Theory of Languages and

Automata

Chapter 1: An Introduction to the Theory

of Computation (1)

Lecturer: Reza Entezari-Maleki

entezari@iust.ac.ir
Department of Computer Engineering
Iran University of Science and Technology
Mathematical Preliminaries

2
 Outlines

• Sets

• Functions and Relations

• Graphs

• Proof Techniques

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Sets
 SETS
A set is a collection of elements
A = {1, 2, 3}
B = {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

We write
1∈ A
ship ∉ B
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 Set Representations

C = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k }

C = { a, b, …, k } finite set

S = { 2, 4, 6, … } infinite set

S = { j : j > 0, and j = 2k for some k>0 }

S = { j : j is nonnegative and even }

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A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
U
6 A
2 3 8
1
7 4 5
9
10

Universal Set: all possible elements

U = { 1 , … , 10 }
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 Set Operations
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}
A B
• Union
2 4
1
A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } 3 5

• Intersection
U
A B = { 2, 3 } 2
3
• Difference
A-B={1}
1
B - A = { 4, 5 }
Venn diagrams
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• Complement
Universal set = {1, …, 7}
A = { 1, 2, 3 } A = { 4, 5, 6, 7}

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A
A 3 6
1
2
5 7

A=A
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{ even integers } = { odd integers }

Integers

1 odd
even
6 5
2
0
4
3 7

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DeMorgan’s Laws

AUB=A B
U

A B=AUB
U

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 Empty, Null Set:
={}

SU =S

S =
U
= Universal Set

S- =S

-S=

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 Subset
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A B

U
Proper Subset: A B

U
B
A

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 Disjoint Sets
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 5, 6}

A B=
U

A B

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 Set Cardinality
• For finite sets
A = { 2, 5, 7 }

|A| = 3

(set size)

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 Powersets
A powerset is a set of sets

S = { a, b, c }

Powerset of S = the set of all the subsets of S

2S = { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }

Observation: | 2S | = 2|S| ( 8 = 23 )

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 Cartesian Product
A = { 2, 4 } B = { 2, 3, 5 }

A X B = { (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), ( 4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5) }

|A X B| = |A| |B|

Generalizes to more than two sets

AXBX…XZ
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Functions and Relations

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 FUNCTIONS
domain range
4 A B
f(1) = a a
1
2 b
3 c
5
f : A -> B
If A = domain
then f is a total function
otherwise f is a partial function
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 RELATIONS
R = {(x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), …}

xi R yi

e. g. if R = ‘>’: 2 > 1, 3 > 2, 3 > 1

In relations xi can be repeated

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 Equivalence Relations
• Reflexive: xRx
• Symmetric: xRy yRx
• Transitive: x R y and y R z xRz

Example: R = ‘=‘
•x=x
•x=y y=x
• x = y and y = z x=z

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 Equivalence Classes
For equivalence relation R
equivalence class of x = {y : x R y}

Example:
R = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 4), (3, 4), (4, 3) }

Equivalence class of 1 = {1, 2}

Equivalence class of 3 = {3, 4}
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Graphs

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 GRAPHS
A directed graph
e
b
node d
a
c

• Nodes (Vertices)
V = { a, b, c, d, e }
• Edges
E = { (a, b), (b, c), (c, a), (b, d), (d, c), (e, d) }
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 Labeled Graph

6 e
b 2
1 3
a 6 d
5
c

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 Walk

e
b
a d

Walk is a sequence of adjacent edges

(e, d), (d, c), (c, a)

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 Path

e
b
a d

Path is a walk where no edge is repeated

Simple path: no node is repeated

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 Cycle

base e
b
3
a 1 d
2
c

Cycle: a walk from a node (base) to itself with

no repeated edges

Simple cycle: only the base node is repeated

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 Euler Tour
8 base
7 e
b 1
4 6
a 5 2 d
3
c

A cycle that contains each edge once

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 Hamiltonian Cycle
5 base
e
b 1
4
a 2 d
3
c

A simple cycle that contains all nodes

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Finding All Simple Paths

e
b f

a d

c
origin

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 Step 1

e
b f
a d

c
origin

(c, a)
(c, e)

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 Step 2
e
b
f
a d

c
(c, a) origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Step 3
e
b
f
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e) Repeat the same
(c, e), (e, b) for each starting node
(c, e), (e, d)
(c, e), (e, d), (d, f)
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 Trees
root

parent

leaf

child

Trees have no cycles

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 root
Level 0

Level 1
leaf Height 3

Level 2

Level 3

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Binary Trees

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Proof Techniques

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 PROOF TECHNIQUES

•Direct proof (proof by construction)

•Proof by induction

•Proof by contradiction

•Proof by contraposition

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 Direct proof (proof by construction)

The easiest and simplest method of proof available to us

In constructive proof one atempts to demonstrate P=>Q

Steps
• Assume that P is true
Then
• Use P to show that Q must be true

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 Example

Theorem: If a and b are two consecutive integers,

then the sum a+b is odd.

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 Example

Theorem: If a and b are two consecutive integers,

then the sum a+b is odd.

Proof:
Assume that a and b are consecutive integers.
Because a and b are consecutive, we know that b=a+1.
Thus, the sum a+b may be re-written as 2a+1.
Thus, there exists a number k such that a+b=2k+1,
so the sum a+b is odd.

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 Induction

We have statements P1, P2, P3, …

If we know
• for some b that P1, P2, …, Pb are true
• for any k >= b that
P1, P2, …, Pk imply Pk+1
Then
Every Pi is true

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 Proof by Induction
• Inductive basis
Find P1, P2, …, Pb which are true

• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume P1, P2, …, Pk are true,
for any k >= b

• Inductive step
Show that Pk+1 is true
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 Example
Theorem: A binary tree of height n
has at most 2n leaves.

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 Example
Theorem: A binary tree of height n
has at most 2n leaves.

Proof:
let l(i) be the number of leaves at level i

l(0) = 1

l(3) = 8
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We want to show: L(i) <= 2i

• Inductive basis
L(0) = 1 (the root node)

• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume L(i) <= 2i for all i = 0, 1, …, k

• Induction step
we need to show that L(k + 1) <= 2k+1
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 Induction Step

Level
k hypothesis: l(k) <= 2k

k+1

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 Induction Step

Level
k hypothesis: l(k) <= 2k

k+1

l(k+1) <= 2 * l(k) <= 2 * 2k = 2k+1

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 Remark
Recursion is another thing

Example of recursive function:

f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2) recursive call

f(0) = 1, f(1) = 1 base cases

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 Proof by Contradiction

We want to prove that a statement P is true

• we assume that P is false

• then we arrive at an incorrect conclusion
• therefore, statement P must be true

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 Example

Theorem: 2 is not rational

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 Example
Theorem: 2 is not rational

Proof:
Assume by contradiction that it is rational

2 = n/m
n and m have no common factors

We will show that this is impossible

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 2 = n/m 2 m2 = n2

n is even
Therefore, n2 is even
n=2k

m is even
2 m2 = 4k2 m2 = 2k2
m=2p

Thus, m and n have common factor 2

Contradiction!
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 Proof by contraposition
From first-order logic we know that the implication P⇒Q is equivalent to ¬Q ⇒ ¬P.
The second proposition is called the contrapositive of the first proposition.

By saying that the two propositions are equivalent,

we mean that

if one can prove P⇒Q then

they have also proved ¬Q⇒¬P, and vice versa.

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 Example

Theorem: If x2 is odd, then x must be odd.

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 Example

Theorem: If x2 is odd, then x must be odd.

Proof: We assume that x is even.

By definition, there exists an integer k such that x=2k.
To derive the desired result, we square both sides
which yields x2 = 4k2 = 2(2k2). Thus x2 is even.
Therefore, by proof of the contrapositive,
if x2 is odd then x must be odd.

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