources
further steps forward

CLIL is supported by another modern principle of learning –

consolidation of learning units: this means that CLIL does not focus on separate
language exercises but induces language activities through communication of
meaningful cognitive units. Thus, do not concentrate on pure language
exercises, especially if you have to consider time limitations in you lesson and
syllabus planning.
The aim of the “Psychology in English” CLIL complex is to provide the
students specializing in Psychology with authentic texts extracted from various
research articles, monographs and conference papers devoted to the

7
contemporary problems of Psychology. The teachers’ book provides the
teachers with a toolkit for a successful CLIL syllabus and teaching. The ideal
ready-made materials required for this are the following:
 A CLIL course book or a graded reader (you have the 3 volumes
of “Psychology in English”).
 A Teacher’s handbook and a substantial offering of worksheets
and delivery ideas.
 Technology such as videos and other supplementary materials,
such as the internet, books et c.

8
 Psychology in English
(volumes B1, B2, C1)

The 3 volumes of “Psychology in English” are prepared for a skills-based

communicative English language course taught specifically to students of
psychology who have a starting B1 English proficiency level and are taking a
number of courses in Psychology in their tertiary level studies. The texts in
each of the volumes are carefully graded according to the Common reference
levels of the European Framework of Reference for Languages. The reading
texts are taken from various branches of Psychology. Each volume provides
materials for a semester with 3 modules each, graded from B1 to C1. They
provide reading and discussion practice and progression in the key academic
skills that all students need, such as listening to lectures, speaking in seminars,
writing analytical reports and summaries. It also equips students with the
specialist language they need to construct and communicate knowledge in
psychology. Each of the volumes has an appended language level description,
which will help the students reflect over their aims and achievements.
Pre-reading and post-reading questions and activities are aimed at
initiating active learning environment and cooperative atmosphere. More on
this the teachers can find in the Teachers’ book.
Text and assignment pages and assignments for additional activities
arranged in a photocopier -friendly design so that the students can easily use the
volumes both as readers and work-books. There is also a focus throughout on
the key psychology vocabulary that students will need. The language and
content integration requires that the subject specific vocabulary is rendered in
through communicative vs. cognitive activities, i.e. the assignments focus not
only on language but, what is crucial for CLIL, on content and its
communication.
9
 In this respect the interactive learning methods should be activated in a
CLIL teacher’s teaching toolkit. There is a hypothesis (Hatch, 1978a; Long,
1981) highlights the role of social interaction in increasing the amount of
comprehensible input that students receive. This interaction includes students
asking for help when they do not understand input. Perhaps, the collaborative
setting in groups and the trust that can grow among groupmates make it more
likely that students will have opportunities to repair comprehension
breakdowns. claiming that

The Teacher's Book includes:

1. Comprehensive teaching notes and worksheets on lesson planning, to

help teachers prepare effective lessons.
2. Description of pre-reading, active reading and post-reading activities
and exercises.
3. The step-by-step description of language and content integrated case
study method application. The language case study is suggested to
those teachers who prefer to dispose their students to more creativity
and learning responsibility. The assessment and evaluation ideas, as
well as the reading assignments will help teachers organize a high
degree of independent student performance, team work and complex
self- and peer- assessment activities, which ensure a quality feedback
opportunity.
4. A glossary of psychological terms in English, Russian and Armenian,
as well as their English definitions. These terms will be of great use
for both the teachers in pre-reading activities, and the students for
comprehension task performance.

10
5. The Self-Assessment Grid of Common Reference Levels, which will
provide diagnostic support in the course of formative and self-
assessment, guide and help to plan the learning process. The teachers
can use it after student self assessment activities offering them a
reflective discussion.
6. Biographical data of the most eminent authors of the selected texts,
which the students will need during their study. This is part of the
background knowledge needed for discussion topics and pre-reading
activities. For more details about these activities please see below.
7. A complete list of source books in ESP and Psychology is given for
further reading and improving reading and debate skills which are to
be developed at home and in class activities.

11
 HOW TO PLAN A CLIL LESSON

Systematic approach to developing academic skills through relevant

content.
Focus on professional literacy skills (reading and writing) to activate
productive skills (writing and speaking) in the given subject area.

Lesson Plan Sheet

You can arrange these items in a template, list or whatever form you find
suitable for usage.

Your Name
Date
Grade Level:
Subject:
Objectives and Goals:
Anticipatory Set (approximate time):
Direct Instruction (approximate time):
Guided Practice (approximate time):
Closure (approximate time):
Independent Practice:
Required Materials and Equipment:
Assessment and Follow-Up:

12
Lesson Feedback: Planned Objectives

It is equally important to find out to which extent the planned objectives have
been supported by lesson delivery?(1(poor)-2-3-4-5(excellent))

Content objectives Language objectives Thinking skills

Was the input
comprehensible?
Was the lesson content
linked to the past learning?
Was it linked to the
background?
Which communicative
skills have been involved?
Has the focused vocabulary
been used? By the teacher?
By the learners?
Have the focused structures
been used? By the teacher?
By the learners?
Which were cognitive
objectives involved?
What was the actual
progression? Have the
lesson objectives globally
been reached? To which
extent? (1– 2– 3– 4– 5)

II. Lesson Supporting

The following five components make up the overall evaluation of the CLIL
lesson.

1.Background
Was the background provided effective? Remarks about (level of effectiveness
about…)
- links to the past experience:
- vocabulary
- experience provided
- conceptual framework

2. Scaffolding Learners’ engagement

Which techniques have effectively been
used?
Instructional scaffolding
Graphic organizers, pictures
Verbal scaffolding
Questioning, paraphrasing, reinforcing
definitions
How actively engaged were the learners?
Did they have opportunities to use the
target language?
Interaction. Did they interact with the
teacher? All of them?
Interaction 2. Did they interact with
each other? All of them? In which

13
 Procedural scaffolding:- Explicit language (FL
teaching or mother tongue?)
- Modelling; - Practicing; - Applying
Practice / class management: - The
whole class (brainstorming); - Small
groups; - Partners; - Individuals
(Independent work)
Pacing of the lesson Conclusion
How long were learners involved in Were the lesson objectives globally
“academic” learning? reached? To which extent?
Was the timing of the lesson realistic? If
not, what was the difference between the
time
planned and the time spent on the activity?
Why?
Was the lesson pace adequate to the whole
class?
Did it take into account different learners’
abilities?

A Few CL Techniques

More than 100 CL techniques have been developed (see Jacobs, Power, & Loh,
2002; Kagan, 1994; Sharan, 1994 and the websites in the appendices to learn
more of these). Below, three simple CL are described.

1. Circle of Speakers
a. In groups of 2-4, students take turns to speak. Several such rotating turns can
be taken.
b. Students listen as their partner(s) speak and perhaps take notes, ask
questions, or give feedback.
c. The teacher randomly chooses some students and asks them to tell the class
what their partner(s) said.
d. This technique can also be done with students taking turns to write, or they
can write and speak at each turn.

14
2. Write-Pair-Switch
a. Each student works alone to write answers.
b. In pairs, students share answers.
c. Students switch partners and share their former partner’s ideas with their new
partner.

3. Question-and-Answer Pairs
a. Ss work alone to write one or more questions.
b. They write answers to their questions on a separate sheet of paper.
c. Ss exchange questions but not answers.
d. After Ss have answered their partner’s questions, they compare answers.

15
 READING ACTIVITIES

Prereading Strategies

Overviews

Discussing information about the selection or assignment prior to reading

must take place. This may take the form of class discussions, printed previews,
photographs, outlines, or films. Never give an assignment before this step has
been completed. Spend enough time before the students begin the assignment
to insure understanding of it.

Vocabulary Previews

Unfamiliar key words need to be taught to students before reading so that

new words, ackground information, and comprehension can improve together.
List all words in the assignment that may be important for students to
understand. Arrange words to show the relationships to the learning task. Add
words students probably already understand to connect relationships between
what is known and the unknown. Share information with students. Verbally
quiz them on the information before assigned reading begins.

Structural Organizers

Before reading an assignment, basic frameworks which are included in the

text should be ointed out such as cause-effect or problem-solution. It can be
beneficial to call attention to specific lans of paragraph or text organization

16
such as signal words, main idea sentences, highlighted phrases, headings and
subtitles. A review of skimming techniques might also be appropriate as these
various areas are covered.

A Purpose for Reading

When students have a purpose for reading a selection, they find that
purpose not only directs their reading towards a goal, but helps to focus their
attention. Purposes may come from teacher directed questions, questions from
class discussions or brainstorming, or from the individual student. Along with
the question, it is a good idea to pose predictions of the outcome and problems
which need ot be solved. These may be generated by the student or the teacher,
but the teacher should use these to guide students in the needed direction for the
assigned selection.

Author Consideration

Depending upon the content area, a discussion of the author of the

particular work can be helpful to the understanding of it. What is the author
trying to say? What is his point of view and his reason for writing the
particular work?

17
B. Active Reading Strategies
(Outlining, Paraphrasing, Summarizing).

Outlining

Outlining helps students see main ideas, supportive ideas, and

interrelationships among them. Ideas for outlining include:
List four of six main points of an assignment leaving blank lines for the
two the students must discover on their own.
Provide all supporting points of an assignment leaving the main points for
the students to figure out.
Have students identify key points in an assignment. Copy these onto small
pieces of paper and arrange the pieces in order.
Have students draw a pyramid with key ideas at the top and subordinate
ideas below.
Have students copy main and subordinate ideas onto a large sheet and
connect these with lines indicating degrees of subordination.

Paraphrasing

Readers seldom understand something until they can put it into words
themselves.
Have students identify passages that might present comprehension
difficulties for them and ask them either in groups or individually to paraphrase
that section of the assignment.
Have students get into groups to share their individual paraphrases noting
similarities and differences with other students.

18
Summarizing

Written summaries help teachers discover how much students have

comprehended on an assignment. When students know they are to summarize
assignments, they tend to be more focused and active as they read the
assignment.
It is important to let student know what you will be looking for in an
assignment:
main ideas
supportive details
sequence/chronological order
author's purpose for writing

C. Post Reading Activities

We retain information more easily if we use it. There are many

activities that will refine, enrich, and heighten interest in the assigned
topic; however, the primary goal of the post reading phase is to further
develop and clarify interpretations of the text, and to help students
remember what they have individually created in their minds from the
text.

Four types of post reading activities may be used:

those that provide the chance for students to ask questions concerning
their assignments
those that focus on text structure
those that involve classroom and peer review
extension activities which extend learning.
19
Discuss and Respond

Discuss and respond strategies help clarify ideas and concepts for students.
Modeling the actual thinking process for students can be beneficial in showing
them how individuals reach conclusions and the process the mind goes through
to achieve this.

Strategies include:
follow up
discussions
graphic organizers
three levels guide
guided reading and discussion

Follow Up

Many times teachers set up useful pre and active reading strategies but do not
follow up on them. Following up in the post reading phase is critical to
comprehension. Students should have ample time to share and discuss the work
they have completed. This enables the students to tie up loose ends, answer
any remaining questions, and to understand the interrelationships of topics
covered.

Discussions

When readers are called on to communicate the ideas they have read, it is then
that they learn to conceptualize and discover what meaning the assignment has
to them. Give students enough discussion time - either in groups or as a class.
20
The students must have special opportunities to orally discuss their conclusions.
Some of the ways to do this would include:
Students can pretend to be television reporters with two minutes to sum up the
highlights of the "story."
Have students list the five main ideas of the assignment beginning with the
most important to the least.
A discussion with the students in small groups or as a class covering the ideas:
Who did what? When? Where? Why? How?
Have a student become the "teacher" and explain what was covered in class
with a student who was absent.
The students can take specific sides of a topic and debate an issue.

Graphic Organizers

Semantic maps are most appropriate for content area subjects. Semantic maps
include:

Thematic maps describe details of text material

Comparative-contrastive maps compare or contrasts groups or events
Sequential maps show time order or chronological order
Classification maps point out relationships among concepts.

Here are some of them to be applied to the texts as tools for analysis and
discussion.

21
22
 Synectics (Gordon, 1961) provides an approach to creative thinking that
depends on looking at, what appears on the surface as, unrelated phenomenon
and drawing relevant connections. Its main tools, analogies or metaphors. The
approach, often used in groupwork, can help students develop creative
responses to problem solving, to retain new information, to assist in generating
writing, and to explore social and disciplinary problems. It helps users break
23
existing minds sets and internalize abstract concepts. Synectics works well with
all ages as well as those who withdraw from traditional methods (Couch, 1993).

Teacher-facilitators use synectics in the classroom by leading students

through a process which results in a three dimensional view of the "problem" in
order to create solutions. Although this process appears a bit cumbersome, the
resultant scope and depth of your options will justify the time spent.
When using synectics to define a person, appropriate for self evaluation,
focus your questions on the areas of physical attributes, skills, interests,
personality traits, attitudes, and emotional states.

Create direct analogies: What words have the same or similar meaning?
(use a Thesaurus or book of synonyms)

Describe personal analogies: What would it feel like to have the

characteristics or traits of…? (describe emotions and physical attributes)

Identify compressed conflicts: What words have the opposite meaning or

characteristics? (use a book of antonyms)

Create a new direct analogy: What words have the same or similar
meaning?

Three Levels Guide

Using literal, interpretive, and applied statements is recommended when

using three levels comprehension guides.

24
 Follow these steps when constructing a three levels guide:

1. Become familiar with the material. Find the statements that support the
main idea.
2. Develop statements (literal, interpretive, and applied).
3. Write one distracter statement at each level.
4. After reading the selection, students should check off statement that
they can support based on evidence they have found in their reading.
5. After responding individually to the three levels guide, students should
meet in small groups and develop a group statement.

Students will gain greater understanding of thinking at these levels as they

use the three level guides.

Text Structure

The way written material is organized is referred to as text structure. Students

must be able to identify key words and organizational patterns. They must also
be able to locate main ideas and supporting details. Authors of content area
textbooks use four basic organizational patterns:

time order (sequence)

comparison/contrast
cause/effect
listing order

25
A better understanding and awareness of text structures will greatly improve
students' comprehension. Crawley and Mountain suggest the following key
words (refer to Strategies for Guiding Content Reading, 1995)

Organizational Pattern Key Words

Time order after, at the same time, before, finally, following, in the
first place, last, later, meanwhile, not long after, now,
on, previously, when

Comparison/contrast
as well as, but, but also, by contrast, conversely,
either/or, even if, even though, however, in contrast, in
spite of, instead, not only, on the other hand, opposed
to, to the contrary, unless, yet

Cause/effect as a result of, because, consequently, if/then,

nevertheless, since, therefore, this led to

Listing/enumeration and, first, second, finally, I must add, in addition, in

addition, next, not only, others, specifically, then…

Skimming: Skimming is a valuable technique in studying textbooks. It

involves searching for main ideas, noting the organizational cues used by the
author, and running your eyes down the page as you look for specific facts or
key words and phrases. Teachers should model how this is done and verbally
walk students through the process.

Guided Reading

The following steps are recommended for this discussion-centered strategy:

26
Present a reading assignment to your class.
When students have completed the reading assignment, divide them into groups
of three or four.
Assign one student to record what group members say.
Each member has approximately three minutes to state the major ideas or
points about the assignment.
The group recorder orally shares the group's ideas with the class. The teacher
writes what is said on the board. The recorders should only present information
not already given by another group.
The teacher should correct inaccurate information and help students to organize
and sequence information. Also, have students eliminate unimportant details
and fill in missing points.

Team Review

Students understand more when they discuss with each other what they have
learned. In team review, students review material already studied and share
their knowledge with other students.
Summarizing: Summarizing enables students to:
identify writer's main ideas
recognize the purpose or intent of the selection
distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information
note the evidence for support of main ideas
detect the organizational pattern of the author
follow material sequentially

27
Summarizing Strategies:

Have the students write the "Reader's Digest" condensed version of their
assignment. These are beneficial when used as text reviews because students
must be able to condense all the material they've studied into the most relevant
information.
Formal summary papers may be written. These papers should include the
writer's purpose, main points, point of view, and sequence of events.
Students can share, compare, and discuss individual summaries in groups
or as a class. Many times discussions will lead to observations of opposite
interpretations which students have not previously recognized.
Newspaper articles or magazine articles can be written. Have students
write headlines to capture the reader's attention. They should include the same
information in their articles or magazines which they have observed in actual
newspapers or magazines.
The above articles could be used to create a class newspaper or magazine
that could be distributed throughout the school or simply left in the library for
students to read.
Students can write a persuasive paper. For this assignment the students
need to keep in mind their audience and who they are trying to persuade.
Encourage them to use enough evidence to support their ideas.
Have students use their persuasive papers and debate their topic. Assign
another class member to take the opposing view of the topic.
A fun and different approach to ensure the understanding of a topic is to
have students write a "directions" paper. For this they compose a "How to"
paper. They must take the insight they have gained about the topic and
specifically list the steps of how to do something, make something, or list the

28
order things are put together so that someone with no previous knowledge
could perform the task.

Add-on Information:

This strategy is not only useful as a review, but greatly improves listening
skills. The entire class adds to existing information in this exercise. Student 1
recalls a piece of information. Student 2 repeats that information and adds
another piece of information. Student 3 repeats what was given by 1 and 2 and
adds a third piece of information. This continues until all class members have
had an opportunity to contribute.

29
 LANGUAGE AND CONTENT INTEGRATED CASE STUDY

The Case Study Method

The case method is an active learning method, which requires

participation and involvement from the student in the classroom. For students
who have been exposed only to the traditional teaching methods, this calls for a
major change in their approach to learning.

What is a Case Study?

There is no universally accepted definition for a case study, and the case
method means different things to different people. Consequently, all case
studies are not structured similarly, and variations abound in terms of style,
structure and approach. Case material ranges from small caselets (a few
paragraphs to one-two pages) to short cases (four to six pages) and from 10 to
18 page case studies to the longer versions (25 pages and above).
A case is usually a "description of an actual situation, commonly
involving a decision, a challenge, an opportunity, a problem or an issue faced
by a person or persons in an organization."1 In learning with case studies, the
student must deal with the situation described in the case, in the role of the
manager or decision maker facing the situation.
An important point to be emphasized here is that a case is not a problem.
A problem usually has a unique, correct solution. On the other hand, a decision-
maker faced with the situation described in a case can choose between several
alternative courses of action, and each of these alternatives may plausibly be

30
supported by logical argument. To put it simply, there is no unique, correct
answer in the case study method.
The case study method usually involves three stages: individual
preparation, small group discussion, and large group or class discussion. While
both the instructor and the student start with the same information, their roles
are clearly different in each of these stages.

Case Studies in the Classroom

Case studies are usually discussed in class, in a large group. However,

sometimes, instructors may require individuals or groups of students to provide
a written analysis of a case study, or make an oral presentation on the case
study in the classroom.

31
Preparing for a Case Discussion

Unlike lecture-based teaching, the case method requires intensive

preparation by the students, before each class. If a case has been assigned for
discussion in the class, the student must prepare carefully and thoroughly for
the case discussion.
The first step in this preparation is to read the case thoroughly. To grasp
the situation described in a case study, the student will need to read it several
times. The first reading of the case can be a light one, to get a broad idea of the
story. The subsequent readings must be more focused, to help the student
become familiar with the who, what, where, why and how of the case.
Broadly speaking, the different stages in the case analysis process could
be as follows :
1. Gaining familiarity with the case situation (critical case facts,
persons, activities, contexts)
2. Recognizing the symptoms (what are the things that are not as
expected, or as they should be?)
3. Identifying goals/objectives
4. Conducting the analysis
5. Making the diagnosis (identifying problems, i.e., discrepancies
between goals and performance, prioritizing problems etc.)
6. Preparing the action plan (identifying feasible action alternatives,
selecting a course of action, implementation planning, plan for
monitoring implementation)

32
Components of a Situation Analysis

1. Corporate level situation 2. - Market analysis 3. Summary

analysis - Describe the product- - Assess performance
- Corporate mission and market structure (identification of
objectives - Find out who buys symptoms)
- Resources and - Assess why buyers buy - Define problems and
competencies - Determine how buyers opportunities
- Environmental problems make choices
and opportunities - Competitive analysis
- Social-cultural - Identify direct competitors
- Economic - Assess intensity of
- Technological competition
- Legal and regulatory - Profitability and
- Competition productivity analysis
- Portfolio analysis - Determine the cost
structure

Case Discussions in the Classroom

A classroom case discussion is usually guided by the instructor. Students

are expected to participate in the discussion and present their views. In some
cases, the instructor may adopt a particular view, and challenge the students to
respond. During the discussion, while a student presents his point of view,
others may question or challenge him. Case instructors usually encourage
innovative ways of looking at and analyzing problems, and arriving at possible
alternatives.
The interaction among students, and between the students and the
instructor, must take place in a constructive and positive manner. Such

33
interactions help to improve the analytical, communication, and interpersonal
skills of the students.
The instructor may ask questions to the class at random about the case
study itself or about the views put forward by an individual student. If a student
has some new insights about the issues at hand, she is usually encouraged to
share them with the class.
Student performance in case discussions is usually evaluated, and is a
significant factor in assessing overall performance in the course. The extent of
participation is never the sole criterion in the evaluation – the quality of the
participation is an equally (or more) important criterion.

Working in a Group

If a group of students is asked to analyze a case, they must ensure that they
meet to discuss and analyze the case, by getting together for a group meeting at
a suitable time and location. Before the meeting, all the team members must
read the case and come with their own set of remarks/observations.

Preparing a Written Case Analysis

An instructor may provide specific guidelines about how the analysis is to
be structured. However, when submitting an analysis, the student must ensure
that it is neat and free from any factual, language and grammar errors. In fact,
this is a requirement for any report that a student may submit – not just a case
analysis.

34
 Making a Case Presentation

The key to a good presentation is good preparation. If the case has been
studied and analyzed thoroughly, the content of the presentation should present
no problems.
However, a presentation is more than the content. Some of points that need
to be kept in mind when making a case presentation are:
• As far as possible, divide the content uniformly so that each team
member gets an opportunity to speak.
• Use visual aids such as slides, Power Point presentations,
advertisement/press clippings etc., as much as possible.
• Be brief and to-the-point. Stick to the time limits set by the
instructor.
• Be well prepared.

Evaluating Student Performance

The evaluation of a student's performance in a case-driven course can be

based on some or all of the following factors:
• Written case analyses (logical flow and structuring of the content,
language and presentation, quality of analysis and recommendations,
etc.).
• Case presentations (communication skills, logical flow and
structuring of the content, quality of analysis and recommendations,
etc.).
• Participation in classroom case discussions (quality and extent of
participation).
• Case writing assignments or similar projects.
• Case-based examinations.
35
Benefits from the Case Method

The case benefit has several advantages over traditional teaching methods.
Some of the advantages of using case studies are given below:
• Cases allow students to learn by doing. They allow students to step
into the shoes of decision-makers in real organizations, and deal with
the issues managers face, with no risk to themselves or the
organization involved.
• Cases improve the students ability to ask the right questions, in a
given problem situation. Their ability to identify and understand the
underlying problems rather than the symptoms of the problems is
also enhanced.
• Case studies expose students to a wide range of industries,
organizations, functions and responsibility levels. This provides
students the flexibility and confidence to deal with a variety of tasks
and responsibilities in their careers. It also helps students to make
more informed decisions about their career choices.
Source: 1993, C. C. Lundberg and C. Enz, 'A framework for student case
preparation', Case Research Journal, 13 (Summer) 134.

Language and Content Integrated Case Process

LCaS s may be integrated into a language course. They serve as a tool to

help learners use the language in a nearly authentic situation. These will be
invited to express their opinions on a specific topic to which no single solution
exists. In a language course one single LCaS may be used or a smaller number
of LCaS – namely, three to four – depending on the objectives of the course.
LCaS can be used, for example, in order to train reading and research skills,
36
group work, presentation skills, competence in speaking and/or in writing, and
also to revise LSP vocabulary and issues.

Steps in delivering a case study

1. Presenting the LCaS to the learners

a. Outlining the problem
b. Allocating the roles
c. Checking for understanding
2. Dividing the learners into small groups
a. Reading the LCaS
b. Understanding the scenario
3. Discussing the issue with the learners
a. Understanding the problems
b. Resolving difficulties
4. Research
a. Understanding LCaS navigation
b. Guided researches
c. Teacher facilitation
5. Evaluating the findings
a. Clarifying the information
b. Weighing up the arguments
6. Preparing to present the solutions
a. Drafting the main points
b. Checking the timing
c. Checking meaning and spelling
d. Providing solutions
7. Group presentation: working from notes
37
a. The group engages with the audience
b. Making the key points
c. Improvising
d. Maintaining eye contact
e. Passing on to the next speaker
8. Group presentation: using visual aids
a. Using OHPs
b. The strength of MS PowerPoint
c. Answering questions
9. Plenary: groups search for a solution to the LCaS
a. Taking turns
b. Developing tolerance
c. Exchanging ideas
d. Exploring compromise
10. Giving and receiving feedback
a. Listening to others
b. Self-assessment
c. Being positive
11. Self and peer assessment: watching the recordings
a. Finding areas for improvement
b. Looking at body language in detail
12. Reflections on LCaS work
a. What went well
b. What presented difficulties
c. Ideas for the future
d. What was learned
Of course, these stages are examples and depending on the objectives of the
course and the level of competences – both linguistic and meta-linguistic –
38
certain aspects may need more attention than others in each individual group.
When using a case study in class the teacher has to pay particular attention to:
 time management (for example, how to include the case studies in a
semester/weekly program; how to plan a syllabus);
 lesson planning (for example, how to include case study work in the
hourly allocation for lessons; how to present a varied set of activities;
how to divide work between class work and homework; how to allow
for the unexpected);
 explaining a task to students (for example, how to check for
understanding; how to use clear terms and language; how to answer
questions; how to elicit questions);
 organizing pair work (for example, understanding class dynamics;
understanding complementary skills; getting response; how not to
dominate);
 organizing groups (for example, understanding the benefits of group
work, exploiting groups, making productive grouping, learning to
stand back, eliciting feedback, understanding noise);
 preparing students to present (for example, providing examples,
providing language, impromptu presentations, short presentations,
changing text to spoken language, explaining psychology);
 planning and filming presentations (for example, overcoming
technophobia, using the technology, planning technical details, timing
a sequence of presentations, using film tips);
 organizing writing classes (for example, providing models to copy,
providing short response tasks, organizing ideas, teaching register,
combining reading and writing).

39
Steps in Planning a Case Study

The following advice was presented to teachers who needed to know where to
start in their preparation: materials or problem.
When developing a case study, the teacher should therefore consider a series of
aspects during the planning stages.
1. What language skills do you want your students to practise according to
your syllabus, your assessment rules and their level of competence?
2. With case studies you can achieve the following learning outcomes for
written work: for example, reports, formal correspondence, charts, tables
and analysis, and memos and emails.
3. With case studies you can achieve the following learning outcomes for
oral work: for example, group discussion, pair work and presentations.
4. You can split the work into stages that fit into the hours available, for
example, four two-hour sessions, four two-hour sessions and homework,
or six two-hour sessions.
5. You can decide which method of instruction you want to use: instruction
in the computer laboratory, explanation in class and some sessions in the
laboratory, explanation in class and work on paper only, or students
work on their own in the laboratory.
6. You then choose a broad theme or topic (for example, health, tourism,
popular music, climate change) that the students are interested in. Then
narrow the theme to suit their ability and their field of study.
7. Then look for a problem in this area and collect material on the case. So,
now, you have your raw material.
8. You can write your scenario or description of the case. You may also
consult a subject-area specialist to see if your tasks are relevant to the
students’ studies.

40
9. Then you can plan your method of instruction.
10. This will fit into your course schedule and plan how long you want to
spend in class and as homework.
11. You can write what products you want (for example, a discussion, tables
or statistics, a report, a poster, letters, a presentation, etc.).
12. Finally, you can evaluate your learning outcomes and plan your
assessment.
The main problem in developing case studies is for language teachers to
work with authentic problems, as we discovered during the LCaS training
workshops: language teachers tend to develop global simulations or project
work, where they can avoid “dealing with problems”, as problems are
considered to be something negative in language teaching. On the other hand,
the learners are very positive about LCaS work, where they can help and
develop solutions to existing, authentic problems; the learners get the
impression of being taking seriously, instead of the usual “games and role
plays”. It is therefore important to use the LCaS checklist in order to make sure
that the final product is a language case study.

Characteristics of a Good LCaS

A good case study normally shows the following characteristics:

 not only the case – the problem – but also the texts and the tasks are
authentic;
the case is of interest for the learner;
 the topic is stimulating, controversial and complex;
 it is a new topic for the learners (otherwise, they will not consult the
reading and listening material of the case study);

41
Designing a Language Case Study Step by Step

Going back to the ideas the users sketched in Module 4 (or if students come up
with new ones), they are now invited to expand them into a real case study. For
this, users are guided step by step towards the final version:
Step 1 – Background: language skills, learning competences, social training;
Step 2 – Deciding on the outcomes;
Step 3 – Time plan;
Step 4 – Choosing a topic (for example, from Module 4);
Step 5 – Researching material (remembering the suggestions made in Module
5);
Step 6 – Writing a scenario;
Step 7 – Task description and time management.

Source: A Handbook on LCaS – Language case studies. Teacher training

modules on the use of case studies in language teaching at secondary and
university level. Edited by Johann Fischer, Etain Casey, Ana Margarida,
Abrantes Elke Gigl, Marija Lešnik, Graz, 2008.

42
 ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Allport G.W.

Gordon Willard Allport (November 11, 1897 – October 9, 1967) (-

American psychologist).
Allport had a profound influence on the field of psychology and was one
of the founding figures of personality psychology. He rejected both a
psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches to personality, and emphasized the
uniqueness of each individual, and the importance of the present context for
understanding the personality.
Gordon W. Allport was a long time and influential member of the faculty
at Harvard University from 1930-1967. Allport was also a Director of the
Commission for the United Nations Educational Scientific, and Cultural
Organization. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and
Sciences in 1933. Allport was elected President of the American Psychological
Association in 1939. In 1943, he was elected President of the Eastern
Psychological Association. In 1944, he served as President of the Society for
the Psychological Study of Social Issues. In 1963, Allport was awarded the
Gold Medal Award from the American Psychological Foundation. In the
following year, he received the APA's Distinguished Scientific Contribution
Award.

Bandler R.

Richard Wayne Bandler (born February 24, 1950) (- American

psychologist and trainer in the fields of alternative psychology and of self-
help).
43
 Bandler holds a BA (1973) in philosophy and psychology from the
University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) and an MA (1975) in psychology
from Lone Mountain College in San Francisco. Bandler is the co-inventor (with
John Grinder) of Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP). He also developed
other systems, such as Design Human Engineering (DHE) and Neuro Hypnotic
Repatterning (NHR).

Baumrind D.

Diana Blumberg Baumrind (born August 23, 1927) (-American clinical

and developmental psychologist).
Baumrind completed her B.A. in Psychology and Philosophy at Hunter
College in 1948, and her M.A. and Ph.D. in Psychology at the University of
California, Berkeley. After being awarded her doctorate she served as a staff
psychologist at Cowell Memorial Hospital in Berkeley. She was also director of
two U. S. Public Health Service projects and a consultant on a California state
project. From 1958-1960 she had a private practice in BerkeleyShe is a clinical
and developmental psychologist at the Institute of Human Development,
University of California, Berkeley. She is best known for her research on
parenting styles.

Bruner J.S.

Jerome Seymour Bruner (born October 1, 1915) (- American cognitive

and educational psychologist).
Bruner received his B.A. in 1937 from Duke University and his Ph.D.
from Harvard University in 1941 under the guidance of Gordon Allport. He is
currently a senior research fellow at the New York University School of Law.

44
Bruner has contributed to cognitive psychology, cognitive learning theory in
educational psychology, to history and to the general philosophy of education.
Bruner In 1987 he was awarded the Balzan Prize for Human Psychology "for
his research embracing all of the most important problems of human
psychology, in each of which he has made substantial and original
contributions of theoretical as well as practical value for the development of the
psychological faculties of man" (motivation of the Balzan General Prize
Committee).

Coleman J.C.

Dr. John Christopher Coleman (born 1940) (- English psychologist).

Coleman’s primary interest is adolescence. His current research interests
include young people and new technologies, the parenting of adolescents, and
emotional health and well-being and he. Coleman is best known for his
textbook “The nature of adolescence”. He is the Editor of the Routledge series
"Adolescence and society", the Editor of a new John Wiley series called
"Understanding adolescence", and he was also the editor of the Journal of
Adolescence from 1984-2000. In 1989 he founded the Trust for the Study of
Adolescence. He was awarded an OBE in 2001 for services to youth justice. He
is engaged, with others, in the establishment of the Association for Young
People's Health.

Erikson E.H.

Erik Erikson (15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) (- Danish-German-American

developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst).

45
 Although Erikson lacked even a bachelor's degree, he served as a
professor of prominent institutions such as Harvard and Yale. He is best known
for his theory on social development of human beings.

Freud S.

Sigmund Freud (born Sigismund Schlomo Freud; 6 May 1856 – 23

September 1939). (- Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist).
Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis.
Freud initially conducted research in neurology, then under the influence
of Charcot and Breur, treated mental disorders with hypnosis. Developed
(jointly with Breur) the cathartic method of treatment, and then the clinical
method of psychoanalysis for investigating the mind and treating
psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst.
Freud discovered the phenomenon of transference in the therapeutic
relationship and established its central role in the analytic process; he
interpreted dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires.The origins of
psychoanalysis were established in his works The Interpretation of Dreams
(1901) and Three Essays on Sexuality (1905). Freud is best known for his
theories of the unconscious and the mechanism of repression, for establishing
sexual drives as the primary motivational forces of human life and for creating
the psychoanalytic technique. In 1920 Freud revised his theory of instinctual
drives by introducing the death instinct and destructive energy. He was an early
neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic
neuroanatomy, and a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute
to the history, interpretation and critique of culture. Freud wrote and worked
with patients almost until his last days.

46
 Fromm E.S.

Erich Seligmann Fromm (March 23, 1900 – March 18, 1980) (- German-
American social psychologist, psychoanalyst, humanistic philosopher). He was
associated with what became known as the Frankfurt School of critical theory.
Fromm started his academic studies at the University of Frankfurt am
Main (in 1918, jurisprudence), and studied at the University of Heidelberg (in
1919, sociology). He received his Ph.D. in sociology from Heidelberg in 1922.
During the mid 1920s, he was trained to become a psychoanalyst through
Frieda Reichmann's psychoanalytic sanatorium in Heidelberg. He began his
own clinical practice in 1927. In 1930, he joined the Frankfurt Institute for
Social Research and completed his psychoanalytical training. After the Nazi
takeover of power in Germany, Fromm moved to Geneva and then, in 1934, to
Columbia University in New York. Fromm in 1946 co-founded the William
Alanson White Institute of Psychiatry, Psychoanalysis, and Psychology. He
was a professor at the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM)
(1949 - 1965) and established a psychoanalytic section at the medical school
there. He taught as a professor of psychology at Michigan State University
from 1957 to 1961 and as an adjunct professor of psychology at the graduate
division of Arts and Sciences at New York University after 1962. In 1974 he
moved from Mexico City to Muralto, Switzerland, and died at his home in
1980, five days before his eightieth birthday. All the while, Fromm maintained
his own clinical practice and published a series of books.

Grinder J.

John Thomas Grinder, Jr., (born Jan. 10, 1940) (- American linguist,
author, management consultant, trainer and speaker).

47
 Grinder graduated from the University of San Francisco with a degree in
psychology in the early 1960s., then studied linguistics and received his Ph.D.
from the University of California, San Diego in 1971.
Grinder is credited with the co-creation with Richard Bandler of the field
of Neuro-linguistic programming. He is co-director of Quantum Leap Inc., a
management consulting firm founded in 1987 and run workshops and seminars
on NLP internationally.

Janov A.

Arthur Janov (born August 21, 1924) (- American psychologist,

psychotherapist)., and the creator of primal therapy).
Janov received his B.A. and M.S.W. in psychiatric social work from the
University of California, Los Angeles and his Ph.D. in psychology from
Claremont Graduate School in 1960. Janov originally practiced conventional
psychotherapy in his native California. He did an internship at the Hacker
Psychiatric Clinic in Beverly Hills, worked for the Veterans’ Administration at
Brentwood Neuropsychiatric Hospital and has been in private practice since
1952. He was also on the staff of the Psychiatric Department at Los Angeles
Children’s Hospital where he was involved in developing their psychosomatic
unit.
Janov developed primal therapy, a treatment for mental illness that
involves repeatedly descending into, feeling, and expressing long-repressed
childhood pain. Janov directs a psychotherapy institute called the Primal Center
in Santa Monica, California. Janov is the author of many books, most notably
The Primal Scream.
Janov's patients included John Lennon and Yoko Ono.

48
 Jung C.G.

Carl Gustav Jung (26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) (- Swiss psychiatrist and
psychologist).
Jung studied medicine at the University of Basel (1895). In 1900, he
worked in the Burghölzli, a psychiatric hospital in Zurich, with Eugen Bleuler.
From 1906, about six years he collaborated with Sigmund Freud, but their close
friendship was broken on the grounds of theoretical divergence. Later he
founded new area of psychology called an Analytical Psychology. Many
pioneering psychological concepts were originally proposed by Jung, including
the Archetype, the Collective Unconscious, the Complex, and Individuation.
Along with clinical practice Jung spent much of his life exploring Eastern
and Western philosophy (Christianity, Hinduism, Buddhism, Gnosticism,
Taoism), alchemy, astrology, and sociology, as well as literature and the arts;
all of which were extremely productive in regard to the symbols and processes
of the human psyche, found in dreams and other entries to the unconscious.
Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual
purpose beyond material goals. He is often considered the first modern
psychologist to state that the human psyche is "by nature religious" and to
explore it in depth. He was one of most influential thinkers of XX century. Jung
died in 1961 at Küsnacht, after a short illness.

Kagan J.

Jerome Kagan (born 1929) (- American developmental psychologist).

He earned a B.S. Degree from Rutgers University in 1950, Master's
degree from Harvard University and his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1954.
Following the completion of his Ph.D. Kagan spent a year as an instructor in

49
Psychology at Ohio State University. In 1959 he became chairman of the
Psychology Department of Ohio's Fels Institute. He is Daniel and Amy Starch
Research Professor of Psychology, Emeritus at Harvard University, and co-
faculty at the New England Complex Systems Institute.
Kagan is one of the key pioneers of developmental psychology. He won
the Hofheimer Prize of the American Psychiatric Association in 1963. He won
the G. Stanley Hall Award of the American Psychological Association (APA)
in 1995. Kagan was listed as the 22nd most eminent psychologist of the 20th
Century.

Katchadourian H.A.

Herant Katchadourian (- American psychiatrist and psychologist).

Katchadourian is Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry and Human Biology.
He received his undergraduate and medical degrees (with Distinction)
from the American University of Beirut and his special training in psychiatry at
the University of Rochester, New York. Joining the Stanford faculty
Katchadourian become a Professor of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences,
Professor of Human Biology, and Professor of Education (by courtesy) at
Stanford University. He also served as Vice Provost and Dean of
Undergraduate Studies.
He has been selected Outstanding Professor and Class Day speaker five
times by Stanford seniors. He received the Richard W. Lyman Award of the
Stanford Alumni Association. He is a member of the Alpha Omega Alpha
medical honor society.
Katchadourian is a author of numerous world wide known scientific books
and courses. In 1968, he initated one of the first college courses in human
sexuality at a major American university.
50
 Kelley H.

Harold Kelley (February 16, 1921 – January 29, 2003) (- American social
psychologist).
Kelley graduated in psychology from the University of California,
Berkeley and obtained his Ph.D. from MIT. He moved to UCLA in 1961. He
was a professor of psychology at the University of California, Los Angeles.
His most important contributions were in the field of social psychology; -
psychology of personal relationships, attribution theory, interdependence
theory, and social exchange theory (developed in collaboration with John
Thibaut). His works encouraged the examination of topics long ignored in
social psychology such as attraction, love, commitment, power and conflict in
relationships, etc., and gave birth to a new, active International Society for the
Study of Personal Relationships.

May R.

Rollo May (April 21, 1909 – October 22, 1994) (- American existential
psychologist).
May earned his bachelor's degree in Oberlin College and PhD in clinical
psychology in Columbia University (1949). He was a founder and faculty
member of Saybrook Graduate School and Research Center in San Francisco.
May was influenced by American humanism, and interested in reconciling
existential psychology with other philosophies, especially Freud's. He is often
associated with both humanistic psychology and existentialist philosophy.
His first book, The Meaning of Anxiety, was based on his doctoral
dissertation, which in turn was based on his reading of the 19th century

51
philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. During 1969 he authored his influential book
Love and Will. In 1956, he edited the book Existence (with Ernest Angel and
Henri Ellenberger), which helped introduce existential psychology to the US.

McGrath J.E.

Joseph E. McGrath (July 17, 1927 – April 1, 2007) (- American social

psychologist).
He received a B.S. and an M.A. in Psychology at the University of
Maryland in 1950 and 1951, respectively. In 1955 McGrath completed a Ph.D.
in Social Psychology at the University of Michigan. In 1960 McGrath accepted
a visiting position in the Department of Psychology at the University of Illinois
as Research Assistant Professor and Associate Director of the Group
Effectiveness Laboratory. He became an Associate Professor in 1964, a Full
Professor in 1966, and a Professor Emeritus in 1997. McGrath served as Head
of the Psychology Department for five years, from 1971 to 1976. McGrath was
a President of the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (1985–
1986), Executive Council (1979–1982) and Secretary-Treasurer (1980–83) of
the Society of Experimental Social Psychology (SESP).
McGrath was best known for his work on small groups, time, stress, and
research methods and for his excellence in mentoring graduate students.

Rosenhan D.L.

David Rosenhan (born 1933) (- American psychologist).

Rosenhan received MA in 1953 from Columbia University, and PhD
(psychology) in 1958 from Columbia University.

52
 A psychologist by training, David Rosenhan is a leading expert on
psychology and the law. He is a pioneer in the application of psychological
methods to the practice of trial law process, including jury selection and jury
consultation.
Rosenhan is a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science and has been a visiting fellow at Wolfson College at Oxford
University. Before joining the Stanford Law School faculty in 1970, he was a
member of the faculties of Swarthmore College, Princeton University, and
Haverford College. He has also been a research psychologist at Educational
Testing Service and a lecturer at the University of Pennsylvania.Professor
Rosenhan holds a joint appointment with the Stanford University Department
of Psychology.
Rosenhan is the author of one of the most widely read articles in the field
of psychology, “On Being Sane in Insane Places.”

Sanford N.

Nevitt Sanford (1909–1996) (- American psychologist).

Sanford took his first degree at the University of Virginia, then master's at
Columbia University and Ph.D. in psychology from Harvard University. He
joined the staff at Harvard Psychological Clinic in 1935 and in 1940 became
professor of psychology at the University of California at Berkeley. In 1961 he
moved west to become a professor at Stanford. In 1968 he founded the Wright
Institute.
Sanford studied ethnocentrism and antisemitism, the interactions between
social systems and personality, and was one of the authors of The Authoritarian
Personality. Sanford was the single or joint author of approximately 200
academic articles and around 12 books.
53
 Schachter S.

Stanley Schachter (April 15, 1922 – June 7, 1997) (- American

psychologist).
Schachter initially studied Art history at Yale University and then took his
Masters in Psychology. In 1946 Schachter went to MIT to work with the
German social psychologist Kurt Lewin, in his Research Center for Group
Dynamics, studying social issues. After the death of Levine the research center
moved to the University of Michigan, where it became a part of the Institute for
Social Research. This was where Schachter gained his Ph.D. in 1949. He joined
the Columbia University (New York, N.Y.) faculty as professor of psychology
in 1961. He was named Robert Johnston Niven Professor of Social Psychology
in 1966 and retired in 1992 with an emeritus designation. Stanley Schachter had
a broad curiosity about social behavior, and during his career he studied the
misattribution of arousal, the causes of overeating and obesity, the
physiological basis for nicotine addiction, and the origins of miserliness. He
also proposed the two factor theory of emotion.

Seligman M.E.P.

Martin E. P. "Marty" Seligman (born August 12, 1942) (- an American

psychologist).
Seligman is the Zellerbach Family Professor of Psychology in the
University of Pennsylvania's Department of Psychology. He is the director of
the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania. Seligman
was elected President of the American Psychological Association by the widest
margin in its history and served in that capacity during the 1998 term.

54
 According to Haggbloom et al.'s study of the most eminent psychologists
of the 20th century, Seligman was the 13th most frequently cited psychologist
in introductory psychology textbooks throughout the century, as well as the
31st most eminent overall.
His theory of "learned helplessness" (a psychological condition in which a
human being or an animal has learned to act or behave helplessly in a particular
situation - usually after experiencing some inability to avoid an adverse
situation - even when it actually has the power to change its unpleasant or even
harmful circumstance) is widely respected among scientific psychologists.

Tart Ch.T.

Charles T. Tart (born 1937) (- American psychologist and

parapsychologist).
Tart first studied electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology before transferring to Duke University to study psychology. He
earned his Ph. D. in psychology from the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill in 1963, and then received postdoctoral training in hypnosis
research at Stanford University. He is currently (2005) a Core Faculty Member
at the Institute of Transpersonal Psychology (Palo Alto, California) and a
Senior Research Fellow of the Institute of Noetic Sciences (Sausalito,
California), as well as Professor Emeritus of Psychology at the University of
California, Davis, where he served for 28 years, and emeritus member of the
Monroe Institute board of advisors. Tart was the holder of the Bigelow Chair of
Consciousness Studies at the University of Nevada in Las Vegas and has served
as a Visiting Professor in East-West Psychology at the California Institute of
Integral Studies, as an Instructor in Psychiatry at the School of Medicine of the
University of Virginia, and a consultant on government funded
55
parapsychological research at the Stanford Research Institute (now known as
SRI International).
Tart is best known for his psychological work on the nature of
consciousness (particularly altered states of consciousness), and for his research
in scientific parapsychology.
Tart is one of the founders of the field of transpersonal psychology. His
first books, Altered States of Consciousness (1969) and Transpersonal
Psychologies (1975), became widely used texts that were instrumental in
allowing these areas to become part of modern psychology.

Young J.

John Zachary Young (18 March 1907 – 4 July 1997) (- English zoologist
and neurophysiologist).
Young went to school at Marlborough College, an independent school in
Wiltshire, England. In 1928, he received a first class honours degree in zoology
from Magdalen College, Oxford. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society
in 1945 and served as Professor of Anatomy at University College London
from then until 1974. The following year, he became a Professor Emeritus and
proposed a degree programme in the Human Sciences.
Young was one of the most influential biologists of the 20th century, and
is best known for his extensive scientific research on the nervous system and
two textbooks, The Life of Vertebrates and The Life of Mammals.
Among his honors are a Linnean Medal for zoology from the Linnean
Society of London, awarded in 1973, and honorary citizenship of the city of
Naples, Italy, granted in 1991.

56
 Zimbardo Ph.G.

Philip George Zimbardo (born March 23, 1933) (- American

psychologist).
Zimbardo completed his BA with a triple major in psychology, sociology,
and anthropology from Brooklyn College in 1954, where he graduated summa
cum laude. He completed his M.S. (1955) and Ph.D (1959) in psychology from
Yale University. He taught at Yale from 1959 to 1960. From 1960 to 1967, he
was a professor of psychology at New York University. From 1967 to 1968, he
taught at Columbia University. He joined the faculty at Stanford University in
1968, and is a professor emeritus at Stanford University. In September 2006,
Zimbardo joined the faculty at Pacific Graduate School of Psychology as
Professor of Psychology, where he teaches social psychology to doctoral
students in the clinical psychology program.
In 2002, Zimbardo was elected president of the American Psychological
Association. Under his direction, the organization developed the website
PsychologyMatters.org, a compendium of psychological research that has
applications for everyday life. In 2005, Zimbardo received the Dagmar and
Václav Havel Foundation Vision 97 Award in Prague.
He is known for his Stanford prison study and authorship of various
introductory psychology books and textbooks for college students.
After the prison experiment, Zimbardo decided to look for ways he could
use psychology to help people; this led to the founding of The Shyness Clinic
in Menlo Park, California, which treats shy behavior in adults and children.
Zimbardo's research on shyness resulted in several bestselling books on the
topic. Other subjects he has researched include mind control and cultic
behavior.

57
 GLOSSARY

The power to perform an act , eithe

physical or mental, whether innate o
Ability
acquired by education or practice. Ability
Ընդունակություն,
as distinguished from aptitude, implies th
ունակություն, an act can be performed now. Aptitud
կարողություն implies that the individual can develop b
Способность, умение training the ability to perform a certain act

Behavior that is statistically unusual,

considered strange or undesirable by
Abnormal behavior most people, and a source of
Անոմալ վարք unhappiness to the person who displays
Аномальное поведение, it.
психопатология

Abstraction 1. Separation and isolation of a

Վերացարկում particular aspect from a concrete whole;
Абстракция the development of a concept by
drawing from a class of objects or
events. 2. The concept arrived at by the
isolation of a menaing or characteristic
from the specific totality considered. 3.
Inattention or surrounding situations due
to an absorption with one's own

58
 thoughts. Carl Jung's definition of
abstraction broadened its scope beyond
the thinking process to include exactly
four mutually exclusive, opposing
complementary psychological functions:
sensation, intuition, feeling, and
thinking. Together they form a
structural totality of the differentiating
abstraction process.

1. A quickening or speeding up. 2. An

increase in the rate of change. Constant
acceleration - an increase that is the
same in each successive time unite.
Positive acceleration - an increase that
Acceleration that increases with each successive time
Արագացում, ակսելերացիա unit. Negative acceleration - an increase
Акселерация, ускорение that is less with each successive time
unit.

1. The change or adjustment of a sense

Adaptation organ to the incoming stimulation .
Ադապտացիա, հարմարում Sensory adaptation - a) decreases
адаптация sensitivity to stimuli due to prolonged
stimulation, also called negative
adaptation; b) continued effective
sensory responsiveness under changing

59
 stimulation. 2 The tendency of the
sensory apparatus to adjust to any
steady and continued level of
stimulation and to stop responding.

Adolescence is a transitional stage of

physical and mental human
development generally occurring
between puberty and legal adulthood
Adolescence (age of majority), but largely
Պատանեկություն, characterized as beginning and ending
դեռահասություն with the teenage stage. Adolescence is
Юность, подростковый considered in relation to other
возраст developmental stages and in terms of
the psychological dynamics involved.

1. A class name given to feelings,

emotions, or dispositions as a mode of
Affect mental functioning. 2. The name given
Աֆեկտ, հույզ to specific emotions or feelings. 3. (K.
Аффект, эмоции Pribram) A state generated when
motivated action becomes unfeasible.

Affective disorder A form of mental disorder characterized

Աֆեկտիվ խանգարումներ by abnormalities of mood, including
Аффективные расстройства severe depression and swings of mood
from one extreme to the other.

60
Affiliation Connection or association.
Աֆիլյացիա
Аффиляция

Affiliative behavior - behavior designed

Affiliative behavior to establish friendly and satisfying
Աֆիլյատիվ վարք interpersonal relationships.
Аффилятивное поведение

(H.A.Murray) An individual's need to

draw near and enjoyably cooperate with
another, to form friendships and remain
loyal, to please and win affection of
Affiliative needs important others. Also called affiliative
Աֆիլյատիվ պահանջմունք need.
Аффилятивная потребность

Attack or hostile action that may take

any form from physical assault at one
extreme to gentle verbal criticism at the
Aggression other extreme. This type of behavior
Ագրեսիա may be arising from hostile motives and
Агрессия directed at any thing or person,
including the self.

Agitation 1. Restlessness. 2. Excitement.

61
Աժիտացիա, գրգռված 3.Set in motion. 4. Hurrying.

վիճակ
Ажитация

States of consciousness different from

normal waking experience, such as
those produced by sleep, hypnosis, or
Altered states of consciousness drugs.
Գիտակցության փոփոխված
վիճակներ
Измененные состояния сознания

1. The coexistence of opposing

emotions, attitudes or traits in
the same individual. 2. The
rapid alternation of emotional
attitudes towards another. 3.
Being able to attend to or view
Ambivalence two or more aspects of an
Ամբիվալենտություն issue or to view a person in
Амбивалентность terms of more than one
dimension or value. 4. (K.
Lewin) The state of being
pushed towards or pulled
between two opposite goals.

62
 (C,G.Jung) Psychoanalytic treatment
similar to Freud's technique in that free
association and dream interpretation are
used but deviating from it in that libido
is viewed as the general energy of life
Analytic treatment = analytic manifesting itself in creativity as well as
therapy sexual drive, and the mind is viewed as
Անալիտիկ թերապիա bipolar in nature, with one side in
Аналитическая терапия ascendency. Dream analysis is
employed not only as a means of
understanding the causative role of past
experiences in present problems but also
as a means understanding the current
concerns and future hopes of the patient.

An emotion involving pleasure in

considering some expected or longed-
for good event, or irritation at having to
Anticipation wait.
Անտիցիպացիա, սպասում
Антиципация

Antidepressant medication
Հակադեպրեսիվ դեղորայք
Противодепрессивные лекарства
An antidepressant is a psychiatric
medication used to alleviate mood
disorders, such as major depression and
dysthymia and anxiety disorders such as
social anxiety disorder.

63
 Anxiety is a psychological and
physiological state characterized by
somatic, emotional, cognitive, and
behavioral components. In either the
absence or presence of psychological
stress, anxiety can create feelings of
fear, worry, uneasiness and dread.
Anxiety is considered to be a normal
reaction to a stressor. It may help a
Anxiety person to deal with a difficult situation
Տագնապ, վախ by prompting one to cope with it.
Тревога, страх Anxiety is a generalized mood condition
that can often occur without an
identifiable triggering stimulus. As
such, it is distinguished from fear,
which is an emotional response to a
perceived threat. Additionally, fear is
related to the specific behaviors of
escape and avoidance, whereas anxiety
is related to situations perceived as
uncontrollable or unavoidable.

Anxiety disorder A form of abnormal behavior in which

Տագնապային anxiety is the most obvious and
խանգարումներ outstanding symptom, or in which

64
Тревожные расстройства abnormal patterns of behavior such as
obsessions and compulsions are
developed to keep underlying anxiety
under control

(C.J. Jung) The structural component of

the collective unconscious which is
inherited. It is a deep uncouscious
representation of an experience that has
been common to a human race for
countless generations. The archetypes
form the core of autonomous partial
systems, independent of the
consciousness. If one becomes stirred
Archetypal images (archetyp) up, the archetype takes "possession" of
Արխետիպային the individual and causes neurosis. The
պատկերներ (արխետիպեր) archetypes are called primordial images,
Архетипы. архетипичные dominants, imagos, mythological
образы images and behavior patterns. The
anima, animus and the shadow are the
main archetypes.

An increase in the complexity (amount

Arousal of information, uncertainty) of neural
Գրգռում organization manifest by
возбуждение desynchronization of electrical
recordings made from the brain

65
 (activation).

A learned diposition to react

consistently in a given manner (either
positively or negatively) to certain
persons, objects or concepts. Attitudes
Attitude have cognitive, affective and behavioral
Դիրքորոշում (ատիտյուդ) components. An organized and enduring
Аттитюд, установка set of beliefs and feelings toward some
object or situation and a predisposition
to behave toward it in a particular way.

The theory that social behavior is often

Attribution theory
influenced by our attempts to attribute
Վերագրման
behavior to a motive or other cause.
(ատրիբուցիայի)
տեսություն
Теория аттрибуции

Referring to individuals who are

characterized by a dependence upon
Authoritarian clearly delineated hierarchies of
Ավտորիտար authority.
Авторитарный

Authoritarian parenting Authoritarian parenting, also called

Ավտորիտար strict, is characterized by high

66
դաստիարակություն expectations of conformity and
Авторитарное воспитание compliance to parental rules and
directions, while allowing little open
dialogue between parent and child.
"Authoritarian parenting is a restrictive,
punitive style in which parents exhort
the child to follow their directions and
to respect their work and effort."
Authoritarian parents expect much of
their child but generally do not explain
the reasoning for the rules or
boundaries. Authoritarian parents are
less responsive to their children’s needs,
and are more likely to spank a child
rather than discuss the problem.

The totality of intra- and

Behavior extraorganismic actions and interactions
Վարք of an organism with its physical and
Поведение social environment. Psychology deals
with three types of phenomena: 1)
Observable behavior, such as nervous
tics, stuttering, excessive perspiration,
bed-wetting, compulsive acts,
impotence, violence, suicidal attempts,
etc. 2) Introspectively observable
phenomena, i.e. behavior that is not

67
 easily observed from without, such as
toothache, headache, worry, hunger, and
fear. 3) Unconscious processes, i.e.
those mental processes which are not
accessible even to the experiencing
individual himself.

Causality - an explanation of
phenomena (effects) as the result of
antecedent of phenomena (causes).
Psychologists take an empirical
Causality approach to causality, investigating how
Պատճառականություն people and non-human animals detect or
Причинность infer causation from sensory
information, prior experience and innate
knowledge.

1. A consistent and enduring aspect of

Character an individual's personality. 2. The
Բնավորություն integration of individual traits into a
Характер unified whole; personality.

A rarely used term for the branch of

Characterology psychology dealing with character and
Խարակտերոլոգիա personality.
Характерология

68
 The mechanism of human heredity.
There are 23 pairs of these tiny
structures, 46 in all, found in the
Chromosome fertilized egg cell and repeated through
Քրոմոսոմ the process of division in every cell of
Хромосома the body.

Cognition is the scientific term for "the

process of the mind." i.e. how humans
perceive, remember, learn and think
about information. Usage of the term
varies in different disciplines; for
Cognition example in psychology and cognitive
Իմացություն, science, it usually refers to an
ճանաչողություն information processing view of an
Познание, познавательная individual's psychological functions. It
способность is also used in a branch of social
psychology called social cognition to
explain attitudes, attribution and groups
dynamics.

Tolman's term for one type of "model of

Cognitive map reality"; knowledge of the spatial
Կոգնիտիվ քարտեզ features of the environment acquired,
Когнитивная карта for example, by rats running a maze.

Collective unconscious In Jung's theory, a repository for the

69
Կոլեկտիվ անգիտակցական events of human history, superstitions,
Коллективное бессознательное fears, and so on, which influence all
people.

1. The state in which the person feels

forced to behave againt his own
Compulsion conscious wishes and judgment. 2. The
Կոմպուլսիա force which compels a person to action
Компульсия against his own will or forcing a person
to act in this way.

Referring to an excessive rigid

Compulsive character involvement with standards, morality
Կոմպուլսիվ բնավորություն and conformity and a tendency to be
Компульсивный характер orderly, inhibited and pedantic.

An incompatibility between two or more

opinions, principles, or interests there
Conflict
was a conflict between his business and
Կոնֆլիկտ,
domestic life. A condition in which a
հակամարտություն, person experiences a clash of opposing
բախում wishes or needs.
Конфликт

Consciousness 1. Referring to the process of being

70
Գիտակցություն aware or knowing.
Сознание 2. Characterizing a person who is
aware. 3. Pertaining to the ability to
react to stimulation in the environment.
4. Pertaining to that which is
observable by introspection.
5. (psychoanalysis) The upper part of
the topographic structure where rational
processes can take place.

Deindividuation is a concept in social

psychology regarding the loosening of
social norms in groups. Sociologists
also study the phenomenon of
deindividuation, but the level of analysis
Deindividuation is somewhat different. For the social
Ապաանհատականացում psychologist, the level of analysis is the
(դեինդիվիդուացիա) individual in the context of a social
Деиндивидуация situation. As such, social psychologists
emphasize the role of internal
psychological processes.

Dependency motive 1. An action system for which another

Կախվածության person's nurturant, helping, caretaking
դրդապատճառ and affectionate activities are the
Мотив зависимости rewarding environmental events;
supplicative behaviour that elicits such

71
 responces from others. 2.
(psychoanalysis) An emotional
relationship, established in the oral stage
of infancy.
Feelings of helplessness, hopelessness,
inadequacy, and sadness. These may be
symptomatic of several disorders;
however, these feelings occur also in
Depression normal individuals. A feeling of severe
Դեպրեսիա, and prolonged sadness, sometimes
ընկճվածություն accompanied by total apathy, that
Депрессия, подавленность occurs as a reaction to stress; possibly
influenced by chemical imbalances in
the brain. A type of mental disorders.

Refers to increasing complexity and/or

organization of processes and/or
Development structure. In personality theory, the way
Զարգացում the common core of human personality
Развитие is channeled into individual patterns by
learning and experience.

Disorder(s) 1.Disease, an abnormal condition

Խանգարում affecting the body of an organism. 2.
Расстройство (psychology) Mental disorder, a
psychological or behavioral pattern
associated with distress or disability

72
 that occurs in an individual and is not a
part of normal development or culture.

1. The arrangement of parts or elements

of a system such that the action of the
system is in part a consequence of its
internal structure. 2. A hypothetical
organization of psychological and
Disposition physiological elements such that an
Դիրքորոշում individual's behavior in different
Диспозиция situations will have similar
characteristics. 3. A relatively stable and
constant attitude. 4 (W. McDougall) All
the innate tendencies and propensities of
an individual.

Motivational systems, complex

psychological processes and activities
Dissociation from entering consciousness because of
Դիսոցիացիա intolerable anxiety. These processes
Диссоциация function independently of the rest of the
personality.

Distortion Parataxic distortion - (H.S. Sullivan)

Խաթարում An aspect of interpersonal relations of
Искажение perceiving and relating to a person as if
he was a person with whom one has

73
 related to in the past, independent of his
objective characteristics. Perceptual
distortion - An absence of
correspondence between the common
perception of a stimulus and a
perception by an individual.

Distress is an aversive state in which an

animal is unable to adapt completely to
stressors and their resulting stress and
Distress shows maladaptive behaviors. It can be
Դիստրես evident in the presence of various
Дистресс phenomena, such as inappropriate social
interaction (e.g., aggression, passivity,
or withdrawal). Occurring when an
individual cannot adapt to stress.

According to psychoanalytical theory of

personality, the conscious, logical part
Ego of the mind that develops as we grow up
«Ես», էգո and that is our operational contact with
Эго, “Я” reality. А person's sense of self-esteem
or self-importance, the part of the mind
that mediates between the conscious and
the unconscious and is responsible for
reality testing and a sense of personal
identity, (in metaphysics) a conscious

74
 thinking subject.

(Psychoanalysis) Not in harmony with

the ego or total self in terms of drives,
Ego-alien intellect, emotions, or overt behaviour.
Էգոյին («Ես»-ին) օտար In this term ego connotes what would
Чуждый “Я” currently be called the total self rather
than the psychoanalytic concept of ego.

Thinking only of oneself, without regard

Egocentric for the feelings or desires of others; self-
Եսակենտրոն(ություն) centered, centered in or arising from a
Эгоцентричность person's own existence or perspective.

Especially clear and detailed visual

image of things previously seen,
Eidetic ( imagery) sometimes even months after the actual
Էյդետիկ պատկեր viewing of them.
Эйдетические образы

Emotion Emotion is the complex

Հույզ psychophysiological experience of an
Эмоция individual's state of mind as interacting
with biochemical (internal) and
environmental (external) influences. In
humans, emotion fundamentally
involves "physiological arousal,

75
 expressive behaviors, and conscious
experience." Emotion is associated with
mood, temperament, personality and
disposition, and motivation, and provide
the affective component to motivation,
positive or negative.

Wear and tear on the body created by

Emotional stress the physical changes during emotional
Էմոցիոնալ (հուզական) states.
ստրես
Эмоциональный стресс

The science of animal behavior; the

Ethology study of human behavior and social
Էտոլոգիա organization from a biological
этология perspective. the modern discipline of
ethology is generally considered to have
begun during the 1930s with the work of
Dutch biologist Nikolaas Tinbergen and
Austrian biologists Konrad Lorenz and
Karl von Frisch, joint winners of the
1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or
Medicine. Ethology is a combination of
laboratory and field science, with a
strong relation to certain other
disciplines — e.g., neuroanatomy,

76
 ecology, evolution. Ethologists are
typically interested in a behavioral
process rather than in a particular
animal group and often study one type
of behavior (e.g. aggression) in a
number of unrelated animals.

The application of scientific genetics to

the problem of improving the biological
and psychological qualities of mankind.
Eugenics Although eugenic idea are found in
Եվգենիկա Plato and were practised in the Oneida
Евгеника community in Vermont, scientifically
informed eugenics only came into its
own through the writings of Sir Francis
Galton at the turn of the century.

A feeling or state of intense excitement

Euphoria and happiness.
Էյֆորիա
Эйфория

Eustress Moderate or normal psychological stress

Էուստրես interpreted as being beneficial for the
Эустресс experiencer.

Existential psychology A school holding that our own attitudes

77
Էքզիստենցիալ toward events in our life are more

հոգեբանություն important than the events themselves.

Экзистенциальная психология

Experimental neurosis
Փորձարարական նևրոզ
Экспериментальный невроз
1. State of stereotyped,
compulsive or inhibited behavior,
hyper-emotionality, chaotic and random
responding, or inability to respond
induced in experimental animals by
impossible tasks or difficult
discrimination problems particularly
when failure to make the correct
response results in severe punishment.
2. (I.P. Pavlov) An induced acute
neurotic state in animals produced by
requiring very fine discriminations
which the animal is unable to perform.
Differences in the preneurotic behavior
of the animals are related to the type of
neurosis which develops.

Fear A strong emotion involving perception

Վախ of danger, unpleasant agitation and
Страх often a desire to hide or to escape. Fear
is accompanied by physiological
changes, mostly of the sympathetic

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 nervous system.

Frustration is a common emotional

response to opposition. Related to anger
and disappointment, it arises from the
perceived resistance to the fulfillment of
individual will. Causes of frustration
Frustration may be internal or external: internal
Ֆրուստրացիա frustration may arise from challenges in
Фрустрация fulfilling personal goals and desires,
instinctual drives and needs, or dealing
with perceived deficiencies; external
causes of frustration involve conditions
outside an individual. (In popular usage,
also the unpleasant feelings caused by
the blocking of motive satisfaction.)

Gender is a range of characteristics

distinguishing between
male/masculinity and female/femininity,
particularly in the cases of men and
Gender women. Depending on the context, the
Սեռ discriminating characteristics vary from
Гендер, пол sex to social role to gender identity.

Guilt Guilt is the fact of being responsible for

Մեղք the commission of an offense. It is also

79
Вина a cognitive or an emotional experience
that occurs when a person realizes or
believes—accurately or not—that he or
she has violated a moral standard, and
bears significant responsibility for that
violation.

A disadvantage which prevents the

Handicap individual from achieving success of
Դեֆեկտ some desired goal.
Деффект, недостаток

A branch of psychology concerned with

the relationship between psychological
Health psychology and physical functioning in health and
Առողջության illness.
հոգեբանություն
Психология здоровья

Hypnosis The act of inducing the hypnotic state,

Հիպնոս in which the subject is in a sort of
Гипноз dreamlike trance and highly susceptible
to suggestions from the hypnotist;
hypnosis is a mental state (according to
"state theory") or imaginative role-
enactment (according to "non-state
theory"). Hypnotic suggestions may be

80
 delivered by a hypnotist in the presence
of the subject, or may be self-
administered ("self-suggestion" or
"autosuggestion"). The use of
hypnotism for therapeutic purposes is
referred to as "hypnotherapy".

A mental disorder characterized

primarily by dissociation, repression,
emotional instability, suggestibility and
a variety of psychogenic functional
disorders. Two types being
distinguished: the conversion type,
Hysteria comprised of mainly somatic symptoms,
Հիսթերիա and the dissociative type, including
Истерия alterations in conscious awareness such
as amnesia, sleep-walking and split
personalities. Hippocrates coin the term
Greek word "hysteron" meaning
"uterus."

Id According to psychoanalytical theory,

«Նա», Իդ the unconscious part of the human mind
Ид, Оно comprising the individual's primitive
instinctive forces toward sexuality (the
libido) and aggression. The id acts
according to the "pleasure principle",

81
 seeking to avoid pain or unpleasure
aroused by increases in instinctual
tension. At birth all mental processes are
part of the id.

1. A process in which children try

to imitate the behavior of their parents
or other "heroes." 2. In
psychoanalytical theory, the process
Identification through which children resolve the
Նույնականացում Oedipus complex by absorbing their
Идентификация parents' characteristics into themselves.
3. As a defense mechanism, an attempt
to relieve anxiety by becoming like
another person or group.

A sense of oneself as having a distinct

Identity and unique character and of being a
Նույնականություն, person in one's own right.
ինքնություն
Идентичность

A perception that is a false

Illusion interpretation of the actual stimuli. A
Պատրանք mental copy arising from memory of a
Иллюзия sense experience in the absence of
sensory stimulation.

82
 1. Forming a mental picture of
events; an aid to long-term memory 2.
Imagery is a collection of images. It is
the usage of details and descriptions in
order to create a sensory experience for
the reader. Imagery/Image are the
elements in a literary work used to
evoke mental images, not only of the
visual sense, but of sensation and
Imagery emotion as well. While most commonly
Պատկերների ստեղծում, used in reference to figurative
պատկերների հավաքածու language, imagery is a variable term
Образность which can apply to any and all
Совокупность образов components of a poem that evoke
sensory experience and emotional
response, whether figurative or literal,
and also applies to the concrete things
so imaged.

1. Incitement to action without

reflection or deliberation. 2. The wave
Impulse of active change continuing along a
Իմպուլս, դրդում, մղում nerve fiber. 3.(psychoanalysis) The
Импульс psychological presentation of an
instinctual drive, in the form of a
sudden inclination or desire arising

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 immediately upon confrontation with a
certain stimulus.

A psychological test that is given by a

Individual test trained examiner to one person at a
Անհատական տեստ time.
Индивидуальный тест

Individuation, in very general terms, it

is the name given to processes whereby
the undifferentiated tends to become
individual, or to those processes through
Individuation which differentiated components
Անհատկանացում become integrated into stable wholes In
Индивидуация developmental psychology - particularly
analytical psychology - individuation is
the process through which a person
becomes his/her 'true self'.

Inhibition 1. The suppression of behavior or

Ճնշում, արգելակում emotional barriers to action. The
Подавление, ингибиция slowing or prevention of a process from
starting when the eliciting is present,
reaction, or function by a particular
substance, a feeling that makes one
self-conscious and unable to act in a
relaxed and natural way a feeling that

84
 makes one self-conscious and unable to
act in a relaxed and natural way. 2. A
mental state which results in a
hesitancy or blockage of action. 3.
(psychoanalysis) The prevention of
instinctual impulses from reaching
consciousness due to the action of the
ego or the super-ego.

Chomsky's term for a species-specific

“Innate mechanism" quality of the brain that enables us to
«բնածին մեխանիզմներ» learn and use language.
“врожденный механизм”

An elaborate and inborn pattern of

activity, occurring automatically and
without prior learning in response to
certain stimuli in the environment.
Instinct or innate behavior is the
Instinct inherent inclination of a living organism
Բնազդ toward a particular behavior. The
Инстинкт simplest example of an instinctive
behavior is a fixed action pattern, in
which a short sequence of actions,
without variation, are carried out in
response to a clearly defined stimulus.
However, instinctive behaviors can also

85
 be variable and responsive to the
environment.

1. The cognitive aspect of the

mind including processes of reasoning,
relating, judging and conceiving. 2.
Mental ability.1. Ideas and conceptions
Intellect having to do with the intellect. 2.
Ինտելեկտ Thinking or reasoning of a high quality.
Интеллект 3. A person of high intellect whose
interests are mainly in the area of
learning and ideas.

The increase with age of any

psychological function, specifically of
Intellectual growth = mental intelligence.
growth
Ինտելեկտուալ (մտավոր) աճ
Интеллектуальное развитие

A test measuring the individual's interest

or lack of interest in various kinds of
Interest test amusements, literature, music, art,
Հետաքրքրությունների science, school subjects, social
տեստ activities, kinds of people, and so on.
Тест интересов

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 (H.A. Murray) Orientation or attitude
Intraception characterized by humanism, feeling and
ինտրացեպցիա imagination.
Интрацепция

(Also latent period or incubation

Latency period period), the time between exposure to a
Թաքնված շրջան pathogen, chemical or radiation, and
Латентный период when symptoms first become apparent.

A term coined by Sigmund Freud for a

stage in a child's psychosexual
Latency stage development.
Թաքնված (լատենտ) փուլ
Латентная стадия

A condition in which the organism has

Learned helplessness been subjected to punishment over
Ձեռք բերովի (սովորած) which it has no control, leading to an
անօգնականություն impairment of the ability to learn or use
Выученная беспомощность old habits.

Learning The process by which behavior becomes

Սովորում altered or attached to new stimuli.
Научение

Libido (S. Freud) Quantitatively variable force

87
Լիբիդո related to sexual excitation. The totality
Либидо of mental energy at the disposal of Eros,
the instinct of love.

A device designed to reveal whether a

subject is telling the truth by measuring
Lie detector physiological changes, usually in heart
Ստի դետեկտոր rate, blood pressure, breathing, and
Детектор лжи galvanic skin reflex.

The surgical severing of the nerve fibers

of the frontal lobs of the brain which
Lobotomia connect with the thalamus and the
Լոբոտոմիա hypothalamus. This is a form of
Лоботомия psychosurgery which is sometimes used
in the treatment of mental disorder.

The ability to respond to a stimulus,

recite a list, remember an association,
and so on, after a long period of time
Long term memory (LTM) since the material was presented. Its
Երկարատև հիշողություն slow rate of decay and great amount of
Долговременная память remembered material distinguish it from
short term memory. The permanent
storehouse from which information can
be retrieved under the proper
circumstances.

88
 Studies which focus on the change in a
person or group of people over an
Longitudinal studies extended period of time.
Լոնգիտյուդալ
ուսումնասիրություններ
Лонгитюдные исследования

Love is an emotion of strong affection

and personal attachment. In
philosophical context, love is a virtue
representing all of human kindness,
compassion, and affection. Psychology
depicts love as a cognitive and social
Love phenomenon. Psychologist Robert
Սեր Sternberg formulated a triangular theory
Любовь of love and argued that love has three
different components: intimacy,
commitment, and passion.

1. Impulsive, uncontrollable
behavior characterised by violent and
Mania excessive motor activity and
Մոլուցք, մանիա excitement. 2. The overactive phase of
Мания manic-depressive psychosis. 3.
Uncontrollable urge to do a certain
thing.

89

Medical psychology
Բժշկական հոգեբանություն
Медицинская психология
Medical psychology refers to a growing
specialty area of clinical psychological
practice in which clinical psychologists,
who have undergone specialized
education and training at the post-
doctoral level, integrate somatic and / or
psychotherapeutic modalities into the
management of mental illness.

1. The characteristic of living

organisms involving of past experience.
In psychology, memory is an
Memory organism's ability to store, retain, and
Հիշողություն recall information and experiences. 2.
Память The totality of experiences which can
be remembered. 3. A specific past
experience which is recalled.

Mental handicap = developmental

Developmental disability is a term used
disability
in the United States and Canada to
Հոգեկան կամ ֆիզիկական
describe life-long disabilities
արատով պայմանավորված
attributable to mental and/or physical
հաշմանդամություն impairments, manifested prior to age 18.
(զարգացման)
Дефект развития

90
 Psychiatric hospitals, also known as
Mental institutions
mental hospitals, are hospitals
Հոգեբուժական
specializing in the treatment of serious
հաստատություններ mental disorders.
(հիվանդանոցներ)
Психиатрические
учреждения (больницы)

Milieu A person's social environment.

Միջավայր
Среда

A mnemonic, or mnemonic device, is

any learning technique that aids
memory. Commonly encountered
mnemonics are often verbal, such as a
very short poem or a special word used
Mnemonic to help a person remember something,
Մնեմոնիկա particularly lists, but a mnemonic may
Мнемоника instead be visual, kinesthetic or
auditory. Mnemonics rely on
associations between easy-to-remember
constructs which can be related back to
the data that is to be remembered.

91
 Mood disorder is the term designating a
group of diagnoses in the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM IV TR) classification
system where a disturbance in the
person's mood is hypothesized to be the
main underlying feature. The
classification is known as mood
(affective) disorders in ICD 10. Two
groups of mood disorders are broadly
Mood disturbances/disorders recognized; the division is based on
«Տրամադրության whether the person has ever had a manic
խանգարումներ» or hypomanic episode. Thus, there are
“Расстройства настроения” depressive disorders, of which the best
known and most researched is major
depressive disorder (MDD) commonly
called clinical depression or major
depression, and bipolar disorder (BD),
formerly known as manic depression
and characterized by intermittent
episodes of mania or hypomania,
usually interlaced with depressive
episodes.

Motivation 1. A process (appetitive as

Մոտիվացիա opposed to affective) that effects
Мотивация changes in the environment (acts)

92
 consonant with internal representations
(plans, programes). 2. A specific state
of endogenous activity in the brain
which, under certain internal conditions
and sensory input, leads to behaviour
which results in changes in the interior
milieu and reduction of the initial
activity. A general term referring to the
forces regulating behavior that is
undertaken because of drives, needs, or
desires and is directed toward goals.

1. A state within an organism

which energizes and directs him toward
a particular goal. 2. The reason in
individual offers to explain his
Motive behaviour. 3. An unconscious cause of
Դրդապատճառ behaviour. A desire for a goal or
Мотив incentive object that has acquired value
for the individual.

Need A need is something that is necessary

Պահանջմունք, կարիք for organisms to live a healthy life.
Потребность Needs are distinguished from wants
because a deficiency would cause a
clear negative outcome, such as
dysfunction or death. Needs can be

93
 objective and physical, such as food, or
they can be subjective and
psychological, such as the need for self-
esteem. On a social level, needs are
sometimes controversial.

Neurosis is a class of functional mental

disorders involving distress but neither
delusions nor hallucinations, whereby
behavior is not outside socially
Neurosis acceptable norms. It is also known as
Նևրոզ psychoneurosis or neurotic disorder,
Невроз The term essentially describes an
"invisible injury" and the resulting
condition.

Neurotic One who exhibits neurotic behavior.

Նևրոտիկ
Невротик

Neurotransmitters are endogenous

chemicals that transmit signals from a
Neurotransmitters neuron to a target cell across a synapse.
Նեյրոտրանսմիտերներ A chemical released by one neuron that
Нейротрансмиттеры stimulates another neuron to fire; also
sometimes inhibits the second neuron
from firing.

94

NLP
ՆԼԾ /նեյրոլեզվաբանական
ծրագրավորում/
НЛП /нейролингвистическое
программирование/
Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is
an approach to psychotherapy and
organizational change based on "a
model of interpersonal communication
chiefly concerned with the relationship
between successful patterns of behavior
and the subjective experiences (esp.
patterns of thought) underlying them"
and "a system of alternative therapy
based on this which seeks to educate
people in self-awareness and effective
communication, and to change their
patterns of mental and emotional
behavior."

According to Freud the conflict of

mingled love and toward the parents
Oedipus complex that every child undergoes between 2 -
Էդիպյան (Էդիպոսի) 4 years оf age.
բարդույթ
Комплекс Эдипа

Operant An item of behavior that is not a

Օպերանտ response to a prior stimulus but
Оперант something which is initially
spontaneous, which may reinforce or

95
 inhibit recurrence of that behavior.

Operant behavior is the network of

factors and events involved in the
behavior of human and non-human
animals. It is a psychological term
derived from Operant Conditioning,
explained by B.F. Skinner. The operant
Operant behavior is the behavior that acts on the
Օպերանտային վարք environment to produce a consequence.
Оперантное поведение This consequence is known as a
reinforcer, which is meted out by the
environment in response to the operant.
This response encourages the operant to
repeat the behavior or causes it to cease
the behavior.

Skinnerian behaviorism. Involving the

modification of behavior by the
Operant behaviorism reinforcing or inhibiting effect of its
Օպերանտային բիհևիորիզմ own consequences (instrumental
Оперантный бихевиоризм conditioning).

Percept An object of perception; something that

Ընկալման օբյեկտ is perceived; a mental concept that is
Перцепт developed as a consequence of the
process of perception.

96
 Perception is the process through which
we become aware of our environment
by organizing and interpreting the
evidence of our senses the ability to see,
hear, or become aware of something
through the senses the normal limits to
human perception; the process of
attaining awareness or understanding of
Perception the environment by organizing and
Ընկալում interpreting sensory information. All
Восприятие perception involves signals in the
nervous system, which in turn result
from physical stimulation of the sense
organs.

An intelligence test or part of an

intelligence test that measures the
Performance test individual's ability to perform such tasks
Գործողության տեստ as completing pictures, making designs,
Тест действия and assembling objects.

The total pattern of characteristic ways

Personality of thinking, feeling, and behaving that
Անձ constitute the individual's distinctive
Личность method of relating to the environment..

97
 A test designed to measure the various
Personality test characteristics that make up the
Անձային թեստ individual's personality.
Личностный тест

An extreme or irrational fear of or

aversion to something, A phobia is a
Phobia very strong irrational fear or hatred of
Ֆոբիա something.
Фобия

According to psychoanalytic theory, the

Pleasure principle demand of the unconscious id for
Հաճույքի սկզբունք immediate and total satisfaction of all its
Принцип удовольствия demands.

1. The control which a person has

over other people; social power. 2. The
degree to which a person possesses a
Power trait. 3. (B.B. Wolman) A behavioral
Իշխանություն dimension defined as ability to satisfy
власть needs. The amount of power an
individual possesses indicates how well
he can protect life and satisfy the needs
of his own and of others.

Projection A defense mechanism in which the

98
Պրոյեկցիա individual hides anxiety-producing
Проекция motives by accusing other people of
having them.

A test in which subjects are expected to

Projective test project aspects of their own personality
Պրոյեկտիվ թեստ into ambiguous pictures or ink-blots.
Проективный тест

Greek Mythology a Hellenistic

personification of the soul as female, or
Psyche sometimes as a butterfly. The allegory
Փսիխեա of Psyche's love for Cupid is told in The
Психеа Golden Ass by Apuleius.

A psychic (also called sensitive) is a

person who professes an ability to
Psychic perceive information hidden from the
Էքստրասենս normal senses through extrasensory
экстрасенс, сенситив perception (ESP), or is said by others to
have such abilities.

Psychoanalysis A system of psychological theory and

Հոգեվերլուծություն therapy that aims to treat mental
Психоанализ disorders by investigating the
interaction of conscious and

99
 unconscious elements in the mind and
bringing repressed fears and conflicts
into the conscious mind by techniques
such as dream interpretation and free
association. Psychoanalysis is the
treatment of someone who has mental
problems by asking them about their
feelings and their past in order to try to
discover what may be causing their
condition.

A psychologist is a person who studies

the human mind and tries to explain
Psychologist why people behave in the way that they
Հոգեբան do. an expert or specialist in
Психолог psychology.

The science that systematically studies

and attempts to explain observable
Psychology behavior and its relationship to the
Հոգեբանություն unseen mental processes that go on
Психология inside the organism and to external
events in the environment.

Psychopathology Psychopathology is the study of mental

Հոգեախտաբանություն illness, mental distress, and
Психопатология abnormal/maladaptive behavior. The

100
 term is most commonly used within
psychiatry where pathology refers to
disease processes. Abnormal
psychology is a similar term used more
frequently in the non-medical field of
psychology. Psychopathology should
not be confused with psychopathy, a
theoretical subtype of antisocial
personality disorder. The term
psychopathology may also be used to
denote behaviors or experiences which
are indicative of mental illness, even if
they do not constitute a formal
diagnosis. In a more general sense, any
behavior or experience which causes
impairment, distress or disability,
particularly if it is thought to arise from
a functional breakdown in either the
cognitive and neurocognitive systems in
the brain, may be classified as
psychopathology.

The Freudian theory that psychological

Psychosexual development development goes through oral, anal,
Հոգեսեռական զարգացում phallic, and genital stages.
Психосексуальное развитие

101
 Psychotherapy is the use of
psychological methods in treating
people who are mentally ill, rather than
using physical methods such as drugs or
surgery. the treatment of mental
Psychotherapy disorder by psychological rather than
Հոգեթերապիա medical means. A technique used by
Психотерапия clinical psychologists, psychiatrists, and
psychoanalysts in which a person
suffering from personality disorder or
mental disturbance is treated by the
application of psychological knowledge.

Psychotic An individual afflicted with psychosis.

Փսիխոտիկ
Психотик

Rationalisation An effort to distort reality in order to

Ռացիոնալիզացիա protect one's self-esteem. In its attempt
Рационализация to mediate between the id and reality,
the weak ego ascribes rationality to the
irrational demands of the id. A strong
ego can cope with failures and
frustrations, but a weak ego would
rather distort the truth than admit defeat.
Rationalization is used as a cover-up for
mistakes, misjudgments, and failures. It

102
 tries to justify behavior by reasons that
are made to sound rational. A defense
mechanism in which people maintain
that a goal they were unable to attain
was not desirable or that they acted out
of "good" motives rather than "bad."

(Psychoanalysis) A defense mechanism

which consists of counteracting the
unconscious drive derivative with the
opposite conscious attitude such as
feeling conscious aversion toward a
person toward him the individual feels
unconscious attraction. A strong ego is
in control of the entire system; it
Reaction-formation satisfies some of the id cravings, while
Ռեակցիայի (հակազդման) it postpones or modifies others and
ձևավորում flatly rejects and suppresses those
Формирование реакции demands which it deems unacceptable.
A weak ego resorts to the use of defense
mechanisms against impulses. One of
these defenses is the development of an
attitude diametrically opposed to the id
desires.

Reality principle According to psychoanalytic theory, the

Իրականության սկզբունք principle on which the conscious ego

103
Принцип реальности operates as it tries to mediate between
the demands of the unconscious id and
the realities of the environment..

The term reframing designates a

communication technique which has
origins in family systems therapy and
Reframing the work of Virginia Satir. Milton H.
Ռեֆրեյմինգ Erickson has been associated with
Рефрейминг reframing and it also forms an important
part of Neuro-linguistic programming.
In addition, provocative therapy uses
reframing with an emphasis on humor.

1. return to a former or less

developed state; 2. return
Regress mentally to a former stage of
Ռեգրես (հետաճ) life or a supposed previous life,
Регресс especially through hypnosis.
2.
A retreat toward types of activity
appropriate to a lower level of maturity;
a result of anxiety and stress.
(psychoanalysis) One of the defense
Regression mechanisms in which the individual,
Ռեգրեսիա faced with the anxiety arousing
Регрессия instinctual wish or impulse, returns to a

104
 stage which has previously been
cathected by libido and is thus less
anxiety and guilt provoking.

(Psychoanalysis) The main defense

mechanism. Repression is an uncoscious
exclusion from the consciousness of
objectionable impulses, memories and
ideas. The ego, as it were, pushes the
Repression objectionable material down into the
Ռեպրեսիա, ճնշում unconscious and acts as if the
Репрессия objectionable material were non-
existent. A defense mechanism in
which people suffering anxiety over
motives seem to banish the motives
from conscious thought, pushing them
into the unconscious.

1. An answer, especially a formal

answer, such as to a question on a test
Response or questionnaire. 2. Any process in the
Պատասխան body, muscular, glandular, etc., which
ответ results from stimulation. 3. A psychic
process which results previous psychic
processes, sensory or imaginal. 4. Any
overt or covert behavior; the class or
the organisms executing processes.

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 1. The action or process of
ritualizing something; 2. the
formalization of certain actions
expressing a particular emotion or state
of mind, whether abnormally (as in
Ritualization obsessive - compulsive disorder) or as
Ծիսականացում part of the symbolism of religion or
(ռիտուալիզացիա) culture.3. Ritualization is a behavior
Ритуализация that occurs typically in a member of a
given species in a highly stereotyped
fashion and independent of any direct
physiological significance.

A sexual perversion in which sexual

excitement and pleasure are dependent
Sadism upon the infliction of pain or watching
Սադիզմ pain inflicted on others and humiliation
Садизм of others.

Schizophrenia The most devastating of all mental

Շիզոֆրենիա disorders, in which the victim loses
Шизофрения touch with reality and personality
functioning breaks down and becomes
completely disorganized; involving a
breakdown in the relation between
thought, emotion, and behavior, leading

106
 to faulty perception, inappropriate
actions and feelings, withdrawal from
reality and personal relationships into
fantasy and delusion, and a sense of
mental fragmentation..

Another term for self-assessment =

assessment or evaluation of oneself or
one's actions, attitudes, or performance;
assessment or evaluation of oneself or
Self-evaluation one's actions and attitudes, in particular,
Ինքնագնահատում of one's performance at a job or learning
Самооценка, самооценивание task considered in relation to an
objective standard.

Referring to the total apparatus and

experience of sensation including the
sense organs, stimuli impinging on the
Sensory sense receptors, afferent neurons, brain
Սենսորիկա centers' receiving the impulses and the
Сенсорика processes involved in the experience of
sensation.

Short-term memory (STM) The correct recall or appropriate

Կարճատև հիշողություն performance immediately or shortly
Кратковременная память after the presentation of the material. Its
rapid decay and limited amount of

107
 material distinguishes it from long term
memory.

In humans, shyness (also called

diffidence) is a social psychology term
used to describe the feeling of
apprehension, lack of comfort, or
Shyness awkwardness experienced when a
Ամաչկոտություն person is in proximity to, approaching,
Застенчивость or being approached by other people,
especially in new situations or with
unfamiliar people.

Theories maintaining that personality is

Social learning (theories of made up of learned, habitual ways of
personality) responding to the environment.
Սոցիալական սովորում
Социальное научение

Socialization The training of the young in the ways of

Սոցիալականացում the society.
Социализация

Stereotype An attitude that disregards individual

Կարծրատիպ differences and holds that all people of a
Стереотип certain group behave in the same
manner.

108
 1. An object or an action that
elicits action. 2. (psychology) Any
inner or outer factor that causes the
organism to act. 3. (psychology) Any
Stimulus (pl. stimuli) action or situation that elicits Any form
Խթան, գրգռիչ of energy capable of exciting the
Стимул nervous system response.

A state of mental or emotional strain or

Stress tension resulting from adverse or very
Ստրես demanding circumstances.
Стресс

А chemical or biological agent,

environmental condition, an external
stimulus or an event that causes stress to
an organism. An event that triggers the
Stressor stress response may include for
Ստրեսոր example: environmental stressors
Стрессор (elevated sound levels, over-
illumination, overcrowding); daily stress
events (e.g. traffic, lost keys); life
changes (e.g. divorce, bereavement);
workplace stressors (e.g. role strain,
lack of control).

109
 Readiness to conform to the authority or
will of others; meekly obedient or
Submissiveness passive a submissive, almost sheeplike
Ենթակայություն people. If one is submissive, he/she
Субмиссивность obeys someone without arguing.

A particular kind of matter with uniform

Substance(s) properties, an intoxicating, stimulating,
Նյութ (դեղամիջոց) or narcotic chemical or drug, esp. an
Лекарственные или illegal one.
наркотические препараты

(Freud) The intrapsychic, mostly

unconscious structure of personality
Superego which represents societal and cultural
«Գեր-Ես», Սուպերէգո standards. The superego develops as a
Суперэго, Сверх-Я result of an introjection and
identification of the child with the
parents.
A mark or character used as a
conventional representation of an object,
Symbol function, or process, e.g., the letter or
Խորհրդանիշ letters standing for a chemical element
Символ or a character in musical notation, a
thing that represents or stands for
something else, esp. a material object

110
 representing something abstract..

Physical or mental feature which is

Symptom regarded as indicating a condition of
Ախտանիշ disease, particularly such a feature that
Симптом is apparent to the patient.

A group of symptoms that consistently

occur together or a condition
Syndrom characterized by a set of associated
Համախտանիշ symptoms, a characteristic combination
Синдром of opinions, emotions, or behavior.

1. A standardized set of questions

which are administered to a group or to
Test individuals in order to assess the
Թեստ presence or absence of a particular skill
Тест or knowledge. 2. A measurement which
produces quantitative data.

A medicinal drug taken to reduce

tension or anxiety A drug that reduces
Tranquilizer anxiety and often eliminates the
Տրանկվիլիզատոր hallucinations and delusions of
(հանգստացուցիչ) schizophrenics, apparently by slowing
Транквилизатор down the activity of the brain.

111
 Transpersonal psychology is a form of
psychology that studies the
transpersonal, self-transcendent or
spiritual aspects of the human
Transpersonal psychologies experience.
Անդրանձային հոգեբանություն
Трансперсональная психология

1. Treatment is medical attention given

Treatment to a sick or injured person or animal. 2.
Բուժում, թերապիա The use of a chemical, physical, or
Лечение biological agent to preserve or give
particular properties to something.
The theory describes a Type A
individual as ambitious, aggressive,
business-like, controlling, highly
competitive, impatient, preoccupied
with his or her status, time-conscious,
and tightly-wound. People with Type A
Type A personality personalities are often high-achieving
A տիպի անձ "workaholics" who multi-task, push
Личность типа А themselves with deadlines, and hate
both delays and ambivalence. Type A
personality behavior was first described
as a potential risk factor for heart
disease.

112
 1. The unconscious the part of the
mind that is inaccessible to the
conscious mind but that affects
behavior and emotions. 2. (in Jungian
psychology) the part of the unconscious
Unconscious mind that is derived from ancestral
Անգիտակցական memory and experience and is common
Бессознательное to all humankind, as distinct from the
individual's unconscious.

113
 SUGGESTED READING IN ESP

Dudley-Evans, T. and St John, M. (1998) Developments in English for Specific

Purposes,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hutchinson, T. and Waters, A. (1987) English for Specific Purposes,
Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Jordan, R. (1997) English for Academic Purposes, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
English at Universities, Omomouc, Czech Republic, September 2001, The
British
Council/Palacky University.

SUGGESTED READING IN PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology in English
Volume 1

WHAT’S IN A MEMORY?
Young J.Z., Programs of the brain. Oxford University Press, 1978, (p. 78-79)

THE ROLE OF THE BODY IN EMOTIONS

Kagan J., Segal J., Psychology: An Introduction, Sixth Edition, Harcourt,
Brace Jovanovich Publishers, 1988, (pp. 301-303)

114
TERRITORIALITY
Maxwell R.J., Context of Behavior Antropological Dimensions. Nelson-Hall,
1983 (p. 207)

DO ANIMALS HAVE ANXIETY?

May R. The Meaning of Anxiety. Pocket books New York, 1979 (pp. 84-85)

THE AUTHORITARIAN PERSONALITY: A CASE STUDY

Sanford N., Self & Society. Social change and Individual Development
Atherton Press New York, 1966, (pp. 138-139)

GROUP PSYCHOLOGY
Freud S., Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. Bantam Books, New
York, Toronto, London. 1965, (pp. 62-63)

AMERICA: A DRUG TAKING SOCIETY

Dintiman G.B., Greenberg G.S., Health through Discovery Fourth edition.
Random House, New York, 1989 (pp. 174-175)

WEALTHY FAMILIES
Eshleman J.R., The Family: An Introduction. Fifth Edition, Allyn and Bacon,
Inc. Boston, 1988, (pp. 220-221)

INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT IN ORGANIZATIONS

Walton R.E., Interpersonal Peacemaking: Confrontations and Third Party
Consultation Addison-Wesley, 1969 (p. 2-3)

115
TYPES OF TESTS
Kaplan R.M., Saccuzzo D.P., Psychological testing: Principles, Applications,
and Issues. Second Edition. Brooks/Coal Publishing Company, 1989. (p.5-6)

SHYNESS
Zimbardo P.G., Shyness. AJOVE/HBJ Book, 1977. (p. 23-25)

TERMINOLOGY OF SEX AND GENDER

Katchadourian H.A., Terminology of Sex and Gender
In: Katchadourian H.A. (ed.) Human sexuality: Comparative and
Developmental Perspective. University of California Press, 1979. (p. 9-10)

PARENTAL MODELS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF INDEPENDENCE

Baumrind D., Authoritarian vs. Authoritative Parental Control.
In: Conger J.J. (ed.) Contemporary issues in adolescent development. Harper &
Row, 1975, (pp. 142-143)

LOVE AND LOVE MAGIC

Henriques F., Love in action. Dell Publishing Co, Inc. 1962, (p. 100)

THE NATURE OF DOUBT

Allport G.W., The Individual & His Religion., The Macmillan company, 1954
(pp.99-100)

116
Psychology in English
Volume 2

LANGUAGE AS BEHAVIOR
Pike K.L., Language as Behavior and Etic and Emic Standpoints for the
Description of Behavior
In: Social Psychology: Readings and perspective. Ed by Edgar F. Borgatta,
(pp.114-115)

TEACHING A NATIVE LANGUAGE

Bruner J.S., Toward a theory of instruction. The Belknap Press, 1966. (pp.102-
103)

EIDETIC IMAGERY
Davidoff L.L., Introduction to Psychology Third Edition. McGraw-Hill, 1987
(p.210)

THE CASE OF EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY

Davidoff L.L., Introduction to Psychology Third Edition. McGraw-Hill, 1987
(pp.210-213)

AFFILATION AND ISOLATION

Schachter S., The Psychology of Affiliation, Stanford University Press, 1959
(pp.1-2)

THE THEORY OF LOVE

Fromm E., The Art of Loving. Bantam Books, 1967. (pp.6-7)

117
JAPANESE MATE-SELECTION
Blood R.O., Love match and arranged marriage. The Free press, 1967, (pp.4-5)

NEUROSIS
Janov A.,The primal scream. Abacus, 1978 (pp..22-23)

INFANTILE PHOBIA OF ANIMALS

Freud S., Volume 10: On psychopathology. Penguin Books, 1981, (pp.254-255)

CORONARY HEART DISEASE AND THE TYPE A PERSONALITY

Rosenhan D.L., Seligman M.E.P., Abnormal Psychology. Second edition.,
W.W. Norton and Company, 1989 (pp.282-285)

ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Kelley H.H., Attribution Theory in Social Psychology.
In: Nebraska symposium on motivation. Levine D. (ed.) University of Nebraska
Press, 1967 (p.192)

SINCERITY, VERIDICALITY, AND ATTRIBUTION OF CAUSALITY

Kelley H.H., Attribution in Social Interaction.
In: Attribution: Perceiving the causes of behavior. Jones E.E., Kanouse D.E.,
Kelly H.H., Nisbet R.E., Valins S., Weiner B., General Learning Press, 1971
(p.16)

IDENTIFICATION AND IDENTITY

Erikson E.H., Identification and Identity.
In: Conger J.J. (ed.) Contemporary issues in adolescent development. Harper &
Row, 1975, (pp.410-411)
118
SEXUAL IDENTITY
Yorburg B., Sexual Identity: Sex Roles and Social Change, Willey Interscience
Publication, 1974 (pp.51-52)

A SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACH TO MARITAL THERAPY

Handbook of Marital Therapy A positive Approach of Helping Troubled
Relationships Ed. By Liberman R.P., PLENUM PRESS New York London,
1980 (pp.3-4)
LANGUAGE AS BEHAVIOR

Psychology in English
Volume 3

THE HERD INSTINCT

Freud S., Group psychology and the analysis of the ego. Bantam Books, New
York, Toronto, London. 1965, (pp. 62-63)

THE ROLE OF SYMBOLS

Jung C. C., Approaching the unconscious
In: Man and his Symbols, Ed. By. Carl C. Jung, Aldus Books 1972 (pp.93-94)

THE TEORY OF CHARACTER

Schaar H.J., Escape from authority The Perspectives of Erich Fromm Basic
Books, Inc. 1961 (pp. 85-87)

119
THEORIES OF LEARNING HAVE NO VALUE IN PSYCHOLOGY
Carpenter F., The Skinner Primer: Behind Freedom and Dignity, The Free
Press, 1974 (pp.49-50)

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
Tart Ch. T., Science, States of Consciousness, and Spiritual Experiences: The
Need for State-Specific Sciences
In: Transpersonal psychologies, Ed. By. Charles T._Tart, Psychologica
Processes, Inc., 1983 (pp.13-14)

MAN OR ROBOT?
Chein I.,The science of behavour and the image of man. Basic Books, Inc.,
1972
(pp.17-18)

THE DISATVANTAGED CHILD AND THE LEARNING PROCESS

Deutsch M., The Disadvantaged Child and the Learning Process
In: Social Psychology: Readings and perspective._Ed by Edgar F. Borgatta,
Rand McNally and company, 1969 (pp.168-169)

SOCIALIZATION INTO VIOLENCE

Wolfgang M.E., Violence and Human behavior,
In: Confrontation: Psychology and the problems of today Ed. By
Michael_Wertheimer, Scott, Foresman and Company (pp.170-171)

PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Simon W., Gagnon J.H., Psychosexual development

120
In: The sexual scene, Ed. By John H._Gagnon and William Simon, Trans-
action Books, 1970,
(pp. 23-25)

SOME TEMPORAL FACTORS IN THE STRESS PROBLEM

McGrath J.E., Major Substantive Issues: Time, Setting, and the Coping Process
In: Social and Psychological Factors in Stress. Joseph E.McGrath (Ed).
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON, INC, 1970 (pp.23-24)

DEFINING MOOD DISORDERS

Sarason I.G., Sarason B.R., Abnormal Psychology: The problem of
maladaptive behavior. Fifth Edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1987 (pp. 262-263)

MOOD DISTURBANCES AND DISORDERS

Carson R.C., Butcher J.N., Coleman J.C., Abnormal psychology & Modern
Life. Eighth Edition, Scott, Foresman and Company, 1988, (pp.283-285)

DESTRUCTIVE POWER
Wolman B.B., Alper A., and DeBerry S., Wolman’s Sociodiagnostic Interview.
In: Clinical Diagnosis of Mental Disorders. A Handbook, Ed. By Benjamin B.
Wolman, Plenum Press., 1978, (pp.551-552)

CREATING A NEW PATH

Bandler R., Grinder J., Reframing. Real People Press, 1982 (pp. 58-59)

THE MAP IS NOT THE TERRITORY

Bandler R., Grinder J., Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H.
Erikson, M.D. Volume 1. Meta Publications, 1975. (pp. 7-8)
121
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1. A Dictionary of Behavioral Science - Complied and edited by Benjamin

B. Wolman, The Macmillan Press LTD, 1975
2. J. Drever. A Dictionary of Psychology. Harmondsworth Middlesex:
Penguin Books LTD, 1952
3. A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Corsini, R.
J. (1999).
4. Jacobs, G. M., Power, M. A., Loh, W. I. (2002). The teacher's sourcebook
for cooperative learning: Practical techniques, basic principles, and
frequently asked questions. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
http://www.corwinpress.com/index1.asp?id=detail.asp?id=27713
5. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (1999). Learning together and alone
(5th ed.). Boston:
6. Allyn & Bacon.
7. Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Stanne, M. B. (2000). Cooperative
learning methods:
A meta-analysis. http://www.clcrc.com/pages/cl-methods.html.
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