2022/03/10

MODULE NAME: WAVES AND OPTICS 1

MODULE CODE: PHY 1122/1522

Introductory lecture
Laboratory report writing
Lectures compiled
BY
Dr Ing. D Tinarwo
2022/03/10 PHY1522/1122 1

Good quotes
“In science, there is only physics.
All the rest is stamp collecting.”
By Ernest Rutherford

“Experiments are the only means of knowledge at our

disposal. The rest is poetry, imagination.”
By Max Plank

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Topic Content
Part 1: Introduction / preview
• Laboratory report writing
Part 2: Oscillations and waves (Chapter 13) (9 and 10 March 2022)
• Oscillations, simple harmonic motion, Harmonic motion and circular motion, the force law, Energy in simple harmonic oscillators, Damping and forced oscillations,
Problem set 1 and Assignment 1(16 March 2022)
Part 3: Mechanical Waves (Ch. 15) (17 and 23 March 2022)
• Characteristics of waves, Wavelength and Frequency Speed and energy in a traveling wave, standing waves , Problem set 2 and Assignment 2 (24 March 2022)
Part 4: Sound Waves (Ch. 16) (30 and 31 March 2022)
• The characteristics of sound waves, The speed of sound Intensity of sound waves, Superposition of sound waves (interference and beats) Musical instruments Doppler
Effect, Problem set 3 and Assignment 3 (7 and 8 April 2022)
TEST 1 (10 April 2022)
Part 5: Geometrical Optics and Optical Instruments (Ch. 33,34) (13, 28 April, and 4 May 2022)
• The nature of light (particle vs. wave) Reflection and refraction, Total internal reflection Huygens' principle Plane and spherical mirrors, Plane and spherical lenses ,
Problem set 4 and Assignment 4 (5 May 2022), Thin lenses and multiple lens systems, Other optical instruments (the eye, telescopes, microscopes), Problem set 5
and Assignment 5
Part 6: The Wave Nature of Light: Interference (Ch.35) (11 May 2022)
• Interference and coherent sources, Two slit interference: Young's experiment Interference in thin films, The Michelson Interferometer, Problem set 6 and Assignment 6
(12 May 2022)
• Part 7: Diffraction (Ch. 36) (18 May 2022)
• Fresnel and Fraunhofer diffraction, Single slit diffraction, Multiple slits, Diffraction gratings, X-Ray diffraction Circular apertures, and resolving power, Problem set 7 and
Assignment 7
• Revision, TEST 2 (19 May 2022)

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Introduction to Fundamental Physics

Laboratory Lecture
Purpose
Master the basic knowledge, the basic approach and basic skills of physics
experiments.
Learn to investigate the physical laws by the experimental method, to
deepen understanding and mastery of physical laws, and enhance the
ability to raise questions in the experiment, analyze and solve problems:
To be familiar with the experimental research on the physical phenomena
How to design an experiment to reach the proposed objective
How to analyze the experimental data and the errors
How to report what you obtain in a physics laboratory to others
Cultivate the scientific attitude

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Introduction

Arrangement
Content
Importance of physics experiments

• Error and Uncertainty

• Significance digit

• Uncertainty estimation

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Importance of physics experiments

 Historical view
 Classical Physics
 Development of modern physics
 Support to other fields
 Statistic of Nobel Prize
Facts:
• Real Experiment can not be perfect
• Most laws are quantitative relationship
F=ma
• Criterion and conversion
c = (299792.50±0.10) km/s
Data processing
Normative calculation and expression
To derive：
Quantitative law and reliable conclusion

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Significant figure is very important.

Significant figure is very important.

To measure an object’s thickness

2 cm
2.0 cm
These results are different.
2.00 cm
2.000 cm

Learn to estimate is very important！

Learn to estimate is very important！
How much hair do you have?
A. 1 × 10

B. 1 × 10

C. 1 × 10

D. 1 × 10

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Data processing
Temperature, 𝜽/℃ Resistance, 𝑅𝜽 /𝛀
Data processing is very important!
19.10 76.30
Data processing is very important! To
25.10 77.80
investigate on the relationship
30.10 79.75
between resistance and temperature 36.00 80.80

of a resistor. 40.00 82.35

What is the quantitative relationship 45.10 83.90

of 𝑅𝜽 /𝛀 and 𝜃/℃ 50.10 85.10

Error and Uncertainty

Error:
Difference between the measured value and the true value
Origin:
*Method — Error
∗ Devices 𝐔𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐲
∗ Operator: estimation

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Error in Measurements
These are due to the coarseness of the scale divisions on the
measuring device and are called the Reading Error.

Rules for reading error

• Reading error is ± the smallest scale division.
• If making a single measurement, measure to the nearest scale
division.
• If performing multiple trials, estimate between the scale
divisions (to an additional decimal), find the mean and mean
deviation, write the final result.
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Definitions

Absolute Error
• Estimate maximum amount by which a quantity may differ from its
most probable value.
• Denoted by the ∆ symbol (“delta”).
• Same units as the quantity.
• Keep only 1 significant figure.
Absolute Error in R= ∆R
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Definitions

Relative Error
• Ratio of the absolute error in the quantity to the quantity

∆𝐑
𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 𝐢𝐧 𝐑 =
𝐑
• No units
Percent Errors
• The relative error written as a percentage
∆𝐑
Percent Error in 𝐑 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%,
𝐑

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Mean and Mean Deviation

• Whenever a measurement is Reading Error = 0.1 cm
repeated, the values will vary. Trial Length Dev. (cm)
• We wish to obtain the “best” (cm)
value – taken as the mean.
1 10.35 0.03
• To estimate the error, the mean
deviation is calculated. 2 10.40 0.01
• The final result is taken as the 3 10.38 0.06
mean ± the larger of the mean 4 10.45 0.04
deviation and reading error. 5 10.48 0.07
• Length = (10.4 ± 0.1) cm 6 10.42 0.02
Average 10.41 0.038
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Two Examples

Measuring the length of an object Display of a digital ammeter

1. When the display is stable：3.888A

2. How about when the display

Left end：10.00cm
is unstable？
Right end：15.25cm

Uncertainty estimation
 ‘‘Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement ISO 1993(E)”
from BIPM and ISO etc., issued in 1993
• Uncertainty--Distribution property of measured results

Important：too large--waste；too small--wrong。

 Two Type：
Type A--- Evaluated with statistical methods
Type B---Evaluated with other methods

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Uncertainty type A
After n time same measurement of unknown x:

  ∑ ̅
𝑢 𝑥 = , where 𝑥̅ = ∑ 𝑥

𝑢 decreases with increasing n

Uncertainty type B
 From measurement(For single measurement):
𝑢 = 𝑑/10, Best situation 
𝑢 = 𝑑/5, In case d: smallest deviation
𝑢 = 𝑑/2, Worst situation

 From device：
𝑢 = ,
𝑢 =   : Average distribution, 
•𝑢 = : normal distribution, large n
a: maximum uncertainty of the device, usually given
with the device

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Combination of Uncertainty
Single measurement：

u( x)  u B21 ( x)  u B2 2 ( x)
For length measurements, since x=x2-x1, we have:

u ( x)  u B21 ( x1 )  u B21 ( x 2 )  u B2 2 ( x)
Multiple measurements(n>=5)：

u ( x )  u A2 ( x )  u B2 2 ( x )

Expression of the results

1、Usually：
e.g., L = 1.05±0.02 cm.
x  u (x)
2、Percentage expression of the uncertainty：
u( x)
100%
x
e.g. , L =1.05cm，percentage uncertainty 2% .

3、Use significant figures to indicate the uncertainty

e.g. L =1.05cm, uL ~ 0.01cm (not specified)

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Significant figures
All digits from first nonzero digit:
e.g. 0.35 (2); 3.54 (3); 0.003540 (4); 3.5400 (5)。

Uncertainty is usually given in one digit(max 2).

Results should have the last digit same as the uncertainty.
i.e.：The last digit of the result is uncertain.

Rounding：4 - abandon 6 - rounding

5 - rounding for even end
abandon rounding
e.g.， x=3.54835 or 3.65325
If ux=0.0003, then x=3.5484; 3.6532
If ux=0.002, then x=3.548； 3.653
5 - rounding for even end
If ux=0.04, then x=3.55; 3.65
If ux=0.1, then x=3.5; 3.7

Rule in calculation
+ , - : highest digits
57.31＋0.0156－2.24342（=55.08218）=55.08

* , / : minimum significant figures

57.31×0.0156÷2.24342（=0.398514767）=0.399

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Propagation of errors

To get the error in the result of a calculation based on

measurements

Rule 1: Addition and Subtraction

• Add together the absolute errors to get the absolute error in
the result.

For 𝑹 = 𝑿 + 𝒀, ∆𝑹 = ∆𝑿 + ∆𝒀 and for 𝐐 = 𝑿 − 𝒀, ∆𝑸 = ∆𝑿 + ∆𝒀

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Propagation of errors
Rule 2: Multiplication, Division and Exponents

• Add together the relative error in the result.

• The relative error in the quantity raised to an exponent is the exponent times
the relative error in the quantity

∆𝑹 ∆𝑿 ∆𝒀 𝑿 ∆𝑸 ∆𝑿 ∆𝒀
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑹 = 𝑿 × 𝒀, = + 𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝑸 = , = +
𝑹 𝑿 𝒀 𝒀 𝑸 𝑿 𝒀

∆𝒀 ∆𝑿
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒀 = 𝑿𝟐 , =𝟐
𝒀 𝑿
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Propagation of Uncertainty
General equation:
Measured quantities are independent from each other

Example：Density of a metal cylinder

Mass measured with an electronic balance:

M=80.36g, d =0.01g, a =0.02g.
Height measure with a ruler:H＝H2－H1, where H1＝4.00cm,
H2＝19.32cm；d =0.1cm，uB1 =d /5；a =0.01cm.
Diameter measure with a slide callipers (D data are given in the
table); d =0.002cm；a =0.002cm。
2.014 2.018 2.016 2.020 2.018
D/cm
2.018 2.020 2.022 2.016 2.020
Please calculate the density and its uncertainty.

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Uncertainty estimation：
For mass：
2
u ( M )  (u B1 ( M ))  (u B 2 ( M )) 
2 2
0.012   0.02  g  0.015g

 3
For height： H  H 2  H 1  (19.32  4.00)cm  15.32cm
2
u ( H )  2  u B1 ( H )   u B 2 ( H )   2  0.02   0.01  cm  0.029cm
2 2 2

 3

Average value of the diameter： D  1 10

 Di  2.0184cm
10 i 1
10

 (D i  D )2
u A (D )  i 1  0.00078cm
10  (10  1)
2
u( D )  (u A ( D )) 2  (u B 2 ( D )) 2  (0.00078) 2   0.002  cm  0.0014cm
 3

Density ：
M 4M 4  80.36 g g
   3  1.639
V D H 3.1416  ( 2.0184)  15.32
2 2
cm cm 3

2 2 2 2 2 2
u(  )  u ( M )   u ( D)   u ( H )   0.015   0.0014   0.029 
    2        2   
  M   D   H   80.36   2.0184   15.32 

 3.48108  1.92 106  3.58106  0.24%

u(  )
u(  )     0.24%  1.639 g 3  0.004 g
 cm cm 3

Results：
   u (  )  (1.639  0.004) g 3  (1.639  0.004)  10 3 kg
cm m3

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Draw a figure
Why?
1、Show the qualitative relationship
2、Illustrate the different characteristics
3、Derive the useful information

Magnetic field distribution I-V curves for two

along the axis of solenoid diodes Get the slope through
graphing

How to draw a figure?

1. Select a proper graph paper（usually standard graph paper 20×25cm2, scaling should match
the significance digits not smaller than half of a graph paper）

30

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How to draw a figure?

1. Select a proper graph paper（ usually standard graph
paper 20×25cm2、 scaling should match the significance
digits、not smaller than half of a graph paper）
2. According to the value range of the physical quantities,
decide the scaling(1:1,1:2 or 1:5; but not 1:3, 1:7)
3. According to the variable relationship (independent-
dependent), select orientation of the graph paper (take the
independent variable as abscissa)
4. Draw axis, scale division (homogenous, not too close), and
mark the name of the physical quantity (italics) and its units
(roman style)

31

How to draw a figure?

32

40

38

36
R/

34

32

30
20 30 40 50 60 70
/℃ 32

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How to draw a figure?

1. Select a proper graph paper（ usually standard graph
paper 20×25cm2、 scaling should match the significance
digits、not smaller than half of a graph paper）
2. According to the value range of the physical quantities,
decide the scaling(1:1,1:2 or 1:5; but not 1:3, 1:7)
3. According to the variable relationship (independent-
dependent), select orientation of the graph paper (take the
independent variable as abscissa)
4. Draw axis, scale division (homogenous, not too close), and
mark the name of the physical quantity (italics) and its units
(roman style)
5. Draw data points with symbols (do not mark the data
values)
33

How to draw a figure?

40
Sample A +
+
Sample B
38

+
36
R/

+
34

+
32
+
30
20 30 40 50 60 70
/℃ 34

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How to draw a figure?

1. Select a proper graph paper （ usually standard graph paper
20×25cm2、scaling should match the significance digits、not smaller
than half of a graph paper）
2. According to the value range of the physical quantities, decide the
scaling(1:1,1:2 or 1:5; but not 1:3, 1:7)
3. According to the variable relationship (independent-dependent),
select orientation of the graph paper (take the independent variable as
abscissa)
4. Draw axis, scale division (homogenous, not too close), and mark the
name of the physical quantity (italics) and its units (roman style)
5. Draw data points with symbols (do not mark the data values)
6. Draw a straight line or curve, mark the points for readout for
evaluation, usually also their coordinates (for slope, peak, valley, etc.)

35

How to draw a figure?

40
Sample A + （60.0, 38.5）
+
Sample B
38

+
36
R/

+
34
（26.0, 31.8）
+
32
+
30
20 30 40 50 60 70
/℃ 36

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How to draw a figure?

1. Select a proper graph paper（usually standard graph paper 20×25
cm2 scaling should match the significance digits、not smaller than half
of a graph paper）
2. According to the value range of the physical quantities, decide the
scaling(1:1,1:2 or 1:5; but not 1:3, 1:7)
3. According to the variable relationship (independent-dependent),
select orientation of the graph paper (take the independent variable as
abscissa)
4. Draw axis, scale division (homogenous, not too close), and mark the
name of the physical quantity (italics) and its units (roman style)
5. Draw data points with symbols (do not mark the data values)
6. Draw a straight line or curve, mark the points for readout for
evaluation, usually also their coordinates (for slope, peak, valley, etc.)
7. Write down the information of author, lab name, graph name, date.
37

How to draw a figure?

40
Sample A + （60.0, 38.5）
+
Sample B
38

+
36
R/

+
34
（26.0, 31.8）
+ Exp.: ****
32 Figure: ****
Author: ****
+ Date: ****
30
20 30 40 50 60 70
/℃ 38

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How to read out from a figure

1、 Mark the readout point, usually select the crosssection of the curve with X-
grids(do not take the original data points), with a symbol different from that for
data point. Mark its coordinates (X,Y).

2、To read out a single coordinate, X or Y value, mark the unit together with the
coordinate.

3、To get the slope of a straight line, the two readout points should be far away
from each other, but in the scope of experimental data. Don’t forget the unit of
the slope. Calculation should be carried out in the report but not in the figure.

4、The read coordinates should always have the correct signifcance digits.

39

How to read out from a figure

40
Sample A +
+
Sample B
38

+
36
R/

+
34

31.8 + Exp.: ****

32 Figure: ****
Author: ****
+ Date: ****
30
20 30 40 50 60 70
40
/℃

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How to read out from a figure

40
A + （60.0, 38.5）
+
B
38

+
36
R/

+
34
（26.0, 31.8）
+ Exp.: ****
32 Figure: ****
Author: ****
+ Date: ****
30
20 30 40 50 60 70
41
/℃

How to read out from a figure

40
A +
（60.0, 38.5）+
B
38

+
36
R/

+
34

（26.0, 31.8+
） Exp.: ****
32 Figure: ****
Author: ****
+ Date: ****
30
20 30 40 50 60 70
/℃ 42

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How to read out from a figure

40
A +
（60.0, 38.5）+
B
38

+
36
R/

+
34

（26.0, 31.8+
） Exp.: ****
32 Figure: ****
Author: ****
+ Date: ****
30
20 30 40 50 60 70
/℃ 43

Data got from Voltage-Current experiment:

I / uA 100 200 300 400 500
Under internal connection U1 / mV 142 270 430 576 710
Under external connection U2 / mV 106 220 312 420 560

720

What’s 600

wrong? 480
What fails?
360

240

120

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
44

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The purpose of this part of the module

1. Master the basic knowledge, the basic approach and basic skills of
。
physics experiments.

2. Learn to investigate the physical laws by the experimental

method, to deepen understanding and mastery of physical laws,
and enhance the ability to raise questions in the experiment,
analyze and solve problems.

3. Cultivate the scientific attitude.

45

Important Notice!
Evaluation of experimental data must be
strict, careful, accurate and true.

46

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General Guide
1、Evaluation over the whole process:
preparation, lab work and report
2、Don’t fail a lab or a report! Arrive in time!
3、Try to understand the lab and to enjoy the lab.
Try your best to find something new in the labs.
4、Safety! ------ Highest priority!

47

How to do experiment?
1、Pre-lab preparation（20%）
2、Operation and record（40%）
3、Data Processing and Analysis/Discussion （40%）

On the cover of the report：

Name, student ID
48
..

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Pre-lab (20%）
• It is not allowed to do experiment without pre-lab
report!
• Every 10 minutes late for -0.5 points; more than 30 minutes late, then not
allowed to do experiment and get 0 point for this experiment. Pre-lab
• Asking for absence must be done in advance, no make-up otherwise.

How to prepare the pre-lab? Experiment title

1. Read the lab manual carefully and try to figure out how to
carry out the lab. Visit your lab in advance will always be helpful. Purpose ：
(Lab-open on each day on the schedule in the afternoon)
2. Write the pre-lab report. Principle ：

Suggestions (Including backgroud, theory,

important formula, circuit and
• Writing report is something you should learn and practise. ray diagram)
• Always try with your own words
Content and procedures：
• A report consists all the important items, should be brief and Briefly!
easy to be understood Prepare the table for record!
49
..

Suggestions for drawing a data table

1 To find out how many physical quantities you are going to measure? Which is a directly measured
quantity, which is derived by calculation? Which should be measured several times? Which should
be measured once (Multiple measurements should normally be 10 times or more; but due to limited
time, 5 times in our lab.)

2 The table should be reasonably arranged according to the carry out of the lab. List the directly
measured quantiyies first, then the calculated ones. For multiply measured quantities, enough
places should be left in the colum. List the independent-quantities before the dependent-quantities.

3 Mark the physical quantities(their symbols and units). The symbols should be written in italics
style and the units in roman style, respectively.

4 Write down the related formula for calculation in the near of the table.

50

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Example：Measuring the density of a cylindrical sample

No. Diameter Readout of Readout of Length
n D/cm the left end the right end h=h2-h1/cm
h1/cm h2/cm

1
2
3
4
5
Average

The mass of the sample: M= g。

4M
 2

D h
Room Temperature= ℃；Humidity = %。 51

Lab work （40%）

• Following the guide and pay attention to the safety.
In the lab
• Carry out the lab with confidence, but cautiously and seriously
• Wirte the lab record faithfully, clearly and in detail. Contents
including operation, parameters, phenomena, measured data,
findings, reasoning, new ideas, doubts etc. Experiment record： （fill
the table）
Notice: Detailed and timely!
（record the condition,
• To ensure the originality of all the data: any change of the data phenomena, data, problems and
should be accompanied with a notification. No scratch of your ideas, etc. )
labbook.
Equipment：
• Write down the specifications of your equipments.
• You are encouraged to try the optional contents.
• Arrange your lab equipment properly and let your supervisor have （ specifications and models?? ）
a check before you leave.

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Report （40%）
After the lab
1、Finish the data evaluation with uncertainty
estimation.
Evaluation：
2、Explain the phenomena you observed correctly,
give your own reasoning. Discussion：
3、Interpret the experiment results carefully(own
understanding).
Conclusion：
4、Draw a conclusion.
5、Further discussion, comments and suggestions.
Further discussion,
comments and suggestions：

53
..

Lab Title : Hooke’s law

Description
Stretch and compress springs to explore the relationships between force, spring
constant, displacement, and potential energy! Investigate what happens when two
springs are connected in series and parallel.
Sample Learning Goals
Explain the relationships between applied force, spring force, spring constant,
displacement, and potential energy.
Describe how connecting two springs in series or parallel affects the effective
spring constant and the spring forces.
Predict how the potential energy stored in the spring changes as the spring
constant and displacement change.
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A pendulum bob
Description
• Play with one or two pendulums and discover how the period of a simple pendulum depends on
the length of the string, the mass of the pendulum bob, the strength of gravity, and the amplitude
of the swing. Observe the energy in the system in real-time, and vary the amount of friction.
Measure the period using the stopwatch or period timer. Use the pendulum to find the value of g
on Planet X. Notice the enharmonic behavior at large amplitude.
Sample Learning Goals
• Design experiments to determine which variables affect the period of a pendulum
• Quantitatively describe how the period of a pendulum depends on these variables
• Explain the small-angle approximation, and define what constitutes a “small” angle
• Determine the gravitational acceleration of Planet X
• Explain the conservation of mechanical energy, using kinetic energy and gravitational potential
energy
• Describe the Energy Graph from the position and speed of the pendulum

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The Physics Lab Report

Sample Calculations
• Write out the formula in variable form.
• Write out the formula with numbers substituted for the
variables.
• Perform the calculation and state the numerical answer with
correct units.
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Physics Lab Report

Sample Error Calculations
• Derive the error formula for the equation, using the rules of propagation
of error.
• Write out the error formula in variable form.
• Write out the error formula with numbers substituted for the variables.
• Perform the calculation and state the numerical answer for the absolute
error, to 1 sig. fig., with correct units.
• State the final answer for the calculation, with error and units.

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The Physics Lab Report

Discussion
• Answer the questions from the lab manual.
• Number the answers to the questions.
“Sources of Error”
• Factors which affect the experiment.
• Assumptions made about the experiment which may not be 100%
correct.
• Should have 3 to 5 for each lab.
Graphs
• Use the graph paper provided.
• Use a pencil and a ruler. Be neat!
• Make the graph as LARGE as possible on the page.
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The Physics Lab Report

Conclusion
• Goes at the end of the report.
• A short statement giving the quantitative (numerical) results of the
experiment.
• Indicate how the results satisfy the object.
• Data Sheet
• One data sheet, signed and stamped, required for each group and to be
attached to the BACK of the report.
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Treatment of Experimental Error

• Not “error” as in mistake, but
“uncertainty”.

• How precisely do we know a

measured or calculated quantity?

• What is our “range of confidence” The range of confidence runs from 20

cm (at the low end) to 24 cm (at the
in the value?
upper end)
• Example (22 ± 2) cm

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Example 1
For multiplication by an exact number, multiply the uncertainty by the
same exact number.
Example: The radius of a circle is 𝑟 = (4.0 ± 0.1) 𝑐𝑚. Find the
circumference and its uncertainty.
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟 = 25.132 𝑐𝑚

∆𝐶 = 2𝜋∆𝑟 = 0.628 (The factors of 2 and 𝜋 are exact)

C = (25.1 ± 0.6) cm
We round the uncertainty to two figures since it starts with a 1, and
round the answer to match.

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Example 2:Example Problem for Error in the

power of a quantity
A physical quantity x is given by 𝑥 =  

If the percentage errors of measurement in a, b, c and d are 4%,

2%, 3% and 1% respectively then calculate the percentage error
in the calculation of x.

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Problem 1
1. Given:
𝐴 = 100 ± 1,
𝐵 = 50 ± 2,
𝐶 = 100 ± 4,

Find R ± ∆𝑅 for:
 
𝜋 𝐴+𝐵
𝑅=
𝐶

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Comparing two values

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Percentage difference

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Graphing data

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A sample graph

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Slope and error in slope calculation

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