Vehicle Technology

Lecture 6
Peter Fussey
 Lecture 6:
Hybridisation and
Powertrain Design
Hybridisation
 Hybridisation - Concept
• Hybridisation in the Automotive sector refers to embed a non-conventional
drivetrain along with the conventional one. Therefore, internal combustion
engines are one of the main components of all hybrid powertrains.

New Components to
Embed Electric
Drivetrain

Components of the
Conventional
Drivetrain
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 Hybridisation - Benefits
• More flexibility in design
• Different Drivetrains and storages with different complementary
characteristics

• Resulting in improvements of:

• Fuel consumption due to using the drivetrains close to their optimum

operation points

• Emission levels due to using the drivetrains close to their optimum

operation points

• Waste, mainly in the form of friction dissipation, recuperation

(recovery) à called Regeneration

• Multiple storage systems to improve the life expectancy and

response times. Plug-in systems to benefit from grid.

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 Hybridisation - Challenges
• Higher Costs [currently]

• Higher weight and the issue of relocation of

components

• Complicated transmission systems

• Energy Management Strategies (EMSs) to manage the

energy flow amongst the drivetrains, storages and
wheels

• New electric machines, power electronics and

batteries for HEVs

• Rare-earth materials, recycling of batteries, charging

facilities

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 Internal Reciprocating Engine
4 Stroke Cycle: SI, CI

a) Induction b) Compression
(Air mass & fuel (density &
in case of SI) temperature
increase)

c) Combustion d) Exhaust
& Expansion (removal of
(self ignition (CI) combustion
or imposed products CO2, H2O,
ignition (SI) & O2 & N2) 7

work transfer)
 Thermodynamic Cycles
Otto Cycle – Diesel Cycle –
• Thermodynamic Otto Cycle of ideal gas: is the SI engines Diesel engines
best theoretical fit to the cycles of the spark- Isobaric, Heat addition
at constant pressure
ignition engines (Petrol Engines). The thermal Isochoric, Heat addition at due to compression
constant volume due to
efficiency of this cycle which is defined as the ratio spark ignition
ignition

of the output mechanical work to the generated 3 𝑄"'

P
heat due to burning the gas is as follows: P 2 3
𝑊&'( isentro 𝑊&'(
𝑄"'
= 𝑊)*+ pic = 𝑊)*+ isentr
1 𝑃) opic
𝜂!",$!!% = 1 − '() 2 4 𝑄
()*
𝑃)
4 𝑄
𝑟& 𝑃/ 𝑊01 ()*
1 𝑃/
$! &# 𝑊01 = 𝑊/*2 1
Where 𝛾!"# = = 1.4 and 𝑟% = is the compression ratio. = 𝑊/*2
$" &$
𝑉, 𝑉- 𝑉
• Thermodynamic Diesel Cycle of ideal gas: is 𝑉, 𝑉3 𝑉- 𝑉
= 𝑟. 𝑉,
isentr isocho = 𝛼𝑉, = 𝑟. 𝑉,
the best theoretical fit to the cycles of the opic ric isentr isoba
T T
opic ric
compression engines (Diesel Engines). Unlike the 𝑇) 2 𝑄"' 3 𝑄"' 3
𝑊&'( 𝑇) 2 𝑊&'(
Otto cycles where the heat is added at constant 4 4
volume, in Diesel cycles the heat is added at 𝑊01 𝑊01
constant pressure: 𝑇/ 𝑇/
isoch
1 𝑄()* 1 𝑄()* oric

1 𝛼' − 1
𝜂!",*+,-,. = 1 − '() 𝑆, 𝑆- 𝑆 𝑆, 𝑆- 𝑆
𝑟& 𝛾 𝛼−1
&%
Where 𝛼 = is the cut-off or load ratio. 𝑺 is entropy (disorder level related to
&$
kinematic energy) is the amount of energy 8
required to increase temperature of an
amount of gas by 1K
 Performance Measures for ICEs

Calculation of MEPs 𝑃
• BMEP: Using a dyno system you can measure brake pmep

torque (𝜏) ) and then:

gross imep
fmep
2×2𝜋×𝜏)

net imep
𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝 =
𝑉*,,-./-,

bmep
And:

𝑃) = 𝑊̇) = 𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑝×𝑉*,,-./-, ×𝑁 ∗ 𝑉4 (clearance volume) 𝑟& 𝑉4 𝑉

BSFC Map (g/kWh
Where N∗ is
the number of cycles per second which is respectively )
2⁄
N and 3 for two-stroke and four-stroke engines.

• Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (𝒃𝒔𝒇𝒄): is a

BMEP (bar)
measure to compare engines in terms of their fuel
efficiency:
2̇ + 2̇ + 2̇ +
bsfc(𝜏, 𝑁) = = = (g/kWh)
3, 45 )2,6×8- ×9 ∗

Engine Speed (rpm)

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 HEV Features: Dual (Multiple) Drives of HEVs

200 [Nm]
• Electric drives provide:
• Wider range of constant torque area

• High torque at low speeds

• Higher efficiency 3000 [rpm]

• Different motor technologies with different bsfc (g/kWh)

efficiency map shape

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 HEV Features: Hybrid Energy Storage Systems
(HESS)

High energy- or power-intense storages

Credit: Y. Kheng et al., Review of Energy Harvesting Technologies for Sustainable WSN
Specific Power W/kg

Fuels
Logarithmic

A hybrid storage supports both high-power

BATs and high-energy cases:

Specific Energy Wh/kg

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HEV Features: Topologies and Configurations
of HEVs

Series Topology
e.g., BMW i3 Series Hybrid

Inverter Engine

Electric Motor Final Drive &

Differential
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 Topologies and Configurations of HEVs

Parallel Topology (1st gen. of Prius) Compound Topology (multiple planetary gearsets
+ clutches) (later gen of Prius, Chevrolet Volt and Malibu)

X. Zhang et al. ,” Efficient Exhaustive Search of Power-Split Hybrid Powertrains With Multiple
Planetary Gears and Clutches,” J. Dyn. Sys., Meas., Control. Dec 2015, 137(12): 121006

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 Topologies and Configurations of HEVs

Topology Advantages Disadvantages

Series • Flexibility in location of
components
• Simplicity
• Convenient for short travels with
go traffic
• Simpler Transmission system
Parallel • Only requires engine and motor
• Flexible to use engine or motor or
both resulting in downsizing
option for each
Series- • Continuous high power comparing
to the other topologies with the
parallel same-sized components
• Lower emissions and better fuel
efficiency due to significant
flexibility
• Sizing for maximum power to
satisfy high speed is demanded by
all three propulsion components
• Requires engine, generator and
motor
• Higher complexity of control
strategies
• Higher complexity in transmission
• More components and higher cost
• Highest complexity in
transmission
• Highest complexity of control
strategies
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(Iqbal 2011:68).
 Challenge: Transmissions of HEVs

Transmission System for Hybrid Vehicles

• PGs to split or combine torques (ring(r); sun(s);

carrier(c))

𝑅/ 𝜔/ + 𝑅# 𝜔# = (𝑅/ + 𝑅# )𝜔$ ;
𝜏# = 𝜏/ 𝑁# ⁄𝑁/ ;
𝜏$ = −𝜏# (1 + 𝑁/ ⁄𝑁# ).

• Engine needs CVT in parallel or compound ?

topologies

• eCVT removes the need of separate CVT

(http://eahart.com/prius/psd/)

• In vehicle context, when we say gear ratio of for

example 2, it means:

𝜔0'1"'0_/"30 𝑟45006_/"30
= =2
𝜔45006_/"30 𝑟0'1"'0_/"30
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 Challenge: Energy Management of HEVs

Why energy management strategies (EMSs)?

• Power demand distribution among multiple

drivetrains and energy sources to:

• improve the fuel/energy consumption

• reduce emission (mission-based)

• improve the life-expectancy of

components

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Powertrain Design
 Sizing and Selection
• Capture Vehicle Parameters Curves
• Mass (M) (kg) • Vehicle RoadLoad (=total road loss)
• Aero-drag coefficient (𝐶5 ) (-) curves at different gradients
• Rolling Resistance Coefficient(s) (𝑓6 • Target Acceleration Curve of the
and 𝑓) ) (N and -) Vehicle
• Friction coefficients of Tyres (𝜇) (-) • Slip Limit Torque (Nm)
• Effective Radius of Tyres (𝑅,77 ) (m) • Select Engine + Gear Ratios
• Final Drive Ration (𝜂5 ) (-) • Parametrically identify (or try-and-
error for different engines):
• Capture Vehicle Requirements
• Speed Range
for the application • Torque Range
• Top Speed (kph) • Maximum Power
• 0-100 kph acceleration time (s) • Speeds at 𝜏89: and 𝑃89:
• Hill Climbing (degrees) • Evaluate the Engine Suitability:
• Fuel consumption targets (g/kWh) • Maximum Power
• Emissions requirements (g/kWh) • Calculate Gear Ratios and
• [Budget for engine, Production Evaluate
quantities,…] • Maximum Torque
• Combine Parameters and • Speed Range
Requirements to Technical • bsfc, bsNOx etc
• bmep, imep
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 Road Load
• Calculate the vehicle resistances due to:

• Aero Drag 𝐹: 𝑁 = 0.5 ∗ 𝐶; 𝐴𝜌:/< 𝑉 =

• Rolling Resistance 𝐹>> 𝑁 = 𝑓? + 𝑓@ 𝑉 = 𝐹A

• Gravity (going up a hill) 𝐹. 𝑁 = 𝑀𝑔 sin 𝜃

Where parameters are given in previous lecture.

• Total road load is:

Froadload (N)= 𝐹/ 𝑁 + 𝐹00 𝑁 + 𝐹1 𝑁

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Tyre limitation - Slip limit Torque
Slip limit torque of the tyre if
normal load is 700 kgf.
Slip limit torque is the maximum torque
applicable to the tyres which is limited due to the
tyres slip.
The slip limit torque depends on the tyre-road
friction coefficient as follows:

𝜏2/3 = 𝜇×𝐹4 ×𝑅566

Where 𝜇 = 𝐹B ⁄𝐹A (-) is the tyre-road friction coefficient Equivalent value of friction
which is 1-1.2 for dry tarmac around the maximum coefficient
longitudinal force for the modern tyres. 𝐹B is the tyres’
longitudinal force (N).
For example: 𝑀 = 700 𝑘𝑔, 𝑅,CC = 0.3 𝑚 and 𝜇 = 1 (−)
then:
𝜏2:B = 700×9.8×1×0.3 = 2058 𝑁𝑚
And this is the maximum torque applicable to the tyres.
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 Example
You design a hybrid electric powertrain for the following vehicle:

• Vehicle mass: 1000 (𝑘𝑔);

• Aerodynamic frontal area: 1.9 𝑚&;
• Aerodynamic drag coefficient Cd: 0.3 (−);
• Effective radius of tyres: 0.33 (𝑚);
• Top speed 𝑉'() = 110 (𝑘𝑝ℎ);
• Free-Rolling resistance coefficients 𝑓* = 0.015 and 𝑓& = 2×10+,;
• Air density: 1.225 (𝑘𝑔/𝑚-);
• Fuel density: 0.832 kg/litre
• Gearbox efficiency = 90%

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 Example
a) The electric drivetrain must solely provide required power to meet the desired
gradeability of 7° at pure longitudinal motion with constant speed of 75 𝑘𝑝ℎ; and your
engine must be able to provide 50% of the required power to meet the desired
gradeability at pure longitudinal motion with constant top speed.

Calculate the size of the required electric motor and internal combustion engine in terms
of their maximum power.

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Example

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Example

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Example

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 Example
b) The gear ratio of the electric motor to the wheels is 10
and the gearbox is controlled in a way that the internal
combustion engine operates at its best fuel efficiency 250

when the vehicle travels with a constant top speed on a

road with grade of 7°.

For the given BSFC map and the calculated values in (a),
calculate the operating points (as a pair of rotation speed
and torque) of the internal combustion engine of the
powertrain at vehicle top speed. Also calculate the total
fuel consumption of the vehicle in litre if it travels 300 𝑘𝑚
at the constant top speed on a road with grade of 7°.

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 Example

250

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Example

250

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