Ultrasonic Testing Mini

Ashok, NIT, Trichy 11/6/2020
NDT?
Ultrasonic Testing
Theory and Practice
M. Ashok
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2
Ultrasonic Testing
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Examples of oscillation
Longitudinal wave
E(1 - )
VL =
 (1 + ) (1 - 2 )
Transverse wave
E = Modulus of Elasticity
= Density G
 = Poisson's Ratio VT =  0.5VL
G = Shear Modulus 
Lamb wave
Particle at Direction of wave travel
Surface Neutral axis rest surface
rayleigh Neutral axis

Surface 
Water wave
a) Particle vibrations b) Wave propagation
Particle vibrations Direction of wave
propagation
Surface
Neutral axis
Surface
a) Particle vibration b) Wave propagation
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Frequency
gas liquid solid
Time
From the duration of one oscillation One full

T the frequency f (number of oscillation T
oscillations per second) is
calculated:
• low density • high density
1
f = • weak bonding forces • strong bonding forces
T • crystallographic
structure
Introduction
➢Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a family of non-destructive testing techniques based on
the propagation of ultrasonic waves in the object or material tested.
➢In most common UT applications, very short ultrasonic pulse-waves with center
frequencies ranging from 0.1-15 MHz, and occasionally up to 50 MHz, are transmitted
into materials to detect internal flaws or to characterize materials.
distance travelled
Acoustic Impedance
This is the measure of resistance of medium to the passage of sound wave to Phase reversal of the wave arrived at steel-
travel through it.
Acoustic Impedance (Z) = V x r
water interface
Where:
Z = Acoustic Impedance
r = Density ( kg/m3)
V = Velocity of sound in the medium ( m/sec). Z is expressed in Kg/m 2 Transmitted wave
Transmitted wave Reflected wave
Reflected wave
Incident wave Incident wave Transmitted wave Transmitted wave
Pe Pe
Reflected waveReflected wave

Pr Pr
-1 -1
Incident wave Incident wave
Water Water
Steel Steel Steel Steel
Water Water
a) Incident wavea)inIncident
water wave in water b) Incident wave in steel
b) Incident wave in steel
Z1< Z2 : pr>0 Z1< Z2 : pr<0
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ULTRASONIC WAVE PRODUCTION

Ultrasonic waves are produced by the
following methods:
1. Mechanical method
2. Electrostatic method
3. Magnetostrictive method
4. Piezoelectric method
5. Laser method
1. Mechanical Method or Mechanical generator

Galton Whistle
S1
• Sound can be produced by
mechanical shock or friction
• Frequency : 100kHz to
1MHz v
f=
4(L + x)
v
f =
4(L + x ) S2
L = length of air column S3

x = end correction Galton whistle method 100 kHz-1MHz
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2.Electrostatic Method
• Longitudinal waves are produced
• Frequency upto 10 to 200 MHz
• Frequency of wave depends on
frequency of applied voltage
• Force between plates of charged
capacitor is :
ε r SV 2
F d2
Ɛr = dielectric constant
S = surface area of plate
V = applied voltage
d = distance between plates
• Obtained amplitudes are relatively less
Electrostatic transmitting probe 3.Magnetostrictive method

Oscillating electrode
Isolating foil (Insulating film) Principle: Magnetostriction effect

Fixed electrode
Ultrasound
When a ferromagnetic rod like iron or nickel
is placed in a magnetic field parallel to its
length, the rod experiences a small change in
its length. This is called magnetostricion
effect.
10 to 200 MHz
Magnetostriction oscillator:
The change in length (increase or decrease) produced in

the rod depends upon the strength of the magnetic field, the
nature of the materials and is independent of the direction of the
magnetic field applied.
Eg: nickel, iron, cobalt and their alloys
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• The capacitor C is adjusted so that the frequency of the Disadvantages:

oscillatory circuit is equal to natural frequency of the rod and
thus resonance takes plate.
• Now the rod vibrates longitudinally with maximum amplitude 1. It has low upper frequency limit and cannot generate
and generates ultrasonic waves of high frequency from its ultrasonic frequency above 3000 kHz (ie. 3MHz).
ends.
• The frequency of vibration of the rod is given by
1 Y 2. The frequency of oscillations depends on
f = temperature.
2l 
l = length of the rod 3. There will be losses of energy due to hysteresis and
Y = Young’s modulus of the rod material eddy current.
 =density of rod material
4. Piezo Electric Generator

Piezoelectric Effect
Principle : Inverse piezo electric effect
• If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair of opposite faces

of certain crystals like quartz, equal and opposite electrical
charges appear across its other faces. This is called as piezo-
electric effect. +
Battery
• If an electric field is applied to one pair of faces, the
corresponding changes in the dimensions of the other pair of
faces of the crystal are produced. This is known as inverse
piezo electric effect or electrostriction Piezoelectrical
Crystal (Quartz)
Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems
Piezoelectric Effect Piezoelectric Effect
+
+
The crystal gets thicker, due to a distortion of the crystal lattice The effect inverses with polarity change
Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems
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Piezoelectric Effect Reception of ultrasonic waves
Sound wave A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal

with vibration which then causes electrical voltages at the crystal
frequency f surfaces.
Electrical Piezoelectrical
crystal Ultrasonic wave
U(f) energy
An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f
Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure:

Advantages :
• The oscillator produces high
frequency alternating voltages with a
frequency • Ultrasonic frequencies as high as 500 MHz can be obtained
1 with this arrangement.
f =
2 L1C1 • The output of this oscillator is very high.
• Inverse piezo-electric effect takes • It is not affected by temperature and humidity.
place and the crystal contracts and
expands alternatively. The crystal is set
into mechanical vibrations.
Disadvantages :
P Y
f wave =
2l 
where P = 1,2,3,4 … etc. for fundamental Piezo electric oscillator • The cost of piezo electric quartz is very high
vibrations, first over tone, second over tone
etc. • The cutting and shaping of quartz crystal are very complex.
Laser generation and detection

5.Laser method
Illuminating
• A pulsed laser beam impinges on a material. Thermoelastic regime / laser
Ablation regime
• The optical power that is absorbed by the material is 1.5 meter
converted to heat.
• Leading to rapid localized temperature increase.
• This results in rapid thermal expansion of a local region, Nd-YAG Fabry-Perot interferometer
which leads to generation of ultrasound into the Generating laser
Steel plate
& detector Scope
medium.
❖Non-contact
❖On-line measurements at high
temperature and shop-floor
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Drawbacks: APPLICATIONS
• Lower sensitivity than contact piezoelectric (PZT) • Detection of flaws in metals – NDT
transducers. • Ultrasonic drilling
• Ultrasonic welding
• Laser ultrasonic systems are also relatively more
expensive. • Ultrasonic soldering
• Ultrasonic cutting
• If the optical power is high enough it leads to melting of and machining
the material (ablation).
• Ultrasonic cleaning
• SONAR
• In medical field
Crystals
• It is the vibration of these crystals inside the probe that produces the UT
waves.
• Crystals produces vibration either by magnetostrictive effect or by

piezoelectric effect.
• Magnetostrictive – Sonar and under water signaling.
• In UT we use piezoelectric effect to produce this vibration.
• Piezoelectric crystals, when electric charges are applied on them,
produces mechanical deformation and vice versa.
• Most commonly used piezoelectric crystals for UT are Quartz, Barium

titanate etc.
Piezoelectric crystal Crystal cuts

• A polarized material having some parts of the molecule positively charged, while • A single crystal of quartz is anisotropic in its mechanical, optical and electrical
other parts of the molecule are negatively charged, with electrodes attached to two of properties.
its opposite faces. • So, slabs with different properties can be obtained by cutting through various
• When an electric field is applied across the material, the polarized molecules will directions of the crystal.
align themselves with the electric field causing the material to change dimensions. • Each crystal has three polar axes X,Y and Z.
• The active element of most acoustic transducers used today is a piezoelectric ceramic, • The piezoelectric effect is most easily visualized by using a plate cut from a crystal
which can be cut in various ways to produce different wave modes. at right angles to the X axis.
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Sequence
Potential applied pressure on the plate changes the thickness

slightly shift of ions ( si and oxygen ) plate becomes
polarized capacitor created parallel zones attract each other
plate becomes thinner and longer and vice versa plate vibrates
the electronic info from such a reaction is processed and displayed on CRT.
• X cut crystal elongates slightly in Y direction as it is deformed, which results in

the formation of transverse waves.
• Modes of vibration
• Piezoelectric material exhibit four modes of vibration based on the plates material and its
• Transverse waves are not transmitted to liquids or solids if there is liquid layer orientation with respect to the crystallographic axis.
coupling in between them. • Four modes are given below.
• Transmission is possible only if the couplant layer is very thin or the surface is
very smooth or by pressing the transducer on the dry plate.
• Y cut crystal generates a transverse normal to the surface and a surface wave in
the X direction. Surface waves are more strong if the a:b = 7:1.
• The most widely used mode in ultrasonic testing is the thickness expansion mode.
• Generally any plate can exhibit combination of two or more modes.
Ultrasonic Probes PEIZOELECTRIC MATERIAL

socket Delay / protecting face
crystal Electrical matching
Damping Cable
• Quartz, lithium sulphate or barium titanate are almost never

used today.
•Now they have been replaced by Lead Zirconate Titanate
(PZT), Lead Titanate (PbT) and lead metaniobate (PbNb2O6).
•Depending on the application, the one or other material is
more advantageous due to physical or economic reasons, or
Straight beam probe TR-probe Angle beam probe
simply because of a less complicated manufacturing process.
•Selection of peizoelectric material depends on its
application.
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BACKING MATERIAL
• Usually made of an epoxy-like material , glued to
inner surface of the crystal.
• It should have same acoustic impedance as that of
the crystal.
• It serves to absorb reverse wave that are
transmitted to the back of the crystal.
• Its also known an Mechanical Pulse Damper.
• It mechanically stops RINGING of the crystal.
ELECTRICAL NETWORK
CONNECTORS
• Very thin wire connected to crystal.
• Electrically link the transducer.
• Delivers electrical impulse to ring the crystal
and receives the return echoes.
IMPEDANCE MATCHING LAYER NORMAL BEAM TESTING

• To get much energy from
transducer . • Single transducer or T-R normal beam probes are used
• Placed in between the active
element and face of transducer. • For near surface flaw detection and for thickness measurement of
thin walls, single transducer probes are ineffective due to the
• Optimal matching thickness is 1/4 occurrence of large transmission pulse
of the desired wavelength.
• For immersion transducers • In T-R probes, two transducers are enclosed in the same case
matching layer acoustic impedance
in between active element and • For thin wall thickness measurements and near surface flaw
detection T-R probes are used
water.
• Modified SiO2 aerogels are used.
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NORMAL BEAM INSPECTION NORMAL BEAM TESTING

• Measuring the time required for a short ultrasonic pulse generated
by a transducer to travel through a thickness of material, reflect
from the back or the surface of a discontinuity, and be returned to
the transducer.
• In most applications, this time interval is a few microseconds or
less.
• The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account for
the down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of
sound in the test material.
• d = vt/2 or v = 2d/t
• where d is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in the
test piece, v is the velocity of sound waves in the material, and t is
the measured round-trip transit time.
ANGLE BRAM INSPETION

• Angle Beam Transducers
and wedges are typically
used to introduce
a refracted shear wave
into the test material.
• An angled sound path
allows the sound beam to
come in from the side,
thereby improving
detectability of flaws in
and around welded areas.
ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION
❑Angle beam probes provide better

detectability for surface cracks
and angled defects
❑Transverse waves at various
angles of refraction between 35
and 80 deg. are used
❑Many times flaw orientation is not
favourable for detection with
normal probes
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ANGLE BEAM TESTING IMMERSION TESTING TECHNIQUE

• Both the probe and test specimen are immersed in water.
a = s sinß ß = probe angle • The ultrasonic beam is directed through the water into the test
s = sound path specimen, using either a normal beam technique for generating
a' = a - x a = surface distance longitudinal waves, or, an angle beam technique for generating
F a‘ = reduced surface transverse waves.
s distance
d' = s cosß d‘ = virtual depth
d = actual depth
0 20 40 60 80 100 d = 2T - d' T = material thickness
Manipulator Probe Manipulator Probe
a
x a'
d
ß Lack of fusion
s
Work piece with welding Normal beam Angle beam
LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE

SCANNING SCANNING
• The probe shall be • Transverse scanning • Raster scanning is done
positioned parallel to shall be done by placing .
weld length direction so the probe • Probe swiveled for 10
that the beam is striking perpendicular to the to15˚ .
the weld. weld length direction, • An overlap of up to 20%
aiming for defects if any between scans
in the transverse
direction • At a normal scanning
speed of about
150mm/sec
Pulse echo instrumentation • Pulser circuit - Controls the duration of the pulse.
• Timer - Controls pulse repetition rate.
• Transducer - Converts electrical pulses into

mechanical vibrations.
• Receiver amplifier - The electrical pulses are

amplified.
• Power supply - The instrument is connected to proper

power source and grounded.
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Sweep line:
• Soon after the power switch is turned on, a horizontal

line of light appears across the CRT screen.
• this line is called trace,sweep,time base,or base line.
H-heater coil, C-cathode, A-anode, F-focusing cylinder,

S-fluorescent screen, X and Y -deflecting plates
The time-base generator provides a voltage to the X-

plates of CRT to move the electrons beam from left to
right.
Instrument controls: • Screen illumination control- adjusts the brightness

of all the horizontal and vertical lines scribed on the
• Sweep intensity screen.
• Scale illumination
• Vertical centering control- raises and lowers the
• Vertical centering sweep line on the CRT screen.
• Horizontal centering • Horizontal centering control- adjusts the starting

point of the sweep on the CRT screen.
• Focus
• Astigmatism
• Focus control- adjusts the focus of the sweep Operating controls-

line on the CRT tube.
• gain control • Reject control
• Astigmatism control- corrects any distortion caused
by other adjustments. • sweep delay • Gating circuits
• sweep length • DAC control
• Pulse repetition rate
• Pulse length control
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Sweep delay- regulates how much of the test part is

Gain control- displayed at one time on the CRT screen.
• Determine the amount that the signals received by

the transducer are amplified.
• It can also be said that this control adjusts the

sensitivity of the instrument. Sweep length- regulate what portion of the part is
displayed.
Reject control-
Pulse repetition rate-
• eliminates grass or very low amplitude pips caused by surface
regulates how often the pulse is applied. noise or large grain structure.
• Low PRR
• High PRR
Pulse length control-

• regulates the length of the pulse applied.
Flaw-alarm/gating circuits-
• establish zones along the sweep line within which pips over
• Pulse length must be increased to obtain deeper penetration.
predetermined amplitude will activate an alarm.
digital amplification control

Have three basic controls-
• electronically compensates for the attenuation of
• gate delay control-positions the start of the gate.
sound as it penetrates deeper into the test piece.
• gate width control-positions the end of the gate.
• DAC amplifies the signals from the discontinuities
deep in the part more than those from discontinuities
• alarm sensitivity control-determines the pip amplitude
closer to the surface.
at which the alarm will be initiated.
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UT TECHNIQUES
THROUGH RESONANCE
TRANSMISSION METHOD
PULSE ECHO
METHOD
Pulse Echo Method
Immersion
Contact Method Method
Normal Angle
Probe Probe
Contact Method Immersion Methods
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RESONANCE METHOD The Sound Beam

This method uses neither pulse nor the principle of ➢Dead Zone
reflection from a discontinuity.
➢Near Zone or Fresnel Zone
It uses continuous waves ➢Far Zone or Fraunhofer Zone
Condition for resonance – thickness of a material equals

half the wavelength of ultra sound or any multiples of it.
Resonance is indicated by the increase of amplitude.

𝑡 = 𝑣 ÷ (2𝑓)
Sound field Sound reflection at a flaw
s
Crystal Focus Angle of divergence
Accoustical axis
6
D0
Probe
Sound travel path
N Flaw
Near field Far field
Work piece
Through transmission signal
1 T R 1
IP
BE
2 T R 2
F 0 2 4 6 8 10
delamination 0 2 4 6 8 10 Flaw
plate
IP = Initial pulse
F = Flaw
BE = Backwall echo
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Direct contact, Direct contact,

a = s sinß single element probe
Fixed delay
dual element probe
F
a' = a - x ß = probe angle
s s
a
= sound path
= surface distance
d' = s cosß a‘ = reduced surface distance
d‘ = virtual depth
0 20 40 60 80 100
d = 2T - t' d = actual depth
T = material thickness
a
Through transmission Immersion testing
x a'
ß d
Lack of fusion
Work piece with welding s
Images of a Quarter Produced With an Data Presentation

Ultrasonic Immersion Scanning System
• Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a

number of different formats.
• The three most common formats are know in the NDT
world as A-scan, B-scan and C-scan presentations.
• Each presentation mode provides a different way of
looking at and evaluating the region of material being
inspected.
• Modern computerized ultrasonic scanning systems
can display data in all three presentation forms
simultaneously.
Gray scale image produced using Gray scale image produced using the
the sound reflected from the front sound reflected from the back surface
surface of the coin of the coin (inspected from “heads” side)
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Data Presentation - A-scan

• A-scan presentation displays
Signal Amplitude
the amount of received
ultrasonic energy as a
function of time.
• Relative discontinuity size can
be estimated by comparing Time
the signal amplitude to that
from a known reflector. Signal Amplitude
• Reflector depth can be

determined by the position of
the signal on the horizontal
sweep.
Time
• In the illustration of the A-scan presentation the initial pulse

generated by the transducer is represented by the
signal IP, which is near time zero.
• When the transducer is in its far left position, only
the IP signal and signal A, the sound energy reflecting from
surface A, will be seen on the trace.
• As the transducer is scanned to the right, a signal from the
backwall BW will appear later in time, showing that the
sound has traveled farther to reach this surface.
• When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear at a
point on the time scale that is approximately halfway
between the IP signal and the BW signal.
• Since the IP signal corresponds to the front surface of the
material, this indicates that flaw B is about halfway between
the front and back surfaces of the sample.
Data Presentation - B-scan

• B-scan presentations
display a profile view
(cross-sectional) of a test
specimen.
• Only the reflector depth in
the cross-section and the
linear dimensions can be
determined.
• A limitation to this display
technique is that reflectors
may be masked by larger
reflectors near the surface.
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• This position tracking is typically done

through the use of electromechanical
devices known as encoders.
• These encoders are used in fixtures
which are either manually scanned or in
automated systems that move the
transducer by a programmable motor-
controlled scanner.
Drawbacks C SCAN
• The areas behind a reflecting surface are in shadow
and no indication behind this surface can be
obtained. • C-scan is designed to provide a permanent record of the
• The flaw width in a direction perpendicular the test , when high speed automatic scanning is used.
• The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of the
ultrasonic beam and probe travel direction is not test specimen and discontinuities.
recorded except if the width increases or decreases • C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data
the echo intensity and change the brightness of the acquisition system, such as in immersion scanning.
• Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary when
image. depth determination is desired.
• Due to finite beam width and divergence effect, • In a C-scan the color represents the gated signal amplitude
or the depth at each point mapped to its position.
flaws near the back surface of the specimen appear
longer than those near the front surface.
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Data Presentation - C-scan

• The C-scan presentation displays a plan type view of the test
specimen and discontinuities.
• C-scan presentations are produced with an automated data
acquisition system, such as in immersion scanning.
• Use of A-scan in conjunction with C-scan is necessary when
depth determination is desired.
Photo of a Composite C-Scan Image of

Component Internal Features
What is a discontinuity??? 4 types of Discontinuity

A Discontinuity is defined as an
imperfection or interruption in the normal • Inherent discontinuities
physical characteristics or structure of an
object. • Primary processing discontinuities
Example: crack, porosity, inhomogeneity…
• Secondary procession discontinuities
• Service discontinuities
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Inherent discontinuities Cold Shut : Imperfectfusion between

two streams of molten metal that
converged together
Discontinuities that originate during
the initial casting process.
Shrinkage Cavities: By the lack of

Example : Cold Shut, Shrinkage Cavities, hot tears, Blowholes enough molten metal to fill the space
and Porosity, Non-metallic Inclusions. created by shrinkage
Hot tears: Low melting point

materials segregate during
solidification
Blowholes and Porosity : Entrapped Primary processing discontinuities

gasses that could not escape during
solidification
Discontinuities that originate during
hot or cold forming processes
Non-metallic Inclusions : Oxides,

sulphides or silicates that remained with Example : Extrusion, forging, drawing, welding, etc…
the molten metal during original casting
Extrusion : cupping – Series of cone Welding :

shaped internal ruptures that happen
because the interior of the material
cannot flow as fast as the surface
Forging : During forging operations

due to the presence of some excessive Porosity : small cavities or bores
material (fin) that is folded over
(forging laps)
Drawing : Seams - Elongated surface Lack of Penetration : Insufficient penetration of the weld
discontinuities that occur in bars metal into the root of the joint
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Lack of Fusion : Failure of the filler Secondary procession discontinuities

metal to fuse with the adjacent
base metal. Grinding Cracks : Grinding cracks develop at locations where there is
a localized heating of the base metal and they are usually shallow and
at right angle to the grinding direction.
Solidification Cracks : Occur near the
Heat Treatment (Quenching) Cracks : During quenching the
solidification temperature of the weld metal.
material at the surface cools immediately upon contacting the liquid
Eg : Centreline Crack while the material inside take relatively longer time.
Machining Tears : Machining tears result from the use of machining

tools having dull or chipped cutting edges.
Slag Inclusions : Happens in shielded metal
arc welding (SMAW) .
Plating cracks : Plating cracks are surface discontinuities that can
develop due to the penetration of hydrogen or hot plating material
into the base metal.
Service discontinuities
Fatigue Cracks : When a component is subjected to fatigue stress Stress corrosion cracks : Stress corrosion cracks are small sharp and
(cyclically applied stress), fatigue cracks can develop and grow and usually branched cracks that result from the combined effect of a
that will eventually lead to failure. “static” tensile stress and a corrosive environment. The stress can
either be resulting from an applied load or a residual stress.
Creep Cracks : When a metal is at a temperature greater than 0.4 to

0.5 of its absolute melting temperature and is subjected to a high
enough value of stress it will keep deforming continuously until it
finally fractures.
Types of couplant What is Calibration?

• C 333; dense couplant gel, special for corroded
surfaces, weldings, fused and forged, concave and • Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and
convex surfaces
adjusting the precision and accuracy of
• FY; fluid couplant gel special for all surfaces, big
structures, weldings, fused and forged,. Composites measuring equipment.
• UHT(200-500),MHT(max 300) V1 BLOCK V2 BLOCK
• W4US; additive for Water used in immersion tanks
• Oil/Glycerine;
• Market "Blu Gel";
• Glue water base;
• Market "Hi temp" paste
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Sensitivity Resolution
• Sensitivity is the often term used in ultrasonic • Resolution is the ability of the system to locate
inspection to describe a technique's ability to locate
flaws.
discontinuities that are close together within
• It has capability to locate small discontinuities. the material or located near the part surface.
• While there are a number of other parameters that • Resolution also generally increases as the
affect the flaw sensitivity, the detectability of a flaw is frequency increases.
a direct function of the wavelength,which varies
inversely with the frequency. • Near to surface discontinuites may or may not
• Sensitivity generally increases with higher frequency be detected.
(shorter wavelengths).
Damping
• Damping reduce the pulse length and thus no of
cycles.
• The backing material supporting the crystal has a
great influence on the damping characteristics of
a transducer.
• Using a backing material with an impedance
similar to that of the active element will produce
the most effective damping.
• Such a transducer will have a wider bandwidth
resulting in higher sensitivity and higher
resolution.
Probe
X
Amplitude
X/2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
X Specimen
X/2 X X Time or
Distance
X = Time taken by ultrasound to travel to and fro in material
= Metal path distance
149 150
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Ultrasound for Obstetrics

• Diagnosis and assessment of early
pregnancy.
Other Application • Threatened miscarriage
• Determination of gestational age and
assessment of fetal size.
• Multiple pregnancies
• Fetal malformation
10 Weeks fetus
Malformation in the fetus

2) Ultrasonic Drilling
• Ultrasonic waves are used for making holes in very hard materials like glass, diamond etc.
• Suitable drilling tool bit is fixed at the end of a powerful ultrasonic generator
• Some slurry (a thin paste of carborundum powder and water) is made to flow between
the bit and the plate in which the hole is to be made
• Ultrasonic generator causes the tool bit to move up and down very quickly and the
slurry particles below the bit just remove some material from the plate.
• This process continues and a hole is drilled in the plate
3) Ultrasonic Cutting And Machinning
• Ultrasonic waves are used for cutting and machining
Cleft lip Polydactyl (6 toes)
26
4) Ultrasonic welding
5) Ultrasonic Soldering
• The properties of some metals change on heating and therefore, such metals cannot
be welded by electric or gas welding. • Metals like aluminium cannot be directly soldered.It is possible to solder such
metals by ultrasonic waves.
• The metallic sheets are welded together at room temperature by using ultrasonic
waves. • An ultrasonic soldering iron consists of an ultrasonic generator having a tip fixed
at its end which can be heated by an electrical heating element.
• The metallic sheets to be welded are put together under the tip of hammer H.
• The tip of the soldering iron melts solder on the aluminium and the ultrasonic
vibrator removes the aluminium oxide layer.
• The hammer is made to vibrate ultrasonically. It presses the two metal sheets very
rapidly and the molecules of one metal diffuse into the molecules of the other.
6)Ultrasonic Cleaning
• Thus, the two sheets get welded without heating. This process is known as cold It is the most cheap technique employed for cleaning various parts of the machine,
welding. electronic assembles, armatures, watches etc., which cannot be easily cleaned by other
methods.
7) SONAR Applications
• SONAR is a technique which stands for Sound Navigation and Ranging.

• Sonar is used in the location of shipwrecks and submarines on the bottom of the sea
• It uses ultrasonics for the detection and identification of under water objects.
• It is used for fish-finding application
• The method consists of sending a powerful beam of ultrasonics in the suspected direction in water.
• It is used for seismic survey
• By noting the time interval between the emission and receipt of beam after reflection, the distance of the
object can be easily calculated.
• The change in frequency of the echo signal due to the Dopper effect helps to determine the velocity of the
body and its direction.
• Measuring the time interval (t) between the transmitted pulses and the received pulse, the
distance d=(v t)/2 between the transmitter and the remote object is determined using the formula., where
v is the velocity of sound in sea water.
• The same principle is used to find the depth of the sea
Applications of Ultrasonic Waves in Medical 2) Ultrasonic Blood Flow Meter
• Ultrasonic waves are used for studying the blood flow by measuring the
1) Diagnostic Sonography change in their frequency produced due to Doppler’s effect.
• Medical sonography (ultrasonography) is an ultrasound-based diagnostic medical imaging technique used

to visualize muscles, tendons, and many internal organs, their size, structure and any pathological lesions. 3) Ultrasonic guidance for the blind
• They are also used to visualize the foetus during routine and emergency prenatal care. Ultrasound scans • Ultrasonic waves are used for guiding the blind who carries a walking stick
are performed by medical health care professionals called sonographers. containing an ultrasonic transmitter and receiver.
• Ultrasonic signals reflected from any obstacles are fed to the head phones through a suitable
• Obstetric sonography is commonly used during pregnancy. electronic circuit which enables the blind person to detect and estimate the distance of the
obstacle.
Obstetric ultrasound is primarily used to:
4) Ultrasonic In Research
• Date the pregnancy • Scientists often use in research, for instant to break up high molecular weight polymers
• Check the location of the placenta
• Check for the number of fetuses • Ultrasound also makes it possible to determine the molecular weight of liquid polymers
• Check for physical abnormities
• Check the sex of the baby • Ultrasonic can also speed up certain chemical reactions. Hence in agriculture, that seeds subjected
• Check for fetal movement, breathing, and heartbeat. to ultrasound may germinate more rapidly and produce higher yields.
27
Inspection Following
Inspection of Raw Products
Secondary Processing
• Forgings, • Machining
• Castings, • Welding
• Grinding
• Extrusions,
• Heat treating
• etc. • Plating
• etc.
Inspection For Power Plant Inspection

In-Service Damage
Periodically, power plants are
shutdown for inspection.
Inspectors feed eddy current
• Cracking probes into heat exchanger
tubes to check for corrosion
• Corrosion damage.
• Erosion/Wear
• Heat Damage
• etc.
Storage Tank Inspection Aircraft Inspection

Robotic crawlers use • Nondestructive testing is used
ultrasound to inspect the extensively during the
walls of large above manufacturing of aircraft.
ground tanks for signs of
thinning due to corrosion. • NDT is also used to find cracks
and corrosion damage during
operation of the aircraft.
• A fatigue crack that started at
the site of a lightning strike is
shown below.
Cameras on long
articulating arms
are used to inspect
underground
storage tanks for
damage.
28
Crash of United Flight 232

Jet Engine Inspection Sioux City, Iowa, July 19, 1989
• Aircraft engines are overhauled
after being in service for a period A defect that went
of time. undetected in an
• They are completely disassembled, engine disk was
cleaned, inspected and then responsible for
reassembled. the crash of
• Fluorescent penetrant inspection United Flight 232.
is used to check many of the parts
for cracking.
Pressure Vessel Inspection Rail Inspection

The failure of a pressure vessel
can result in the rapid release of Special cars are used to inspect
a large amount of energy. To thousands of miles of rail to find
cracks that could lead to a
protect against this dangerous derailment.
event, the tanks are inspected
using radiography and
ultrasonic testing.
Bridge Inspection Pipeline Inspection

NDT is used to inspect pipelines
• The US has 578,000 to prevent leaks that could
highway bridges. damage the environment. Visual
inspection, radiography and
• Corrosion, cracking and electromagnetic testing are some
other damage can all of the NDT methods used.
affect a bridge’s
performance.
• The collapse of the Silver
Bridge in 1967 resulted in Remote visual inspection using
a robotic crawler.
loss of 47 lives.
• Bridges get a visual
inspection about every 2
years.
• Some bridges are fitted Magnetic flux leakage inspection.
with acoustic emission This device, known as a pig, is
sensors that “listen” for placed in the pipeline and collects
data on the condition of the pipe as it
sounds of cracks growing. is pushed along by whatever is being
transported.
Radiography of weld joints.
29
Special Measurements
Boeing employees in Philadelphia were given the privilege of
evaluating the Liberty Bell for damage using NDT techniques. Eddy
current methods were used to measure the electrical conductivity of
the Bell's bronze casing at a various points to evaluate its uniformity.
Foundation bolts are subjected

to corrosion and hence it fails
HIDDEN CORROSION IN Foundation bolts are used in
structures
FOUNDATION BOLTS USING

ULTRASONIC
Foundation bolts Failures are

unsafe
30
Sample Preparation
Foundation bolts are mainly designed for
tensile stress. There are mainly three types
of designs used
1) plain rod
2) partially threaded rod
3) fully threaded rod
Design Criteria
❖ Bolt length= 4X Bolt Diameter
❖ Minimum 7 inch Embededment
Specification Of Sample
Diameter : 20mm
Length : 200mm
Material : Mild Steel
Young’s modulus: 210GPa
Density : 7850Kg/m3
Position of Leading end of corrosion

Only Access point
Diameter of Corrosion
Length Of Corrosion
Characterizing Longitudinal Defects !!
Schematic of simulated corrosion

Velocity X Time of Flight
Distance=
2
Amplitude of first Trailing Echo

Amplitude Ratio =
Amplitude of second Trailing Echo
31
Trailing Echoes Mode Conversion at

Cylindrical Surfaces
Flaw Echo
Ultrasonic
Signal
Flaw Echo Back
Echo
First Trailing
Echo
Each Time wave hits Back
First Trailing
Trailing Echoes surface Echo
Echo
Transverse and shear Second Trailing Second Trailing

waves Echo Echo
are produced which
travels
with different speed
Spacing Between Echoes Signals From Sample Without groove Signals From A grooved Sample
Depends on Diameter
Actual Corrosion
Beam Spread And Length Of Corrosion

Simulated Corrosion
Diameter Of Corroded Position Of Corrosion
Portion
Length Of Corroded Portion
Diameter Reduction- Position-
10% 40mm
Position- Length-40mm
Diameter Reduction-20% 60mm
Length-80mm
Position-
Diameter 80mm
Reduction-30%
Position-
Diameter 100mm Length-120mm
Reduction-40%
Position-120mm Length-130mm
Diameter Reduction-50%
Flaw Echo
Signal Characteristics
Position Of Corrosion
Flaw Echo
Position-40mm
Specimens
Position- Measur Flaw Echo

ed
60mm Specime Specim
Readin Specime Specime Specime n- en- Position-40mm Position-100mm
gs n-40mm n-60mm n-80mm 100mm 120mm
Position- Readin
80mm g1 40.1 59.5 79.5 99.9 122.5
Flaw Echo
Readin
Position-
g2 40.1 59.9 80.1 99.8 121.7
100mm Position-80mm
Readin Flaw Echo
g3 40.2 59.8 80.1 100.1 122.1

Position-
120mm Mean 40.13 59.73 79.9 99.93 122.1
Position-60mm Position-120mm
32
Length Of Corroded Portion Signal Characteristics

Flaw Echo Flaw Echo
First Trailing
Echo First Trailing
Echo
Second Trailing
Echo Second Trailing
Length-40mm Echo
Measured Length Of Simulated Length-40mm

Length-80mm Length-120mm
Specimens
Speci Flaw Echo Flaw Echo
Specim Specim men-
Specime en- en- 130m First Trailing
n-40mm 80mm 120mm m Echo First Trailing
Length-120mm Reading Echo
Second Trailing Second Trailing
1 40.10 78.80 118.90 129.80 Echo Echo
Reading
2 40.10 78.40 118.60 129.80
Reading
3 40.20 78.50 118.70 129.80
Length-130mm Mean Length-80mm Length-130mm
40.13 78.56 118.73 129.80
Case study1: Known Sample

Positio Positio
n of n of
Position
Diame 1st 2nd Distance
of
ter Of Trailin Trailin between 1st
simulat Diamet Length
rod g echo g echo & 2nd echoes Flaw
ed er of of Echo
1st Trailing
10 1.44 2.23 0.79
Echo
corrosio corrosi corrosi 2nd Trailing
12 1.46 2.29 0.83 Echo
n on on
14 1.46 2.33 0.87
Readin
16 1.46 2.37 0.91
g1 40.10 10.10 71.1
18 1.46 2.4 0.94 Readin
20 1.46 2.45 0.99 g2 40.30 10.10 70.9
Readin
g3 40.20 10.0 70.8
Mean 40.20 10.06 70.93
Signal Characteristics
Case study2: Unknown Sample
• Experiment is carried out Back wall
Echo
on the light poles in NIT
Trichy which are erected
on four foundation bolts of
Diameter= 15mm.
• A signal is obtained at
• One of the bolt is taken 300mm range
• A repeated signal is obtained
for the case study. at 600mm
• No other high amplitude
33
Corrosion monitoring using arduino

ultrasonic sensors • Development of reliable and low cost
online corrosion monitoring
• Remote data acquisition system with
help of Wifi
Ultrasonic sensor(hc-sr04)
specifications
Working Voltage DC : 5 V
Working Current : 15mA
Working Frequency : 40Hz
Max Range : 4m
Min Range : 2cm
Measuring Angle :15 degree
Dimension : 45*20*15mm
DESIGN
34
Defect Characterization
of Corroded Surfaces Corrosion leads to
Using Ultrasonic and C- ❖ scaling
scan ❖ Corrosion deposits
❖ roughness of surface
❑ Hinder ultrasonic inspection
❑ Ultrasonic waves get scattered and
reflected and are not properly
transmitted
ABAQUS simulation
To study the effect of corroded surface on
No Slot 1 Slot 2 Slots 3 Slots 4 Slots 5 Slots
signal energy from back wall
Amplitude of the signal from
back wall is taken as a measure
Simulation Parameters
➢ Frequency: 1Mz
1Mhz
➢ Element Size: 0.1mm
➢ Time Increment : 1e-8s
Sample Preparation
Sample is
prepared by
pouring
NaCl
Schematic of sample prepared Solution.
35
0th Day 7th Day 14th Day
➢ As the day increases, corrosion

increses, clarity is reduced
➢ Signals becomes noisy
➢ Difficult to interpret as the
corrosion increases
21st Day
Image Processing
• Image processing is done to obtain a Defect Sizing
clear image so that measurements can
be made accurately.
• Obtained image is subjected to 1) Defect 4mm Hole
correlation operation and then
subjected to edge detection C Process 7
Scan ed 6
Image Image 5
Defect Size(mm)
Days (mm) (mm) 4
0 4.2 4.1 3
7 4.4 4.1 2
14 4.7 4.2 1
21 5.2 4.3 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Days
Cscan Image 28 5.8 5.1
Correlation Edge Detection C scan Image Processed Image Actual Value
Case Study Advance
Cscan Image Processed Image Actual Image
• Case Study is successfully conducted on the sample

• Area of the corroded portion is found to be 498mm2
36
37
TOFD
THANK
YOU..
38

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Ashok, NIT, Trichy 11/6/2020

rayleigh Neutral axis

a) Particle vibration b) Wave propagation

From the duration of one oscillation One full

Reflected waveReflected wave

Incident wave Incident wave

ULTRASONIC WAVE PRODUCTION

1. Mechanical Method or Mechanical generator

L = length of air column S3

• Obtained amplitudes are relatively less

Electrostatic transmitting probe 3.Magnetostrictive method

Isolating foil (Insulating film) Principle: Magnetostriction effect

The change in length (increase or decrease) produced in

Eg: nickel, iron, cobalt and their alloys

• The capacitor C is adjusted so that the frequency of the Disadvantages:

4. Piezo Electric Generator

Principle : Inverse piezo electric effect

• If mechanical pressure is applied to one pair of opposite faces

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Piezoelectric Effect Piezoelectric Effect

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

Piezoelectric Effect Reception of ultrasonic waves

Sound wave A sound wave hitting a piezoelectric crystal, induces crystal

An alternating voltage generates crystal oscillations at the frequency f

Krautkramer NDT Ultrasonic Systems

The circuit diagram is shown in Figure:

Laser generation and detection

• Crystals produces vibration either by magnetostrictive effect or by

• Most commonly used piezoelectric crystals for UT are Quartz, Barium

Piezoelectric crystal Crystal cuts

Potential applied pressure on the plate changes the thickness

• X cut crystal elongates slightly in Y direction as it is deformed, which results in

Ultrasonic Probes PEIZOELECTRIC MATERIAL

• Quartz, lithium sulphate or barium titanate are almost never

IMPEDANCE MATCHING LAYER NORMAL BEAM TESTING

NORMAL BEAM INSPECTION NORMAL BEAM TESTING

ANGLE BRAM INSPETION

ANGLE BEAM INSPECTION

❑Angle beam probes provide better

ANGLE BEAM TESTING IMMERSION TESTING TECHNIQUE

LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE LONGITUDINAL AND TRANSVERSE

• Timer - Controls pulse repetition rate.

• Transducer - Converts electrical pulses into

• Receiver amplifier - The electrical pulses are

• Power supply - The instrument is connected to proper

• Soon after the power switch is turned on, a horizontal

• this line is called trace,sweep,time base,or base line.

H-heater coil, C-cathode, A-anode, F-focusing cylinder,

The time-base generator provides a voltage to the X-

Instrument controls: • Screen illumination control- adjusts the brightness

• Horizontal centering • Horizontal centering control- adjusts the starting

• Focus control- adjusts the focus of the sweep Operating controls-

• sweep length • DAC control

• Pulse repetition rate

• Pulse length control

Sweep delay- regulates how much of the test part is

• Determine the amount that the signals received by

• It can also be said that this control adjusts the

Pulse length control-

digital amplification control

Pulse Echo Method

Contact Method Immersion Methods

RESONANCE METHOD The Sound Beam