Mathematical Preliminaries

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 Mathematical Preliminaries

• Sets
• Functions
• Relations
• Graphs
• Proof Techniques

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 SETS
A set is a collection of elements
A  {1, 2, 3}
B  {train, bus, bicycle, airplane}

We write

1 A
ship  B
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 Set Representations

C = { a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k }

C = { a, b, …, k } finite set

S = { 2, 4, 6, … } infinite set

S = { j : j > 0, and j = 2k for some k>0 }

S = { j : j is nonnegative and even }

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A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

U
6 A
2 3 8
1
7 4 5
9
10

Universal Set: all possible elements

U = { 1 , … , 10 }
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 Set Operations
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 2, 3, 4, 5}
A B
• Union
2 4
1
3
A U B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } 5

• Intersection
U
A B = { 2, 3 } 2
3
• Difference
A-B={1}
1
B - A = { 4, 5 }
Venn diagrams
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• Complement
Universal set = {1, …, 7}
A = { 1, 2, 3 } A = { 4, 5, 6, 7}

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A
A 3 6
1
2
5 7

A=A
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{ even integers } = { odd integers }

Integers

1 odd
even 5
2 6
0
4
3 7

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DeMorgan’s Laws

U
AUB=A B

U
A B=AUB

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 Empty, Null Set:
={}

SU =S
U
S = = Universal Set

S- =S

-S=

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 Subset
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }
A B

U
Proper Subset: A B

U
B
A

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 Disjoint Sets
A = { 1, 2, 3 } B = { 5, 6}

U
A B=

A B

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 Set Cardinality
• For finite sets
A = { 2, 5, 7 }

|A| = 3

(set size)

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 Powersets
A powerset is a set of sets

S = { a, b, c }

Powerset of S = the set of all the subsets of S

2S = { , {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c} }

Observation: | 2S | = 2|S| ( 8 = 23 )

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 Cartesian Product
A = { 2, 4 } B = { 2, 3, 5 }

A X B = { (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), ( 4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5) }

|A X B| = |A| |B|

Generalizes to more than two sets

AXBX…XZ
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 FUNCTIONS
domain range
4 A B
f(1) = a a
1
2 b
3 c
5
f : A -> B
If A = domain
then f is a total function
otherwise f is a partial function
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 RELATIONS
R = {(x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), …}

xi R yi

e. g. if R = ‘>’: 2 > 1, 3 > 2, 3 > 1

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 Equivalence Relations
• Reflexive: xRx
• Symmetric: xRy yRx
• Transitive: x R y and y R z xRz

Example: R = ‘=‘
•x=x
•x=y y=x
• x = y and y = z x=z

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 Equivalence Classes
For equivalence relation R
equivalence class of x = {y : x R y}

Example:
R = { (1, 1), (2, 2), (1, 2), (2, 1),
(3, 3), (4, 4), (3, 4), (4, 3) }

Equivalence class of 1 = {1, 2}

Equivalence class of 3 = {3, 4}
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 GRAPHS
A directed graph
e
b
node
a d
edge c
• Nodes (Vertices)
V = { a, b, c, d, e }
• Edges
E = { (a,b), (b,c), (b,e),(c,a), (c,e), (d,c), (e,b), (e,d) }
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 Labeled Graph
2
6 e
b 2
1 3
a 6 d
5
c

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 Walk

e
b
a d

Walk is a sequence of adjacent edges

(e, d), (d, c), (c, a)

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 Path

e
b
a d

Path is a walk where no edge is repeated

Simple path: no node is repeated

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 Cycle

base e
b
3
a 1 d
2
c

Cycle: a walk from a node (base) to itself

Simple cycle: only the base node is repeated

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 Euler Tour
8 base
7 e
b 1
4 6
a 5 2 d
3
c

A cycle that contains each edge once

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 Hamiltonian Cycle
5 base
e
b 1
4
a 2 d
3
c

A simple cycle that contains all nodes

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Finding All Simple Paths

e
b
a d

c
origin

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 Step 1

e
b
a d

c
origin
(c, a)
(c, e)

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 Step 2

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Step 3

e
b
a d

(c, a) c
origin
(c, a), (a, b)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Step 4

e
b

(c, a) a d

(c, a), (a, b) c

origin
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e)
(c, a), (a, b), (b, e), (e,d)
(c, e)
(c, e), (e, b)
(c, e), (e, d)
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 Trees
root

parent

leaf

child

Trees have no cycles

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 root
Level 0

Level 1
leaf Height 3

Level 2

Level 3

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Binary Trees

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 PROOF TECHNIQUES

• Proof by induction

• Proof by contradiction

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 Induction

We have statements P1, P2, P3, …

If we know
• for some b that P1, P2, …, Pb are true
• for any k >= b that
P1, P2, …, Pk imply Pk+1
Then
Every Pi is true

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 Proof by Induction
• Inductive basis
Find P1, P2, …, Pb which are true

• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume P1, P2, …, Pk are true,
for any k >= b

• Inductive step
Show that Pk+1 is true 37
 Example
Theorem: A binary tree of height n
has at most 2n leaves.
Proof by induction:
let L(i) be the maximum number of
leaves of any subtree at height i

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We want to show: L(i) <= 2i

• Inductive basis
L(0) = 1 (the root node)

• Inductive hypothesis
Let’s assume L(i) <= 2i for all i = 0, 1, …, k

• Induction step
we need to show that L(k + 1) <= 2k+1 39
 Induction Step

height
k

k+1

From Inductive hypothesis: L(k) <= 2k

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 Induction Step

height
k L(k) <= 2k

k+1

L(k+1) <= 2 * L(k) <= 2 * 2k = 2k+1

(we add at most two nodes for every leaf of level k)

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 Remark
Recursion is another thing

Example of recursive function:

f(n) = f(n-1) + f(n-2)

f(0) = 1, f(1) = 1

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 Proof by Contradiction

We want to prove that a statement P is true

• we assume that P is false

• then we arrive at an incorrect conclusion
• therefore, statement P must be true

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 Example
Theorem: 2 is not rational

Proof:
Assume by contradiction that it is rational
2 = n/m
n and m have no common factors

We will show that this is impossible

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 2 = n/m 2 m 2 = n2

n is even
Therefore, n2 is even
n=2k

m is even
2 m2 = 4k2 m2 = 2k2
m=2p

Thus, m and n have common factor 2

Contradiction!
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Languages

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A language is a set of strings

String: A sequence of letters

Examples: “cat”, “dog”, “house”, …

Defined over an alphabet:

  a, b, c, , z

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 Alphabets and Strings
We will use small alphabets:   a, b

Strings
a
ab u  ab
abba v  bbbaaa
baba w  abba
aaabbbaabab
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 String Operations

w  a1a2  an abba
v  b1b2 bm bbbaaa

Concatenation

wv  a1a2  anb1b2 bm abbabbbaaa

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w  a1a2  an ababaaabbb

Reverse

R
w  an a2a1 bbbaaababa

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 String Length
w  a1a2  an
Length: w n

Examples: abba  4
aa  2
a 1
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 Length of Concatenation

uv  u  v

Example: u  aab, u  3
v  abaab, v  5

uv  aababaab  8
uv  u  v  3  5  8
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 Empty String
A string with no letters: 

Observations:  0

w  w  w

abba  abba  abba

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 Substring
Substring of string:
a subsequence of consecutive characters

String Substring
abbab ab
abbab abba
abbab b
abbab bbab
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 Prefix and Suffix
abbab
Prefixes Suffixes
 abbab w  uv
a bbab
prefix
ab bab
suffix
abb ab
abba b
abbab 
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 Another Operation
n
w  ww
 
w
n
2
Example: abba   abbaabba

0
Definition: w 
0
abba   
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 The * Operation
 * : the set of all possible strings from
alphabet 

  a, b
*   , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,

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 The + Operation
 : the set of all possible strings from

alphabet  except 

  a, b
*   , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,


   * 

  a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,
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 Languages
A language is any subset of *

Example:   a, b
*   , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa,

Languages: 
a, aa, aab
{ , abba, baba, aa, ab, aaaaaa}
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 Note that:

Sets   { }  {}

Set size {}    0

Set size {}  1

String length  0
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 Another Example

n n
An infinite language L  {a b : n  0}


ab
L abb  L
aabb
aaaaabbbbb
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 Operations on Languages
The usual set operations

a, ab, aaaabb, ab  {a, ab, bb, aaaa}

a, ab, aaaabb, ab  {ab}
a, ab, aaaa bb, ab  a, aaaa
Complement: L   * L

a, ba   , b, aa, ab, bb, aaa,

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 Reverse

R R
Definition: L  {w : w  L}

Examples: ab, aab, babaR  ba, baa, abab

n n
L  {a b : n  0}

R n n
L  {b a : n  0}
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 Concatenation

Definition: L1L2  xy : x  L1, y  L2 

Example: a, ab, bab, aa

 ab, aaa, abb, abaa, bab, baaa

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 Another Operation
Definition: n
L  LL L
n
3
a, b  a, ba, ba, b 
aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, bab, bba, bbb
0
Special case: L  

a , bba , aaa 0  

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 More Examples

n n
L  {a b : n  0}

2 n n m m
L  {a b a b : n, m  0}

2
aabbaaabbb  L

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 Star-Closure (Kleene *)

0 1 2
Definition: L*  L  L  L 

Example:
 , 
a, bb, 
 
a, bb*   
 aa , abb, bba , bbbb, 
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
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 Positive Closure

 1 2
Definition: L  L  L 
 L *  

a, bb, 
  
a, bb  aa, abb, bba, bbbb, 
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
 
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