Senior High School

General
Chemistry 2
Quarter 3 – Module 3:
The Properties of Solids,
Crystalline Solids and
the Changes of Physical State
General Chemistry 2 – Senior High School
Alternative Delivery Mode
Quarter 3 – Module 3: The Properties of Solids, Crystalline Solids and
the Changes of Physical State
October 2020

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 What I Need to Know

This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you
master the nature of Chemistry. The scope of this module permits it to be used in
many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard
sequence of the course.
The module consists of one lesson which is The Properties of Solids,
Crystalline Solids and the Changes of Physical State.

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. identify five observed properties of a solid;
2. describe the three types of crystalline solids: ionic, molecular and metallic;
3. describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-104);
4. explain the concepts of specific heat, heat of fusion and heat of vaporization;
5. calculate heat changes that involve the specific heat, heat of fusion and heat
of vaporization;
6. interpret the phase diagram of water and carbon dioxide (STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-
c-107);
7. determine and explain the heating and cooling curve of substances
(STEM_GC11IMFIIIa-c-109).

What I Know

I. Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which of the following is NOT an observed general property of solids?
A. fixed volume C. alloys mix by diffusion
B. do not expand D. noncrystalline structure
2. What is the physical state of gallium, Ga, in boiling water with its melting point
at 30°C and boiling point at 2403°C?
A. gas B. liquid C. solid D. plasma
3. What type of particles compose the structure of glucose, C6H12O6, as shown in
the picture below?

A. atoms
B. compounds
C. ions
D. molecules
4. Which of the following is an example of a metallic crystalline solid?
A. copper C. chlorine gas
B. glucose D. silver chloride
5. Which of the following is NOT an example of a molecular crystalline solid?
A. sulfur C. chlorine gas
B. glucose D. barium chloride
6. Which of the following list of properties describes a molecular solid?
A. malleable, ductile, insoluble in water
B. low melting point, nonconductor of electrical current
C. high melting point, conductor of electricity when melted
D. none of the above
7. Which of the following is an example of a molecular crystalline solid?
A. cuprite B. dry ice C. glass D. limestone
8. Which of the following is an example of an amorphous solid?
A. cuprite B. dry ice C. glass D. limestone
9. What causes the irregular manner of breaking a glass object?
A. fixed shape and volume
B. cleavage or crystalline lattice
C. lack of ordered internal structure
D. particles regular repeating pattern of arrangement
10. Which of the following is a CORRECT description of an amorphous solid? An
amorphous solid _____________________________.
A. has a sharp melting point
B. lack ordered internal structure
C. has a regular external structure
D. has a strong intermolecular force
11. Which of the following is NOT an example of an ionic solid?
A. NaCl B. AlCl3 C. ZnCl2 D. CCl4
12. What type of crystalline solid is sodium chloride?
A. ionic B. metallic C. molecular D. network
13. Which of the following is an example of a metallic solid?
A. F2 B. Pt C. AgI D. HCl
14. Which of the following refers to the amount of heat required to raise one gram
of substance one degree Celsius?
A. specific heat C. heat of solidification
B. specific gravity D. heat of condensation
15. What is the heat required to convert 10.0g of water at 100°C to steam at 100°C?
A. 8.0cal B. 54.0cal C. 8.00 x 102cal D. 5.40 x 103cal
 Lesson The Properties of Solids,
1 Crystalline Solids and the
Change of Physical State

What’s In
Solids are characterized by structural rigidity and resistance to changes of
shape or volume. Unlike a liquid, a solid object does not flow to take on the shape of
its container, nor does expands to fill the entire volume available to it like a gas . The
atoms in a solid are tightly bound to each other, either in a regular geometric lattice
(crystalline solids, which include metals and ordinary water ice) or irregularly (an
amorphous solid such as common window glass). This module will discuss more on
the properties of solids, the types of crystalline solids and the changes of physical
state.

What’s New

Source: https://www.imedpub.com/articles/physicochemical-characterization-of-crystalline-
supramolecular-systems-containing-established-drugs-and-new-drug-candidates.pdf

Given above is the title of an American Journal from imedpub.com indicating

a study on the improvement of the characteristics of established drugs and new drug
candidates.
Crystalline supra sub-atomic frameworks containing drug particles, for
instance sedate solvates, co-precious stones and consideration mixes, are getting a
charge out of expanding consideration as they speak to new multi-segment shapes
whose pharmaceutically applicable properties (for example fluid solvency, strength,
developability) might be altogether better than those of the untreated medication. On
account of set up drugs, this could convert into expanded patent life, while for new
medication leads early intercession in producing such 'supramolecular subordinates'
could encourage the determination of the most encouraging contenders for additional
turn of events. Physicochemical portrayal of these multi-part crystalline stages to
build up their stoichiometric piece, thermodynamic dependable qualities and
auxiliary nature at the atomic level is fundamental yet can frequently present a bigger
number of difficulties than those experienced when managing single-segment
frameworks (for example polymorphically unadulterated medications). Such
difficulties might be related with included dissolvable (for example content
fluctuation and basic issue) and with challenges in unequivocal task of the idea of
heteromolecular communications (for example recognizing co-gems and salts).
Pharmaceutical dynamic fixings (APIs) can exist in an assortment of unmistakable
strong structures, including polymorphs, solvates, hydrates, salts, co-precious
stones and nebulous solids. Each structure shows one of a kind physicochemical
property that can significantly impact the bioavailability, manufacturability cleaning,
dependability and other execution attributes of the medications.

What Is It

THE PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Unlike liquids, solids have a fixed shape. The reason for this is that individual
particles of the solid are not free to move. Unlike gases, the volume of a solid shows
very little response to changes in temperature or pressure. The observed properties
of the solid state are as follows:
1. Solids have a fixed shape and a fixed volume. Unlike liquids, solids are
rigid and their shape is fixed.
2. Solids are either crystalline or noncrystalline. A crystalline solid
contains particles arranged in a regular repeating pattern. Each particle occupies a
fixed position in the crystal. The high degree of order of the molecules can produce a
beautiful clear crystal, for example, a diamond or a ruby. An ordinary stone is a
noncrystalline solid and is not transparent.
3. Solids do not compress or expand to any degree. Assuming no change
in physical state, temperature and pressure have a negligible effect on the volume of
a solid.
4. Solids have a slightly higher density than their corresponding liquids.
For example, solid chunks of iron sink in a high-temperature furnace containing
molten iron. One important exception to this rule is water; ice is less dense than
liquid water. As a result, ice floats on water.
5. Solids do not mix by diffusion. In a solid heterogeneous mixture, the
particles are not free to diffuse and they cannot mix uniformly. In an alloy, which is
a homogeneous mixture, the metals mix uniformly in the molten liquid state before
cooling to a solid.

THE CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

Chemists know that the particles of a crystalline solid are arranged in a

regular geometric pattern. However, the particles can be of different types. They can
be ionic, molecular, or metallic. In ionic solids the crystals are composed of regular
patterns of ions. In molecular solids the molecules, not ions, form repeating patterns.
In metallic solids, individual metal atoms are arranged geometrically.

Ionic Solids
A crystalline ionic solid is an ionic compound composed of positive and
negative ions. Salt, for example, is a crystalline solid of NaCl. Here, sodium
ions, Na+, and chloride ions, Cl-, are arranged in a regular three-dimensional
structure referred to as a crystal lattice. Notice the clear crystal of table salt
shown in Figure 3.1 has the shape of a cube. Other ionic crystalline
compounds, such as NaF, CaF2, and CaCO3, have different geometric shapes.

Figure 3.1 A Crystalline Ionic Solid

A sodium chloride crystal, NaCl, is an example of a crystalline ionic solid.

Molecular Solids
A crystalline molecular solid has molecules arranged in a particular
configuration. Crystalline sucrose (table sugar), for example, is composed of
C12H22O11 molecules. The sucrose molecules are arranged in a regular order
that allows light to pass through the crystal. Therefore, a large crystal of
sucrose appears transparent. Other molecular solids are sulfur and
phosphorus. Sulfur crystals (Figure 3.2) are made from S8 molecules held
together by intramolecular bonds. Phosphorus powder is made from P 4
molecules.

Figure 3.2 A Crystalline Molecular Solid

A sulfur crystal, S8, is an example of a crystalline molecular solid.
 Metallic Solids
A crystalline metallic solid has atoms of metals arranged in a definite
pattern. That is, a metallic crystal is made up of positive metal ions
surrounded by valence electrons. Metals are good conductors of electricity
because the valence electrons are free to move about the crystal. This
arrangement of atoms and freely moving electrons is referred to as the
“electron sea” model. The flow of electricity is associated with the movement
of electrons through a metal. Figure 3.3 shows a crystal of gold.

Figure 3.3 A Crystalline Metallic Solid

A gold nugget is an example of a crystalline metallic solid

Unlike a crystalline solid, an AMORPHOUS solid is a solid that lacks an

ordered internal structure. Some examples of amorphous solids include rubber,
plastic, and gels. Glass is a very important amorphous solid that is made by cooling
a mixture of materials in such a way that it does not crystallize. Glass is sometimes
referred to as a supercooled liquid rather than a solid. If you have ever watched a
glassblower in action, you have noticed that he takes advantage of the fact that
amorphous solids do not have a distinct melting point like crystalline solids do.
Instead, as glass is heated, it slowly softens and is shaped into all sorts of interesting
forms. When a glass object shatters, it does so in a very irregular way, unlike
crystalline solids, which always break into fragments that have the same shape as
dictated by its crystal system.

Figure 3.4 Glass Making Process

 Properties of amorphous solids are different in many ways from those of
crystalline solids. The intermolecular forces in amorphous solids are weaker than
those in crystalline solids. Amorphous solids do not have a regular external structure
and they do not have sharp melting points. Unlike crystalline solids that have regular
planes of cleavage, the physical properties of amorphous solids are the same in all
directions.

Plastics are used for many purposes because they are inexpensive to produce
and do not shatters like glass or ceramic materials. Since they are easily disposed of,
the accumulation of plastic garbage has become a serious problem in many parts of
the world. Recycling programs that help reuse the plastics are growing in popularity.

CLASSIFYING CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

It is helpful to classify crystalline solids to predict their properties. In general,
the properties of ionic solids such as melting point, hardness, electrical conductivity,
and water solubility are similar. The properties of molecular solids are usually similar
as well. Metals show a range of physical properties but all are malleable (form thin
foils), ductile (drawn into wire) and are good conductors of electricity. Table 3.1 lists
the general properties for each of the three types of crystalline solids.

TABLE 3.1

The following example exercise further illustrates the classification of ionic,

molecular, and metallic types of crystalline solids.

Example Exercise 3.1. CLASSSIFYING CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

Classify each of the following crystalline solids as IONIC,

MOLECULAR or METALLIC:
a. Nickel, Ni
b. Nickel (II) oxide, NiO
c. Iodine, I2

ANSWERS:
a. Nickel is a metal composed of atoms. Thus, Ni is a metallic solid.
b. Nickel (II) oxide contains ions and is therefore an ionic solid.
c. Iodine is a nonmetal composed of atoms. Thus, I2 is a molecular solid.
THE CHANGES OF PHYSICAL STATE

Heat is necessary to change the physical state of a substance. Specific heat

is the amount of heat required to raise one gram of substance one degree Celsius.
Every substance has a unique value for its specific heat. Water is considered a
reference, and its specific heat is 1.00 calorie per gram per degree Celsius, that is,
1.00 cal/(g x °C). The specific heats for ice and steam are approximately half that of
liquid water.
Next, let’s consider a substance changing state from a solid to a liquid at its
melting point. The amount of heat required to melt 1.00g of substance is called the
heat of fusion (Hfusion). For water, the heat of fusion is 80.0 cal/g. Water releases the
same amount of heat energy, 80 cal/g, when it changes from the liquid to the solid
state. This heat change is called the heat of solidification (Hsolid). For any
substance, the heats of fusion and solidification are equal. That is, the amount of
heat to melt a substance equals the amount of heat released when the substance
solidifies.
A substance rapidly changes state from a liquid to a vapor at its boiling point.
The amount of heat required to vaporize 1.00 g of a substance is called the heat of
vaporization (Hvapor). For water, it is 540 cal/g. Conversely, water releases the same
amount of heat energy, 540 cal/g, when it condenses from a gas to a liquid. This
heat change is called the heat of condensation (Hcond). For any substance, the heats
of vaporization and condensation are equal. Table 3.2 lists the heat values for water,
ice, and steam.

TABLE 3.2

To see the change in temperature with a constant application of heat, we draw

a temperature–energy graph, sometimes called a heating curve. The heating curve for
water is shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 The Heating Curve of Water

 Let’s combine the concept of a heating curve with the heat values in Table 3.2.
For example, let’s find the amount of heat energy necessary to convert 25.5 g of ice
at -5.0 °C to steam at 100.0 °C. This problem requires four steps:
(1) heat the ice from -5.0 °C to 0.0 °C,
(2) convert the ice to liquid water at 0.0 °C,
(3) heat the water from 0.0 °C to 100.0 °C, and
(4) convert the water to steam at 100.0 °C.

HOW TO SOLVE:
1. To calculate the amount of energy required to heat the ice we use its mass
(25.5 g), the temperature change (-5.0°C to 0.0°C), and the specific heat of
ice (0.50 cal/(g X °C)). Using 0.50 cal/( g X °C) as a unit factor, we have

2. The heat of fusion for ice, 80.0 cal/g, is found in Table 3.2. The energy
required to melt 25.5 g of ice is

3. To calculate the amount of energy required to heat the liquid water we

must know its mass, the temperature change (0.0°C to 100.0°C), and the
specific heat of water; therefore, we have

4. The heat of vaporization, 540 cal/g, is found in Table 3.2. The energy
required to vaporize the water to steam is

The total heat energy required to heat and vaporize the ice is equal to the
sum of the values obtained in Steps 1–4.

The heat required to raise the temperature of the ice at -5.0°C to steam at
100.0°C is 18,500cal, or 18.5kcal. The following example exercise illustrates the heat
changes associated with the cooling of water and its solidification to ice.
 Example Exercise 3.2. PROBLEMS INVOLVING CHANGE IN HEAT

Calculate the amount of heat released when 15.5 g of liquid water

at 22.5 °C cools to ice at -10.0 °C.

ANSWER:
In this problem we have to consider (1) the specific heat of water,
(2) the heat of solidification, and (3) the specific heat of ice.

To calculate the amount of heat released when cooling the water,

consider the mass, the temperature change (22.5 °C to 0.0 °C), and the
specific heat of water, 1.00 cal/(g x °C).

We can summarize the solution visually as follows:

The heat of solidification, found in Table 3.2, is 80.0 cal/g. The

heat released when water solidifies to ice is

The specific heat of ice is 0.50 cal/(g x °C). The heat released as
the ice cools to -10.0°C is found as follows:

The total heat energy released when the water cools to ice at
-10.0°C equals the sum of the values obtained in Steps 1–3.

Thus, the heat released when the water cools is 1670 cal, or 1.67 kcal.

What’s More

Direction: Answer the following on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which type of crystalline solid has a high melting point and is a nonconductor
of electricity in the solid state, but a good conductor of electricity when melted?
_______________________________

2. Calculate the amount of heat required to convert 50.0g of water at 100.0°C to

ice at 0.0°C.
_______________________________
 What I Have Learned

Copy and fill in the blanks with the correct term(s).

The __________________ state has a fixed shape and a fixed volume. A solid that
has a highly defined structure is called a __________________. Solids do not compress
or expand to any large degree. The __________________ of a substance in the solid
state is usually higher than that in the liquid state. __________________ and
__________________ are two interesting exceptions to this rule. Solid ice and solid
ammonia float on their respective liquids. Because the solid state contains particles
in __________________ positions, solids do not mix or diffuse.

There are three basic types of crystalline solids. __________________ are made
up of ions. The ions are attracted to each other and form repeating __________________
patterns. __________________ form crystals made up of molecules. __________________
are made up of metal atoms arranged in a definite pattern. The properties of ionic,
molecular, and metallic solids differ. __________________ are good conductors of
electricity. __________________ conduct electricity only when they are melted or are in
an aqueous solution. As a rule, __________________ do not conduct electricity.

__________________ is the heat required to raise one gram of substance one

degree Celsius. The heat required to melt a substance is called the
__________________. The heat released when a substance freezes to a solid is called
the __________________. The heat of solidification of a substance has the same value
as its heat of fusion. The heat required to convert a liquid to a gas at its boiling point
is the __________________. When a vapor condenses to a liquid, it releases the same
amount of heat energy that was necessary to vaporize the liquid. This energy is
termed the __________________.

What I Can Do

Directions: Answer the following question briefly on a separate sheet of paper.

1. What type of a crystalline solid does each of the following belong? Explain your
answers.
a. Silver iodide, AgI _________________________
b. Glucose, C6H12O6 _________________________

2. Which of the following changes involves more heat energy? Explain your
answer.
a. heating 1g of ice at 0°C to water at 0°C
b. heating 1g of water at 100°C to steam at 100°C?
________________________________________________________________________
 Assessment

Write the letter of the correct answer on a separate sheet.

1. Which of the following is NOT a general property of solids?
A. fixed shape C. crystalline structure
B. do not compress D. less dense than liquids
2. What is the physical state of gallium, Ga, in ice water with its melting point
at 30°C and boiling point at 2403°C?
B. gas B. liquid C. solid D. plasma
3. What type of particles compose the structure of solid water, H2O, as shown
in the picture below?
A. ions
B. atoms
C. molecules
D. compounds

4. Which of the following is an example of an ionic crystalline solid?

A. sodium C. chlorine gas
B. glucose D. silver chloride
5. What causes the regular manner of breaking a crystalline object?
A. fixed shape and volume
B. cleavage or crystalline lattice
C. lack of ordered internal structure
D. particles regular repeating pattern of arrangement
6. Which of the following is NOT an example of an amorphous solid?
A. glass B. iron pyrite C. plastic D. rubber
7. Which of the following is an example of a molecular crystalline solid?

A. sodium C. lithium chloride

B. glucose D. silver hydroxide
For questions number 8 and 9, study the given temperature – energy graph.
8. What happens to the temperature during fusion and solidification?
A. decrease by half C. quadrupled
B. increase by half D. remains the same
9. How much is the value for the heat of vaporization of water as shown in the
graph?
A. 0.50cal/g B. 1.00cal/g C. 80.0cal/g D. 540.0cal/g
10. Which of the following list of properties describes a metallic solid?
A. malleable, ductile, insoluble in water
B. low melting point, nonconductor of electrical current
C. high melting point, conductor of electricity when melted
D. none of the above
11. Which of the following list of properties describes an ionic solid?
A. malleable, ductile, insoluble in water
B. low melting point, nonconductor of electrical current
C. high melting point, conductor of electricity when melted
D. none of the above
12. What is the calculated heat absorbed in kilo calories when melting 25.0g of
ice at 0°C?
A. 2.00 B. 15.4 C. 28.1 D. 82.8
13. What is the calculated heat required in kilo calories to convert 25.0g of
water at 25.0°C to steam at 100.0°C?
A. 2.00 B. 15.4 C. 28.1 D. 82.8
14. What is the calculated heat required in kilo calories to convert 115g of ice at
0.0°C to steam at 100.0°C?
A. 2.00 B. 15.4 C. 28.1 D. 82.8
15. What is the calculated heat required in kilo calories to convert 38.5g of ice
at -20.0°C to steam at 100.0°C?
A. 2.00 B. 15.4 C. 28.1 D. 82.8
What’s More
1. IONIC CRYSTALLINE SOLID
2. 3.60 x 104 cal or 36.0 kcal
Answer Key
References
Books

Corwin, C. H. (2018). Introductory Chemistry Concepts and Critical Thinking 8th ed. USA:
Prentice Education, Inc.

Whitten, K. W., et. al. (2005). General Chemistry 7th ed. Brooks/Cole. Thomson Learning
Asian Edition.

Online Sources

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Organic_Chemistry/Supplemental_Modul
es_(Organic_Chemistry)/Properties_of_Liquids_and_Solids

https://www.airbestpractices.com/industries/food/proper-compressed-air-glass-
container-machines

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