MILTON MARGAI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION AND TECHNOLOGY

BROOKFIELDS CAMPUS
FACULTY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC HEALTH

Instructor: Mr. Prince T. Lamin-Boima - Certificate in nursing {National School of Nursing}, Certificate in
nursing {COMAHS, University of sierra Leone} and BSc (Hons.) Public Health {Njala University}.Master
of Public Health (MPH) {Njala University}, PHD candidate in Public Health with Specialty in
Epidemiology {Atlantic International University-AIU}
Office: MMCE &T-Brookfield’s Campus the Clinic and Ag. HOD Public Health

Contact: princelboima@yahoo.Com, Phone +23276697522 or +23277697522

BSC (HONS) PUBLIC HEALTH - FIRST YEAR SECOND SEMESTER

BSPH 124 - Public Health Engineering Week

Terminologies in construction drawings, Basic Measurement Techniques. Recognize items of work

Elementary
in place, engineering and technical drawings. Drawing such as simple house design and plans. Week
Technical one&
Detail of layout plans, estate, market places, industrial areas, CBD, sanitary facilities, drainages,
Drawing two
dams etc
Elementary Elementary Field Surveying, Surveying Instruments, Measurement Techniques, Methods of Survey
Week
Survey Measurement and Boundary Evidence three
Elementary Estimation and quantity calculation for: excavation and footings or underground works, above the
Week
Quantity Ground Works, Finishing Works, Brick, Interior and exterior works. Important steps to remember three &
Surveying while doing Mechanical, Electrical and Plumbing (MEP) four

Introduction Historic development, Composition of concrete, Advantages of concrete over other materials,
Week
of concrete Advances and future trends in concrete, Overview of Sustainability and Concrete development. five
Cement chemistry: Chemical composition, Hydration of cement, structure of hydrated cement, Tests
Elementary
on cement ( special cements, water chemical admixtures. Aggregates: Classification IS
Concrete Week
specifications, Properties, Grading, Methods of combining aggregates, specified grading, Testing of six
Technology
aggregates. Water : General requirements & limiting values of impurities

EXAMS REVISION AND EXAMS Revision

week

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Course Description
This course is an introduction to public Health for students’ in the Department. It will help students learn
and understand the essential principles of Public Health; especially in applying the principles to the
Engineers and technical specialists in water supply, sanitation, energy, environment, urban settings and
in other related fields vital to respond to these challenges and growing needs. In the humanitarian
sector, the environmental emergencies; industrial solid and liquid waste management; industrial and
occupational safety; and toxic chemical hazards public health engineering has a greater role to play in
today's scenario as well as in the future. Public Health Engineering, which consists of the art of
improving and controlling the physical environment of man, helps to reduce the spreading of diseases
hence prolong life and promote physical and mental efficiency. It bases its results on safe water supply,
municipal sewering and sewage disposal, solid and hazardous waste management, environmental and
public health legislation, toxicology and pollution control, land surveying and geotechnical engineering
as barriers to encounter communicable disease transmission and on the use of all means available for
the promotion of domestic and personal cleanliness. In order to confront these public health challenges
emerging out of environmental problems, adequately trained public health engineers/environmental
engineers are primordial.

Learning Objectives

This lecture notes will enable the students to:

 Explain the concept of graphic communication, their type and their role in sanitary construction.
 Familiarize with different drawing equipment, technical standards and procedures for
construction of geometric figures.
 Equipped with the skill that enables them to convert pictorial (3-D) drawings to orthographic (2-
D) drawings and vice versa.
 Explain the principle and application of sectioning.
 To be aware of the various factors influencing occupational safety and health,
 To choose appropriate sanitation and drinking water treatment units and processes for solving
problems in communities,
 To be aware of the legal aspects, organisation and managerial frameworks governing public
health engineering
 To expose the students to principles of water and wastewater qualities
 Well familiar with the purpose, procedures, materials and conventional symbols utilized to
make sketch maps.

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Conduct of course
1. Format: The course will include lectures, group discussion and practical exercises (in class
presentations and projects)
2. Students’ Responsibility: Student should be prepared for discussions and exercises. Also, to
find reading materials from the internet as it will be required.
3. Examination: One examination will be given at the end of the semester and students are
expected to take two assignments and one test during the course for the continuous
assessment.
4. Method of Grading and evaluation: Final examination (60%), Mid-semester test (10%),
Semester paper (10%), Assignment (10%), class participation (5%). and attendance (5%).

Semester Paper
A Semester paper will be prepared and presented individually, focusing on a pitch of industrial solid and
liquid waste management; industrial and occupational safety; and toxic chemical hazards public health
engineering has a greater role to play in today's scenario as well as in the future.
The project will be oral and/or written, and will be presented to the class a week before the exams. The
Semester Project will count as 10% of your course grade and should be 5 or more typed pages of text
in length (not including any appendices).

QUESTIONS
1. Elaborate the major principles of planning residential building
2. Enumerate the important points to be considered while planning a market.
3. Draw the top view (plan), front view (elevation) and sectional view (section elevation) of the
given line plans; Small room, Small clinic, Residential building and Residential building with
Verandah
4. Use the diagram below to determine the amount of concrete needed for that excavated
foundation.

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 5. Bring-to-the for the importance engineering in public health.
6. Write short note on BOQ and give a vivid example
7. How will you test for cement?
8. Describe the chemistry cement in respect to Chemical composition and chemical Formula
9. Write on aggregate and concrete to give a clear difference.
10. Calculate the amount of 6 inches bricks needed for this clinic

Floor plan

Elevation Plan

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 PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING NOTES
1.0 Introduction
A public health engineer is tasked with designing tools and developing systems that prevent injuries
and sicknesses. While most are employed in government agencies, some do work in the private sector
in consulting companies.
The professional of public health engineering involves maintaining and managing environmental health
programs in cities and counties. The duties may entail executive specific phases and assignments of
major projects. Some advise public officials, businesses and the public on public health engineering
knowledge and principles. They promote improvement measures, compliance with regulations and
overall public health through applying environmental health practices, leveraging professional skills and
enforcing local and state sanitary codes and public health laws. Some respond to and investigate
complaints and conditions, while others prepare complicated technical reports for proposed public and
private projects. Public health engineers independently work under a director of engineering or other
high ranking public health administrator.
Public health engineers are public health experts with an engineering background. Public health
engineers apply engineering principles in order to detect, control, evaluate and manage environmental
factors that impact public health. They may investigate public water supplies, sewage systems, public
swimming pools and hospitality businesses regarding water quality controls. They also may inspect
restaurant establishments to verify food and general sanitation. They also visit industrial companies to
check on air and water pollution controls as well as manufacturing practices. Those who work in the
office may gather and interpret the results of lab results regarding sewage, water samples and
industrial wastes. During disease outbreaks, they work with epidemiologists and other public health
officials to investigate the contributing environmental health factors.
Public health engineers need to maintain a good knowledge of the principles and practices of public
health engineering and environmental health. Some specialize in certain areas, such as radiology, air
pollution, water purification and sewage disposal. Public health engineers should be confident working
in the field under a variety of social, weather and environmental conditions. This means that they may
visit schools, motels, summer camps and remote processing plants. They must be comfortable dealing
with unsanitary conditions related to poor sanitation, housing and insect and rodent problems. An
analytical mind is needed because public health engineers must maintain a working knowledge of
current environmental health laws and public health provisions, according to Indeed.

2.0 Elementary Technical Drawing

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Technical drawing is a drawing or plan, rendered to scale, that is used to communicate direction and
specifics to a group of people who are creating something to explain how something works or how to
build something. An example of a technical drawing is a drawing made for a plumber with unique
symbols to show where all the water lines, sinks, faucets, tubs toilets are to be located and a drawing
made with computer-assisted design (CAD) to show the details of a new home building project.

2.1 Terminologies in construction drawings

1) Immersion: Drawing information that gives the size and/or location of elements in plans,
elevations, sections and details.
2) Dimension Line: Line drawn between the two extension lines that extend past the extension
lines. At the intersection of the two lines place a dark tick mark drawn freehand at a 45 degree
angle.
3) Dimension String: A line of continuous dimensions. Dimension strings are closed or open. A
closed string gives every dimension along the string while an open string gives only the
dimension need for size or location.
4) Dimension Text: A number representing the length of the dimension. Use 3/32" architectural
lettering.
5) Extension Lines: Lines drawn perpendicular to the dimensioned part.
6) Elevation: A view of the building from the front, back or side.
7) Line Quality: Crispness/Blackness/Density. The quality of the line is in its consistency and
appropriate line weight.
8) Line Weight: Primary/Secondary/Rendition. The weight/thickness of the line communicates
architectural information.
9) Orthographic Projection: Drawing method used for plan/section/elevation drawings. This
method uses right angles, parallel lines and perpendicular drawing surfaces.
10) Overall Dimension: A dimension that shows the whole width or length of an element. The
overall dimension is always drawn furthest out from the dimensioned element.
11) Plan View: A view from above the building after a horizontal cut has been made 4' above the
floor and the top part has been removed.
12) Scale: Drawings are scaled so that the plan or elevation can be drawn on a standard sheet of
paper. Architectural scales are generally given in fractions and Engineering scales are
generally given in whole numbers.
13) Acceptable Solution: A design solution deemed to comply with the Building Code that is pre-
approved and therefore has fewer compliance costs associated.
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14) Alteration: The rebuilding, re-erecting, repairing, enlarging and extending of a building.
Alternative solution: A design solution that differs totally or partially from Acceptable Solutions
or Verification Methods in the Compliance Documents, yet complies with the
performancerequirements of the Building Code. These are ‘standalone’ solutions put forward
and substantiated by the building consent applicant and considered and approved on their
individual merits by a building consent authority.
Amendment: Changes to the plans and/or specifications on which the building consent was
granted require an amendment to the original consent.
15) Beams: Load bearing cross members, usually timber or steel, that support the upper structure
of a building additional floors and/or roofs.
16) Building: Any temporary or permanent, movable or immovable structure including a structure
intended for occupation by people, animals, machinery or chattels.
17) Building Code: The national, mandatory standards for building work. All building work in New
Zealand must comply with the Building Code.
18) Building consent: is issued by a building consent authority for building work to begin in
accordance with the approved plans and specifications. For information about when a building
consent is required and how to apply, see Building consents and inspections process.
19) Building Consent Authority (BCA): BCAs are Territorial Authorities, Regional Authorities or
private body that has been registered by the Department of Building and Housing. BCAs issue
building consents, undertake inspections during construction and issue code compliance
certificates, notices to fix and compliance schedules.
20) Building envelope: This is the entire exterior surface of a building, including foundations, walls,
doors and windows that encloses or envelops the space within.
21) Cavity: The cavity space immediately behind a wall cladding that has vents at the base of the
wall. Cavities allow for drainage, which is one the four principles in managing water in and
around buildings.
22) Certificate of Acceptance: A certificate issued by a BCA to retrospectively approve
unconsented work, or approve work where a BCA is unable or refuses to issue a code
compliance certificate in respect of building work for which it granted a building consent. The
certificate confirms that, to the extent an inspection was able to be carried out, the work
complies with the Building Code.
23) Cladding: The exterior weather-resistant surface of a building.
24) Code Compliance Certificate (CCC): A certificate issued by a BCA at the completion of building
work, confirming that the building work complies with the building consent.

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25) Compliance: Occurs when building performance, according to the standards in the Building
Code, has been achieved.
26) Durability – ‘Durability’ is covered by Clause B2 of the Building Code.
27) E2: ‘E2 External moisture’ is a clause within the Building Code requiring the prevention of water
that could cause undue dampness and damage to building elements.
28) Eaves: The part of the roof that extends out over the walls
29) Exempt building work: Building work not requiring building consent as defined in section 41
and Schedule 1 of the Building Act 2004. Exempt building work must still comply with the
Building Code.
30) Fascia: any relatively broad, flat, horizontal surface, but usually referring to the edge of the roof
line where the gutters attach.
31) Flashing: A building element used on a joint between two materials designed to catch and drain
rainwater to prevent it penetrating the interior. Inadequate flashings have been linked to
problems with Weathertightness.
32) Foundations: The substructure that supports a building, such as piles, piers or footings, with the
purpose of transmitting structural loads from the building into the earth.
33) Frame/framing: The skeletal framework of a building to which roofs, floors and cladding are
attached. Usually constructed of wood or steel, the components of the frame include studs,
beams, joists and rafters.
34) Green building: The practice of increasing the efficiency with which buildings and their sites use
and harvest energy, water, and materials, to reduce building impacts on human health and the
environment. This includes aspects of siting, design, construction, operation, maintenance, and
removal.
35) Joists: Parallel beams of timber, concrete or steel for supporting floors or ceilings, etc.
36) Licensing Building Practitioners (LBPs): A licensing system for the building industry covering
designers and trades. From March 2012 certain critical building work will need to be carried out
or supervised by a licensed building practitioner.
37) Monolithic cladding: A cladding of sheet material forming a continuous mass, with an applied
coating to give the appearance of a seamless cladding. This type of cladding has sometimes
been implicated in issues of weathertightness.
38) Parapets: A low protective wall at the edge of a balcony, roof, bridge, or the like
39) Producer statement: A statement expressing the author’s view that plans, specifications, or
completed works comply with the technical requirements to satisfy some or all requirements of
the Building Code – A producer statement will usually be issued by a recognised specialist, for

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 example, an engineer, architect or competent contractor. It is up to the building consent
authority (BCA) to decide whether to rely on such a statement. These documents have no
specific status in law, but they can still be accepted and considered by a BCA as part of the
plans and specifications.
40) Product certification: Certification by a product certification body that a specific building product,
system or method meets nominated provisions of the Building Code, if used in accordance with
conditions on the product certificate.
41) Purlins: longitudinal member in a roof frame, usually for supporting common rafters or the like,
between the plate and the ridge
42) Quantity Surveyor: A person trained in construction measurement and costs. They usually work
closely with the architect/designer, engineer and builder to itemise the quantities of materials
and labour needed to build a house or other building, using the design drawings, and to give an
estimate of how much the project should cost.
43) Renovation: To restore to a previous or better condition.
44) Resource consent: A consent issued by a Territorial Authority to use the land in a way that is
not a permitted activity under a council or district plan. Resource consent will be needed when
a building project will contravene a permitted activity, for example, wishing to locate a building
closer to the boundary than permitted on the District Plan.
45) Restricted building work: Building work that requires a building consent and relates to an
element of a building that is critical to the integrity of the building and the health and safety of
its occupants and includes, without limitation, work on the building envelope and the structural
support of a building. Restricted building work must be carried out, or supervised by, a licensed
building practitioner.
46) Risk matrix: A table in the Clause E2 Compliance Document (Acceptable Solution E2/AS1) that
enables the calculation of a ‘risk score’ by the allocation and summing of scores for a range of
design and location factors applying to a specific building design. Once this score is known, the
range of allowable claddings can then be determined.
47) Soffits: The underside of an architectural feature, as a beam, arch, ceiling, vault, or cornice but
usually referring to the underside of the eaves.
48) Specifications: Detailed written instructions containing details of work to be done and materials
to be used in the construction of a building.
49) Subcontractor: A tradesperson hired to do specific work such as roofing, plumbing, wiring or
painting. The subcontractor takes instructions from, is paid by, and is responsible to the main
contractor.

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 50) Tradesperson: A skilled manual worker who has typically been formally trained through an
apprenticeship programme, for example a carpenter, plumber, roofer, painter or plasterer.
51) Variation: A change to the approved plans and specifications for a building project, occurring
during construction. A variation requires an amendment to the building consent and needs to
be formally advised and justified to the building consent authority, and then checked, approved
and recorded by the building consent authority.
52) Warranties: A promise, either written or implied, that the materials and workmanship of a
building are without defect or will meet a specified level of performance over a specified period
of time. The Building Act 2004 (sections 397–399) provides that building work on household
units is automatically covered by warranties as to the manner in which the work is undertaken
and the suitability of materials used. The warranties apply whether written into the contract or
not.
53) Waterproof/waterproofing: The process of rendering a building element or building totally
resistant to the ingress of any moisture.
54) Weather tightness: The resistance of a building to the weather. Weather tightness is not
necessarily waterproofing (see above). A building is weather tight when water is prevented
from entering and accumulating behind the cladding in amounts that can cause undue
dampness or damage to the building elements, ie. moisture may occasionally enter a
weathertight building but is able to harmlessly escape or evaporate.

2.2 Basic Measurement Techniques

2.2.1 Measurement Practice
It is vitally important that measurement practice applied to buildings is both accurate and consistent.
There are a number of situations that require a quantity surveyor to measure and record dimensions
from both drawings as well as on site, depending on the stage of the project. In order to standardize
measurement rules and conventions, there are a number of standard codes and methods of
measurement that are available. These are outlined below.
There are various approaches to measurement for bills of quantities and these are as follows:
 Each (numbers): Piles, doors, Windows, Precast concrete, etc.
 Length (meter): Windows sills, Pipes, Skirts, stair steps, etc.
 Area (Square meter): Flooring, painting, plastering, Brick walls (12 cm or less), etc.
 Volume (Cubic meter): Brick walls (>12 cm thick), Excavation, Backfilling, Reinforced Concrete,
etc.
 Weight (Ton): Metallic works, Reinforcement steel, etc.

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  Lump Sum: Some electrical and plumbing works, Manholes, etc.
 Effort (Man-day): Renting of equipment or labor, etc.

2.3 Earth works

Earth works comprises site level, excavation, backfilling and transportation of excavated materials.
Excavation:
- Quantities are calculated based on the dimensions of the foundation in plans from the owner
perspective.
- Contractors should consider the excess of material excavated to all for safe operations.
- Prices differ based on the soil type, deep of excavation, ground water level, site location, shoring
system, Equipment used, etc.
- Unit of measurement is cubic meter (volume)..

2.3 Drawing such as simple house design and plans.

Ideas are brought in to reality through drawing. A beautiful building, a set of apartment, hospitals,
schools, market places, industrial areas, drainages, sanitary facility, water damp, cinema halls etc. are
all the transformation of the ideas in to reality through the art of technical drawings. In building
drawings, a building is considered as an object, and the drawings are prepared.
The top view (Plan), front view (elevation) and section view (sectional elevation) are drawn by
considering the dimensions of the room sizes and components of a building. Building drawings are
prepared with great care, much before the construction of any buildings is to be implemented. It shows
the location and sizes of various rooms in a building. It is a basic requirement of all sanitarians to know
about the details in a building drawing, for the best utilization of the spaces in that building.

2.4 Important terms used in building drawing

The various components of the building observed and their location are as shown below.
Foundation (Substructure):the portion of the building below the ground level which is in direct contact
with the ground and used to transmit the loads of the building to the ground.
Super structure: The portion of the building above the ground level or substructure.
Basement: it is the lower storey of a building which is partly below the ground level.

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Plinth and Plinth level: the portion of the building between the ground and floor level in the super
structure is called Plinth. Its height above the ground level is known as Plinth level or Plinth height. Its
height is usually 450mm, 600-750mm from ground level.
Wall: the thickness of the super structure which carries the load of the roof , usually 200mm thickness
Parapet: the wall built above the flat roof, which provides safety to the people, while they are on the top
of the roof in a building and it adds good appearance to a building. It is usually with 100 or 200mm in
thickness and height of 600mm.
Flooring: the horizontal surface at the plinth level in a building. It is usually prepared in two layers
Sill level: the horizontal bottom level of a window
Plinth area: the area covered by a building at the plinth level. It is obtained by measuring the outside
dimensions of a building at the plinth level.
Floor area: the area of a building, excluding the area occupied by the wall. It is obtained by deducting
the area occupied by walls, from plinth area. In building, the floor area will be 80% to 90% of the plinth
area.
Carpet area: the area of a building which is useful or livable. It is obtained by deducting the area
occupied by Verandah, corridors, kitchen, toilet, bath rooms etc. from the floor area.

2.5 Principles of building drawing

A house, as far as possible, must satisfy the day to day needs of it occupants. It should provide a
comfortable living and protection from weather and seasons. The following principles of architecture are
followed to achieve this.

1. Functional planning 4. Outward appearance i.e.

2. Structural durability aesthetic value
3. Essential service 5. Economy
1. Functional Planning
The best utilization of spaces according to needs is aimed at while planning a building. Form follow
function is used. Thus it is important that the purpose for which a building is to be used is determined
first. Normally buildings serve as residential, educational factories, offices, hospitals, market,
recreational places etc. Thus function forms the shape and planning of the building.
2. Structural Durability
A building is required to be durable and strong. It is the job of a structural engineer to decide the types
of construction to be adopted. A building can be made with load bearing walls, reinforced cement
concrete, steel or wooden depending up on it’s structural durability.

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3. Essential Services
Sanitary, water, electricity, air conditioner and sound insulation, fittings from the essential services of
building. Provision is thus made to accommodate these services with out causing any loss to the utility
of the building.
4. Outward Appearance
Efforts are made to make a building look beautiful and lively. It is so designed that it suits to its
surroundings.
5. Economy
A building is always planned and designed as an economical structure. To ascertain this estimate of
quantities are worked out and abstract of cost prepared. Cost of a building can be kept within the given
budget by adopting the following remedies.
i. Size of the building be reduced
ii. Specifications may be changed
iii. Construction work may be done in phases
iv. Services may be kept to the minimum utility limit

2.6 Basic elements of planning residential buildings

A residential building has the following places of activities.
 Living area
 Sleeping area
 Service area
 Other area (i.e. circulation area, drawing room)- depending up on the profession of the
inhabitations
1. Living area: living or drawing rooms or lounges are the main places in a residential building where
family members and friends meet, sit, relax and entertain. Such a room is well ventilated, lighted and
located near the entrance. Its area varies from 16 to 32 m2. Following points are kept in mind while
planning it. This area is provided near the main entrance with a verandah
It is directly connected to the bed, bath rooms and W.C by passages
It is near the dining room or dining area may be a part of this area
It is spacious so that furniture can be properly placed leaving some area for circulation
It has sufficient windows so that surrounding landscape can be fully viewed and enjoyed
2. Sleeping Area

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This area is provided for sleeping and relaxing. Bed rooms of all types come under this area. These
rooms have attached bath and W.C’s. Area of these rooms varies from 10 to 20 m2.
These rooms are large enough so as to allow space for beds, cup boards, writing table and chair.
Sometimes space is provided for dressing and make up. Windows are placed on North-West or south
west directions. These rooms are placed on North or south-West directions so as to receive in direct
sun-light.
3. Service Area
This area is used for daily services like cooking, eating, cleaning, bathing etc. kitchens, dining room,
bath rooms, W.C’s and toilets from this area. Spaces provided for boilers, washing and drying
machines, air conditioning are also covered by service areas.
Kitchen: It is the area where cooking is done. It preferably has Eastern or North-Eastern location.
Windows are so placed that a house wife can see the main entrance and also supervise the playing
children. Standing working areas in kitchen are preferred. Working shelves, washing sink and cooking
ranges are placed at 700 to 800 mm. high from floor level. Walls, shelves and skirting are provided with
a glazed finish.
Dinning: It has kitchen on one side and living area on the other. Kitchen activities should not be visible
from this area. This area is made ventilated and airy. It is sufficiently big so that refrigerator, freezer,
cup word and cutlery drawers can be accommodated in addition to dining table and chairs. Service or
hatch window is provided between this area and kitchen.
Bath and W.C’s: These areas are attached to bed rooms with one wall preferably exposed to weather.
The flooring and walls are given a glazy finish. High level window or windows with grounded glasses
are provided so as to maintain privacy. If needed an exhaust fan can also be provided in these areas.
4. Other areas: Verandah, passages, galleries, corridors, foyers, porches, staircases come under these
areas. For free circulation in the building these are placed. Prayer room study or hobby room, garage
and a storage place can also be covered under these areas. A public man, a lawyer, a doctor, a
professor needs a separate room in his residential place for carrying out his professional obligations.
The placing of these areas with respect to their utility and functionality is termed as planning. The
overall placing of rooms, position of rooms, and position of windows, ventilators and doors with respect
to north line is called orientation.
2.7 Principles of planning of residential buildings
Before planning a residential building, the site is visited, local building by- laws are studied and a line
plan is prepared. While preparing the line plan, the e following principles of practical conveniences are
followed.
1. orientation- aspects and prospects

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2. Privacy
3. Grouping
4. Circulation
5. Sanitation
6. Flexibility
7. Elegance
8. Land scaping
9. Economy.
1. Orientation: proper orientation means setting or placing of the rooms of the residential building which
allow the inmates of the house to enjoy the utmost whatever are good and to avoid whatever is bad in
respect of comforts in the elements of nature such as the sun, wind, and rain. Good orientation means
placement of rooms in relation to sun, wind, rain, topography and outlook and at the same time
providing a convenient access both to the courtyard, compound or street. To protect the main rooms
from the effect of heat of the sun, they should always be on east or north. Activities in a house take
place at different times of the day, thus one needs sun shine in the morning and cool after noon in the
kitchen. So a kitchen is planned with main windows fixed towards east. It is better to place the kitchen
facing east. Living rooms have some windows towards east and a few towards north. Bed rooms are
placed in the north, West or south west direction. Verandahs are provided towards East and west to
protect rooms from the effect of intense heat of the sun.
2. Privacy: Privacy is of two kinds:
i. Privacy inside the house between different rooms. It can be achieved by proper placing of passages,
doors and windows. Privacy is mainly desired in bed rooms, bath rooms, W. C's and toilets. Screens or
raised windows can also help in achieving in door privacy.
ii. Privacy of the whole house from the highways and streets. It is achieved by providing compound
walls, trees, high sill-level windows or raised plinths.
3. Grouping: placing of the rooms adjacent to each other with respect to their relative utility is called
Grouping. Bath, W.C’s are close to bed rooms. Dining space may be close to a kitchen. Drawing,
lounge or living rooms are preferably be near to the entrance.
4. Circulation: Horizontal circulation is achieved by passages, lobbies, corridors, and lounges. Vertical
circulation is achieved by stairs or' stepped terracing or lifts.
5. Sanitation: Good sanitation means the proper drainage of sewage. To achieve this, house is built on
elevated grounds. A house should be free from stagnated waters. Windows, doors and ventilators are
so placed that natural light and fresh air are available in all the rooms throughout the day. Windows are

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placed on opposite walls to create cross ventilation. Small sized windows are normally used in areas
where hot and dry weather remains most of the time.
6. Flexibility: It is a provision which allows the same space to be used for some other purposes. Dining
space attached to the drawing room and an additional verandah with large windows can allow these
areas to be converted into a hall. Even a good terrace on a compact combination on of different rooms
can allow such congregations.
7. Elegance: The out ward appealing look which allows the building to diffuse into the adjoining
environment is termed elegance. Balconies, Verandahs, Sunshades, porches etc. can enhance
elegance if properly placed and planned. Circular or arched openings spanning the verandah, doors
and window openings have again come in to use they add to the elegance and break the monotony of
present day stereo- typed buildings.
8. Land scaping: The space around the building may be suitably covered with greenery and plants.
Green foliage and shrubs provide a hygienic and healthy atmosphere in addition to keeping the place
cool and refreshing.
9. Economy: The cost of the building should be within the economical reach of the builder. All spaces of
activities are grouped together by means of passage, lobby, staircase etc. These areas should be
minimum but purposely and well ventilated. Planning is only an art not a science and hence it needs
proper utilization of many facilities of building. The basic criteria of Form Follows Function be adhered
too.
2.8 Specifications used to draw the building drawing
The specifications of the building components which are commonly followed in small residential and
office building construction are given below:
1. Drawing room or living room 16m2
2. Bed rooms 12m2
3. Kitchen 8m2
4. Bath room 2.6m2
5. W.C 2m2
6. Bath and W.C. 5.50m2
7. Lobby, passage etc 1.00m wide
8. Windows are 1/10th, floor area excluding doors
9. W.C., bath rooms and 10% of floor area
10. Stair case- residential buildings
Width of steps = 1.00m
Width of landing = 1.20m

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Rise = 180mm
Tread = 250mm
Public buildings
Width of steps =1.50m
Width of landing = 1.20m
Rise = 150mm
Tread = 300mm from street level
Light area of staircase = 1.5m2 per floor height.
Height of Plinth = 450mm
2.8.1 Sizes of doors and windows
Parapet: brick work of 200mm thick and 600mm height above the roof slab.
Window: top is in level with doors
W1 -900mm X 1200mm
W2 -1200mm X 1200mm
Placed at 900mm above floor level. Door/Flush door
Main rooms, where function is to be placed = 1200 X 2100mm or 1000 X 2100 mm
Kitchen, bath, W.C etc = 800 X 2100 mm or 900 X 2100mm
Ventilator V1 = 900 X 600mm V2 = 600 x 600mm placed at 1500mm above floor level.
2.9 Methods of making line and detailed drawing
The placing of different rooms including their sizes etc is grouped together by drawing a single line
plan. North line is drawn and keeping in view the basic principles, plan is drawn. It may be drawn on
graph paper, tracing paper or drawing paper. Single line plan is proportionally drawn on 1: 100 scale.
Draw the North line, and place the kitchen on the East, North- East or south-East aspect. Then place
bed rooms on North-West or South-West direction. Similarly place other rooms and select the best
combination after preparing two or three combinations. After selecting the line plan with the best
combination, a detailed drawing of a building consisting the following views are prepared. The major
views in detailed drawings are:
i. Plan – scale 1:50
ii. Elevation- scale 1:50
iii. Section – scale 1:50
iv. Detail – scale 1:20 or 1:10
v. Site plan- scale 1:200
vi. Enlarged views of important details
vii. Reference tables, legends showing area covered, sizes of doors and windows etc

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i. Plan: The single line plan is developed in to a double line or solid plan. Length and width of rooms are
shown in the plan. Plan is drawn by assuming the structure to be cut at a height of 1.5m from the
ground level. Thickness of walls, width of doors, windows, sunshades, steps etc. are shown in the plan.
The parts of the structure above the cutting plane are shown by dotted lines. Plinth projection is also
shown in the plan.
ii. Elevation: It shows the width and height of a structure. Front and side views are drawn to give frontal
and side look of the structures. The shapes of windows, doors, verandah openings, sunshades and
parapets are shown in true look.
iii. Section: the structure is supposed so be cut by a vertical plane, and the view of the cut-section is
drawn, which is termed as a section. It shows height of rooms and depth of foundations, type of roofs,
floors, thickness of walls and plinth height etc. Section also shows type of materials used for
construction. The following table show the conventional symbols used for different types of building
materials.

2.9.1 TIPS TO DRAW BUILDING DRAWING

Imagine and understand the building through the line sketch.
Imagine the horizontal cutting plane to remove the portion of the building above the sill level to draw the
top view. Show the openings for the doors and windows by referring the line plan or line sketch.
The steps in top view are drawn as rectangles in front of the main door. Number of steps is depending
on the height of the plinth or flooring.
The sunshades are removed as a result of cutting; they are also marked in top view using dashed lines.
The ground line is drawn above the top view, the left and right extreme walls are projected to the front
view for the height of the plinth and the height of the building is drawn and the rectangle showing the
front view is completed. The doors, windows and steps are projected from top view and drawn in front
view with appropriate dimensions To draw the sectional view, identify the walls which are cut by cutting
plane. Draw one of the walls starting from foundation to parapet with correct height for foundation
footings, plinth, lintel, roof slab and parapet.
Make the position of the next wall using the inner room dimension and draw downwards the lintel, plinth
and foundation footings.
Parapet walls are drawn only on outside walls.
If windows, doors etc. are observed in section view, they must be drawn.
Draw hatching lines, as per the conventional representation of the materials in section 10.7.

3.0 Elementary quantity surveying

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Quantity surveying measurement adopts prescriptive processes which are underpinned by an
understanding of construction technology. Quantity surveyors get their name from the Bill of Quantities,
a document which itemizes the quantities of materials in a construction project. The quantities
contained in bills of quantities are measured from design drawings, to be used by the contractors for
tendering and for progress payments, for variations and changes and ultimately for statistics, taxation
and valuation. a person whose job is to calculate the cost of the materials and work needed for future
building work. It is clear that quantity surveyors need to measure what goes into a building before they
are able to assess costs. Indeed the Australian Institute of Quantity Surveying considers
measurement / quantification as a basic quantity surveying ability.
Land surveying is defined as the process by which measurement of land is made and then represent
such measurement by tables, plans or layout for specific purposes. It can also mean the measuring and
mapping out of the position, size and boundaries of an area of land.
3.1 Importance of land surveying
1. Land surveying helps to determine the area of a place e.g. market, garden, school, etc.
2. It helps to set on the ground the position of construction or any engineering works.
3. It can also help to determine the production of maps.
4. Land surveying can also be used to determine the relative positions or features of the earth
(natural or artificial) so that they may be correctly represented on maps.
5. Land surveying can be used as a basis of feasibility studies in any construction work to be
carried out on the surveyed land.
6. Land surveying gives the owner of the land security which can be used to obtain loan as soon
They are different branches of land survey. These are:
 Topographic survey: In topographic surveys, the survey works are based on the different
locations of the main, natural or artificial features of the earth, such as rivers, hills, valleys,
villages, roads etc.
 Engineering survey: These surveys include all aspects involved in the preparation of
engineering works to its execution. The features mostly considered are roads, channels, rails,
dams and other construction works.
 Geodetic survey: These are high accuracy surveys mainly concerned with the shape of the
earth or position, fixing of points which provide control for lower accuracy survey.
 Geological survey: These have to do with features associated with the inner structure of the
earth e.g. type of soil, water table, mineral content, etc.
 Geographical surveys: These involve the surveying of natural and man-made features of the
earth e.g. market, road, school, hospital, rivers, mountain, etc.

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  Cadastral survey: These surveys works based on the preparation of plans, indicating and
defining the legal property boundaries.
 Military survey: These involve the survey of land, air and water bodies to provide adequate
information for the purpose of defense.

3.1.2 Types of surveying

There are many types of land surveying. These include:
1. Chain surveying.
2. Transverse surveying.
3. Aerial surveying.
4. Triangular surveying.
5. Triangulation surveying.
6. Plane table surveying.
7. Hydro-graphic surveying.
3.1.3 Common survey instruments
 Ranging pole.
 Measuring tape.
 Offset staff.
 Station peg.
 Optical square.
 Gunther’s chain.
 Arrows or pins.
 Steel band.
 Watkin’s clinometer.
 Field book.
4.0 Methods of Survey Measurement
4.1 Estimation and quantity calculation for:
Estimates should always allow for a certain percentage of waste. When calculating quantities, the
following (potential) waste factors should be accounted for: Brick units 5% - 10% depending on the
method used for unloading, Mortar25% - 50% or more if joints are excessively thick and concrete
foundation10% depends on accuracy of excavation and thickness of footings
4.2 Quantity calculation
The Bill of Quantities (BOQ) is defined as a list of brief descriptions and estimated quantities. The
quantities are defined as estimated because they are subject to admeasurements and are not expected

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to be totally accurate due to the unknown factors which occur in civil engineering work. The objective of
preparing the Bill of Quantities is to assist estimators to produce an accurate tender efficiently and to
assist the post contract administration to be carried out in an efficient and cost-effective manner. It
should be noted that the quality of the drawings plays a major part in achieving theses aims by enabling
the taker-off to produce an accurate bill and also by allowing the estimator to make sound engineering
judgments on methods of working. The bill of quantities, when completed, is traditionally presented in
trade format; that is, in a given order, for example: Demolition and alteration, Groundwork, Concrete
work and Masonry. Also, the bill of quantities is classified into the following work groups:
4.2.1 Civil works which includes: Earth works (leveling, excavation, backfilling, transportation of
excavated soil);
4.2.2. Foundation works (plain and reinforced concrete, piling foundations);
4.2.3 Brick works (internal and external); Skelton reinforces concrete (columns, beans, slabs and
stairs);
Water proofing; Staircases; Plastering, Flooring; Painting;
4.2.4 Metal works (windows, doors, accessories); etc. - Sanitary works which includes: Water feeding
systems;
4.2.5 Internal and external plumbing works; Finishes of plumbing works; etc.
4.2.6. Electrical works which includes: Electrical cables; Wiring; Accessories; Internal connections;
4.2.7 Mechanical works which includes: Air conditioning systems; Elevators; etc.

4.3 Excavation and footings or underground works

4.3.1 Earth works

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Earth works comprises site level, excavation, backfilling and transportation of excavated materials.
Excavation:
 Quantities are calculated based on the dimensions of the foundation in plans from the owner
perspective.
 Contractors should consider the excess of material excavated to all for safe operations.
 Prices differ based on the soil type, deep of excavation, ground water level, site location,
shoring system, Equipment used, etc.
 Unit of measurement is cubic meter (volume).

Fig.1: Plan and cross section of building foundation

The length of excavation = 5.4 × 2 + (4.4 – 2) × 2 = 15.6 m
Depth of excavation = 1.8 m
Width of excavation = width of plain concrete footing = 1.0 m
Volume = 15.6 × 1.8 × 1.0 = 18.8 m3
Backfilling:
- Unit of measurement is cubic meter (volume)
4.3.2 Backfilling = Excavation – volume of all works inside the excavated pit (footings, smells, column
necks, brickwork, etc.) + amount above Ground Level GL (or – amount below GL) as shown in the
Figure above.

4.4 Above the Ground Works

4.4.1 Concrete

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To concrete something means to form it into a mass, or to solidify it. As far as building is concerned, the
term concrete means an artificial stone made by mixing sand, stone, Portland cement and water. This
mixture, cast into a form of the desired shape and size, hardens into a stone-like mass: the concrete.
Concrete, in the broadest sense, is any product or mass made by the use of a cementing medium.
Generally, this medium is the product of reaction between hydraulic cement and water. Concrete has
been the most common building material for many years. It is expected to remain so in the coming
decades. Concrete is used in many types of civil engineering structures such as such as buildings,
bridges, dam, plates and shell structures, etc.
Based on ingredients present in concrete, it can be classified into Normal Concrete and Special
Concrete
Normal Concrete has the ingredients namely cement, sand, aggregates (coarse) and water mixed in
some proportion to achieve concrete of desired strength and property. Modern concrete, also called
special concrete, invariably has additional components other than these ingredients namely admixtures.
Admixtures are added to concrete to achieve special properties like ultra high strength or resistance to
tensile forces.
4.4.2 Properties of Concrete
Concrete has many properties, but most of them are of little interest to the Rural Builder. Therefore here
we only deal with the three most important properties: Compression strength, Tensile strength and
Protection against corrosion.
1. Compression Strength: It is commonly known that concrete becomes very hard and can withstand
enormous pressures; a property which is called compression strength. This compression strength
depends mainly on the properties and quality of the cement paste and the aggregate.
If the aggregate consists of a soft or weak material, the concrete will be weak also. About the only
simple test is to break some of the stones with a hammer. If the effort required to break the majority of
stones is greater than the effort required to break a piece of concrete of about the same size, the
aggregate will make strong concrete. If the stone breaks easily, the concrete made of these stones will
be no stronger than the stones themselves. If the aggregate is so dirty that there is no direct contact
between the surface of the particles and the cement paste, the concrete will again be weak.
Provided that all the rules for producing a good concrete are observed, the strength of the concrete can
be controlled by choosing the mix proportions. For example, a mix proportion of 1:10 is weaker than a
1:3 mix. This is because in a 1:10 mix the particles of aggregate are not completely coated with cement
paste, but in the 1:3 mix they are fully embedded in it. If not enough water was added to the mix, the
cement paste remains too dry and stiff and the concrete will be weak. If too much water was added,

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making the cement paste too thin, the concrete will again be weak. Therefore the Rural Builder must
always carefully follow the correct concrete recipe.
2. Tensile Strength: The tensile strength of a material means its capability of being stretched to a
certain extent without breaking. Although concrete becomes very hard, its tensile strength is very
limited. It is so low that in practice. The tensile strength of concrete is regarded as being nonexistent.
This is why sometimes concrete members of a structure must be reinforced by steel bars embedded in
them. Some types of wood, while they are softer and have much lower compression strength than
concrete, have a far higher tensile strength because of their fiber structure. The wood fibers act in a
way like the reinforcement iron embedded in concrete. Wood is a good building material because of its
tensile strength. However, Its flexibility makes it subject to bending under loads. Because of this
problem, short-span constructions are chosen; or, among other possibilities, reinforced concrete can be
used instead of wood.
3. Protection against Corrosion: Corrosion means a wearing away, a slow destruction caused by a
reaction with air, water or chemicals. Reinforcement iron which is left unprotected and exposed to air
and humidity will eventually start to corrode on the surface and become rusty. If this process is not
halted in time, the rust goes into the bar and it becomes too weak to be used. In order to maintain the
strength of steel-reinforced concrete, the steel has to be protected from rust. This is partly done by the
hardened cement paste and partly by structural means. Ideally, the hardened cement paste
hermetically seals the iron so that direct contact with air and humidity is cut off. Even slight rust stains
on the iron cannot do any harm because the cement paste protects it against further corrosion.
The protection will not be enough however, unless the builder observes the following rules:
 The reinforcement bars must be completely covered by concrete which is well compacted and
without voids.
 The concrete cover must be sufficiently thick, and without cracks.
In most cases ordinary Portland cement is used and the mix proportion should be no less than 1: 5 for
reinforced concrete. Apart from these, all the other rules for producing a good concrete must be
observed.
4.4.3 Concrete for floor and roof slabs
The total volume of concrete is never less than the volume of the total volume of the aggregate.
Typically air voids make up 50% of the aggregate volume; these are filled up with mortar. Excess
mortar adds to the volume of the concrete. Remember that the aggregate should contain a variety of
sizes so that it fills a volume efficiently and that the maximum aggregate size for roof slabs is 10mm
and for floor slabs it is 20 to 25 mm.

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4.4.4 Concrete works:
Concrete works comprises of both plain concrete (PC) and reinforced concrete (RC).
Plain concrete (PC):
- Measured in m2 (area) if thickness < 20 cm.
- Measured in m3 (volume) if thickness ≥ 20 cm.
- Average thickness should be mentioned when measurement is done by area.
Reinforced concrete (RC):
- All RC elements measured by volume (m3) except hollow block slabs measured by area (m2).
- Domes, cylindrical roofs and shells measured by area in the horizontal projection.

 4.4.5 Advantages of Concrete:

1. Lower life cycle cost (production + maintenance): Although cement is costly, cement paste occupies
only 25 to 40 % of total volume of concrete.
2. Mould-ability: Initially, the concrete is in plastic stage so that it can be cast into any shape.
3. Robustness: property associated with the massiveness of concrete
4. Can be designed for desired property: by changing proportions of ingredients

4.4.6 Disadvantages of Concrete:

 1. Low tensile strength
– Concrete is derived from particulate system
– Particulate systems are bonded by some type of bonding which is mostly physical type e.g. Van der
Waal’s forces.
This can be overcome by conventional reinforcements like steel (reinforced concrete) or by using small
discrete randomly oriented fibres (fiber reinforced concrete).
2. Low ductility (brittle)
– Not much capacity to deform before failure unlike steel
These disadvantages can be overcome by adding additional materials.

4.5 The “Slump Test”

A "slump cone" is a simple device for testing a concrete mixture to see that it has the right proportion of
materials. The equipment can be constructed from:
To perform the test:
 Dampen the slump cone and set it on a flat, moist, non-absorbent surface. Stand on the clips at
the bottom of the cone to hold it down.

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  Fill the cone in three layers approximately equal in volume. Because the diameter at the bottom
of the cone is large, the first layer should fill the cone to about one-fourth its height.
 Stroke each layer 25 times with the wooden dowel
 After the top layer has been stroked with the dowel, smooth the surface of the concrete so the
cone is filled exactly.
 Carefully lift the cone off the concrete.
 Place the empty cone alongside the concrete. Measure the difference between the height of
the cone and the eight of the concrete. This difference is the slump

4.5.1 Placing concrete in mould

To make strong structures, it is important to place fresh concrete in the moulds correctly. The wet
concrete mix should not be handled roughly when it is being carried to the forms and put in the moulds.
It is very easy, through joggling or throwing, to separate the fine aggregate from the coarse aggregate.
Do not let concrete drop freely for a distance greater than 90 to 120 cm (3' to 4'). Concrete is strongest
when the various sizes of aggregates and cement paste are well mixed. The concrete mix should be
firmly tamped into place with a thin iron rod (about 2 cm or 3/4" in diameter), a wooden pole, or a
shovel.
4.5.2 Curing concrete
When the moulds are filled, the hard work is done, but the process is not finished. The concrete must
be protected until it reaches the required strength. Concrete begins to set about 30 minutes after water
has been added and is firm after about 4 hours, although it may set much faster in hot and humid
conditions.
The concrete then continues to gain strength as it hardens a process that takes at least a year.
Time 3 days 7 days 28 days 3 months 6 months 1 year % of ultimate strength 20% 45% 60% 85% 95%
100% The early stage of curing is extremely critical. Special steps should be taken to keep the concrete
wet; once the concrete has set the addition of further water will not result in a loss of strength. In
temperate climates, the mixture should be kept wet for at least 7 days; in tropical and subtropical
climates, it should be kept wet for at least 11 days. Once concrete dries, it will stop hardening; after this
happens, rewetting will NOT re-start the hardening process. Newly-laid concrete should be protected
from the sun and from drying wind. Large areas such as floors or walls that are exposed to the sun or
wind should be protected with some sort of covering. Protective covers often used are: canvas, empty
cement bags, burlap, palm leaves, straw, and wet sand. The covering should also be kept wet so that it
will not absorb water from the concrete.

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Floors should be flooded with a few centimeters of water after pouring. After 1 day they can be drained
so that a waterproofing coat can be laid however, it should be re-flooded once this layer has set. If a
surface dries out it will crack and any loss of moisture will stop the hydration reaction and no further
strength will develop.
Concrete is strong enough for light loads after 7 days. In most cases, moulds can be removed from
standing structures like bridges and walls after 4 or 5 days, but if they are left in place they will help to
keep the concrete from drying out. In small ground-supported structures such as street drains, the
moulds can be removed within 6 hours of completion provided this is done carefully. Plans will usually
say if forms should be left in place longer. Concrete is usually expected to reach the strength for which
it was designed after 28 days. Concrete that is moist cured for a month is about twice as strong as
concrete that cures in the open air.
4.5.3 Quick-setting concrete
Quick-setting concrete is often useful; for example, when repeated castings are needed from the same
mold. A concrete mixture that contains calcium chloride as an accelerator will set about twice as fast as
a mixture that does not. The mixed batch must be put into the moulds faster, but since quick-setting
batches are usually small, this is not a problem. Calcium chloride does not lessen the strength of fully-
cured concrete. No more than 1 kg (2 pounds) of calcium chloride should be used per sack of cement.
It should be used only if it is in its original containers, which should be moisture-proof bags or sacks or
air-tight steel 15drums. To add the calcium chloride, mix up a solution containing 1/2 kg per liter (1
pound per quart) of water. Use this solution as part of the mixing water at a ratio of 2 liters (2 quarts)
per sack of cement (42.6 kg or 94 pounds). Solid (dry) calcium chloride must never be added to the
concrete mix; only use it in solution.

4.6 There are basically three materials we start with to make concrete:
4.6.1 Aggregates
"Aggregate" is the term used for the mixture of different sized stones that form the body of mortars and
concrete. The aggregate, which is made up of the fine and coarse aggregates together. i.e. the sand
and broken stones. The aggregate makes up the main mass of the concrete; its function is mostly just
to add bulk. Ideally the stone should be graded so that the smaller sizes of stone fit exactly into the
spaces between the larger ones and no gaps or holes are left in the mass of mortar or concrete.

4.6.2 Concrete Mix Ratios (Cement, Sand, Gravel)

Depending on the application concrete mix design can be complex. The below table gives a basic
indication of the mix ratios used for different purposes but should be used as a guide only. Some

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additional things to consider when finding a suitable mix design include but are in no way limited to the
following:
 Water/cement ratio theory states that for a given combination of materials and as long as
workable consistency is obtained, the strength of concrete at a given age depends on the w/c
ratio.
 The lower the w/c ratio, the higher the concrete strength.
 All materials used for a design including the water quality should be to a high standard. A
general rule of thumb is, if the water is palatable then it is suitable for mixing concrete.

1. Sand
Sand is a mass of finely crushed rock. It is either crushed naturally as seen on the sea shore, in river
beds, or in deserts, or it is artificially produced in crusher plants near rock. Sand is classified according
to the shape of its particles, which differs depending on where the sand came from originally (Figure 2).
It is also graded according to the size of its grains.
2. Gravel
"Gravel" is the term commonly used for the larger sized stones of the aggregate. Originally, gravel
meant an "all-in-one" aggregate, a mixture of sand and stones of all sizes which can sometimes be
found all together in a natural deposit. The individual particles are rounded by the natural action of
water and weather.
3. Broken Stones
These are the largest stones of the aggregate; they make up the bulk of concrete. They are found
either in natural deposits or scattered on the ground surface; or they are artificially produced in crusher
plants. The Rural Builder often must break up large stones with hammers, to make them a convenient
size. Note: These aggregates are the most common ones used. There are many other types of

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aggregates (chips, pebbles, rubble etc.), but as far as the Rural Builder is concerned they are of little
importance.
4.7 The water:
The water used to prepare concrete must be clean, and free of organic matter. Water acceptable for
drinking is preferable. Any clear, fresh water is acceptable. Salt water may be used if fresh water is not
readily available, but it will reduce the strength of concrete about 15 percent. If you must use dirty or
muddy water, let the water settle in a huge pan or tank to remove most of the dirt. Enough water is
needed so that the hydration reaction is completed and the maximum strength is gained. However, too
much water leads to a reduction in strength.

4.8 Binding materials

4.8.1 Lime
Lime is a very fine white powder, used in mixes for mortar, plaster and render. It is made from
limestone or chalk which is burnt in a kiln and becomes quicklime. The quicklime is usually passed
through a machine called a hydrator, where it combines with water and becomes hydrated lime. This is
dried, crushed to a fine powder, then bagged and sold. Sometimes the lime is sold as quicklime, and
the builder adds the water to it himself. This process is called "slaking" the lime or "running it to putty",
and it is not described here. Slaked lime and hydrated lime are chemically the same, but slaked lime
has more water in it. Hydraulic lime is made from limestone or chalk containing clay. It hardens when
combined with water; and it also hardens well in damp places or even under water. It is stronger than
other lime, although weaker than Portland cement. Non-hydraulic lime comes from the purest limestone
and chalk. It hardens by drying out and then slowly combining with the carbon dioxide in the air.
4.8.2 Portland cement
Portland cement is a fine gray powder. Among the various kinds of cement it is the most commonly
used as binding material. It is made of a mixture of chalk or limestone together with clay. The limestone
or chalk and the clay, in appropriate proportions, are fed into a “wet grinding mill” and reduced to a
creamy substance known as slurry. The slurry is pumped to a large cylindrical "kiln" which is about 90
m long and 3 m in diameter. The slurry enters the kiln at its upper end while pulverized (Crushed) coal,
gas or other fuel is blown in at the other end. The temperature inside the kiln at the lower end is very
intense, approximately 1500 degrees C; gradually decreasing towards the top end. So the slurry as it
moves down the kiln is first dried, then heated, and then finally burnt. it leaves the kiln in the form of
very hard “clinkers” shaped like small balls and of a dark brown to black in color. The clinkers are
ground up to an extremely fine gray powder, which is the cement. The cement is packed in paper bags

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of 50 kg capacity (in the US 94 pound, 42.6 kg sacks are used) which is about 35 liters of cement,
however after leakage during transport this will probably be nearer 34 liters.
4.8.3 Storing Binding Materials
The quality of mortar and concrete depends on so many factors, but one of the most important of these
is the cement. Cement must be stored properly, to prevent it from setting (hardening) before it is used.
If the cement gets damp, it will become unusable. Everyone knows that cement should be kept dry, but
they don't always realize that contact with damp air can do as much harm as direct contact with water.
On all jobs where bagged cement is used, there should be a shed or room to store it.
Storing in a shed: Make sure that the shed or room is water-tight and has a sound, dry floor, If the floor
is not dry, make a platform out of boards set on blocks -and timber, to raise the bags off the ground.
Stack the bags closely together to keep out air, and away from the walls so that they are not in contact
with any dampness on the walls. In very large sheds it is better to cover the bags with plastic sheeting
to keep out damp air, especially during the rainy season. Check the bags from time to time for termites:
these may damage the bags and with them the cement. Check also that the roof doesn't leak and that
the walls are waterproof.
Storing in the open: On some jobs, bags of cement may have to be stored in the open, with no more
protection than a dry base and a covering of tarpaulins or plastic sheets; The sheeting must be properly
overlapped to keep out the rain; and the top sheet should lay over all the ones below like a roof, so that
the rain can run straight off without getting into the tarpaulin "tent" and wetting the cement.

4.9 Cement Paste

When the three materials are mixed together, the cement and water combine chemically to make a
cement paste, which surrounds the particles of the aggregate and holds them together. The cement
paste component of concrete is what causes it to harden, the aggregate simply remains passive
(inactive). Thus the cement paste must completely cover the surface of every single particle of the
aggregate. This means that each stone, no matter whether tiny or big, must be covered all over by a
thin layer of cement paste. This is achieved by mixing all three components very thoroughly and in the
correct proportions. The cement paste fills up all the spaces between the particles of the aggregate and
bonds them firmly together as it hardens.
The hardening process requires a certain amount of water; how much depends on how much cement is
added to the mix. After it is set, the hardened cement paste cannot be dissolved again (except by the
use of certain acids). An undesirable further reaction of the cement paste is the drying shrinkage as it
hardens. Because of the evaporation of the extra water, the volume of the concrete is gradually
reduced. The concrete shrinks and develops cracks. This reaction can be effectively reduced, if not

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prevented, by correct curing; as will be discussed later. Also to prevent cracking, large areas that are
covered with concrete; such as floors, should be divided up into bays.

4.10 Reinforcement steel

To reinforce a material means to add something to it, in order to make it stronger. One of the strongest
reinforcement materials available is steel or iron. In reinforced concrete, a concrete member is
strengthened with steel bars or metal netting embedded in it.
4.10.1 Types of Reinforcement Steel
There are various types of reinforcement steel; how they are used depends on the function, shape and
dimensions of the reinforced concrete member as well as on the required strength. Reinforcement steel
is classified according to its shape and surface texture. The most common reinforcement is single
round bars which can have either a smooth or a ribbed surface.
a) Circular bars: Round, smooth bars are called circular bars and are available in
diameters ranging from 5mm to 28 mm. The four sizes most often used in Rural
Building have diameters of 6 min (IA"), 10 mm. (3/81), 12 mm (1/211) and 18 mm
(3/411)
b) Ribbed bars: The round bars with a ribbed surface are called ribbed bars and are
available in diameters ranging from 6 mm to 40 mm, if the bar is cross ribbed. For
obliquely ribbed bars, the diameters range from 6 mm to 28 mm. The standard length
of reinforcement bars is 9 m.
Advantages / Disadvantages: Although the strength of circular bars is sufficient for all Rural Building
purposes, it is advisable to purchase ribbed bars if they are available in the market. Ribbed bars are
preferred because their rough surface texture provides a better grip to the concrete. This, along with
their greater strength, allows the Rural Builder to space the ribbed bars wider apart, thus saving
materials and reducing the total weight of the member.
4.10.2 Reinforcement Mats
A variety of reinforcement mats are available. They are usually made out of two layers of reinforcement
bars laid across each other and secured together by welding. The mats are either square or oblong in
shape. They reduce the work needed to reinforce large members of the structure such as floors, walls,
slabs, etc. Regular reinforcement mats are hardly necessary in Rural Building, but two special kinds are
frequently used for burglar proofing and to reinforce thin concrete slabs like manhole covers, draining
boards in kitchens, and coping slabs.
These two are "expanded metal fabric" and "steel wire netting".

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 a) Steel wire netting: The most common steel wire netting has square meshes measuring
5 by 5 cm and is manufactured In the same way as reinforcement mats. The same kind
of wire mesh can also have oblong meshes.
b) Expanded metal fabric: This is made by slitting metal sheets and then stretching them
to form a diamond-shaped mesh. Always wear leather gloves when working with
expanded metal fabric, as the edges are very sharp.
Reinforcement mats are sold in sheets approximately 2, 15 m wide and 5 m long. Expanded metal
fabric and steel wire netting can be purchased In sheets of about 1, 5 m wide and 2.5 m long.
4.10.3 Binding wire
This is a soft steel wire about 1 mm in diameter, used for binding reinforcement bars at the points
where they cross each other. It is bought in rolls and may also be called lashing wire, annealed wire or
tying wire.

5.0 Mortar
Mortar consists of the body or aggregate, which is fine sand; and the binding material, which is cement
mixed thoroughly with water. Mortar is used to bed blocks as well as for plastering. A good mortar
should be easy to use and should harden fast enough that it does not cause delays in the construction.
It must be strong enough, long lasting and weatherproof. The total volume of mortar is equal to the
volume of sand in the mix because the cement mixes with water to fill the voids between the sand
particles. Obviously the more cement there is between in the voids gives a stronger mortar. The
amount of sand is therefore said to be 100% of the volume and a 1:4 mix requires 100% sand and 25%
cement, also a 1:3 mix requires 100% sand and 33% cement by weight or volume Amount for 1 m 3 of
Mortar.
5.1 Types of Mortar
The best mortar for a particular job is not necessarily the strongest one. Other properties like
workability, plasticity or faster hardening can be more important, though the strength of the mortar must
of course be sufficient for the job. The Mortar should neither be much stronger or much weaker than the
blocks with which it is used.
Cement Mortar: This sets quickly and develops great strength. It is used in proportions of one part
cement to three parts sand (1:3), which makes quite a strong and workable mix; down to a 1:2 mix, a
lean mix which will be rather harsh and difficult to use.
Lime Mortar: This is usually very workable and does not easily lose water to the blocks, but it is weaker
than cement mortar and hardens slower. Lime mortars are nowadays largely replaced by cement
mortars or combinations of lime and cement.

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Cement-Lime Mortar: This combines the properties of cement and lime to give a workable and strong
mortar. The cement makes the mortar stronger, denser, and faster setting; while the lime makes the
mortar workable and reduces the shrinkage during drying, because it retains the water better.
In some areas, lime is not always available, so in this book we will concentrate on cement mortars.
Remember: A good mortar should:
a. be easy to work with
b. harden fast enough not to delay the construction
c. stick well to the blocks
d. be long lasting and weatherproof
e. if possible, be as strong as the blocks

5.2 Mixing the Mortar

Mixing is one of the most important stages in the process of making mortar because the workability and
strength of mortar depend so much on the way it is mixed and on the amount of water added to the mix.
What Water Does: Water in the mix does two things: it makes the mortar workable and it combines
chemically with the cement to cause hardening. However, only about half the water is required for the
chemical reaction and the rest will remain or evaporate slowly as the mortar hardens, leaving small
holes or "voids" in the cement.
Obviously, the more water there is in the mix, the greater will be the number of voids and the weaker
the mortar.
Three Times Dry: The sand and cement is measured on one end of the mixing platform. With two men
facing each other across the pile and working their shovels together, turn the whole heap over once to
form a pile at the other end of the slab. This turning must be repeated twice and results in a so-called
"dry mix".
The correct method for turning over is to slide the shovel along the top of the platform, pick up a load
and spill the load over the top of the new pile. The main point is that each shovelful runs evenly down
the sides of the cone. This is the best and easiest way of mixing dry mortar and all other motions
should be eliminated. When the dry mix is a uniform colour throughout, it is considered to be well
mixed.
Three Times Wet: Form the heap of dry mix into a crater or pool, with the sides drawn out towards the
edges of the mixing platform. There should be no mixture left in the centre of the pool.
Now gently pour about 3/4 of the total required water into the crater. Turn the shovel over and with the
edge scraping along the platform, push some of the dry mix into the pool in such a way that It spreads
out, without separating the sand and cement. Handle the shovel carefully so that no water can escape

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 by breaking through the ring. When all of the dry mix has been heaped up in the centre of the platform,
it should have taken up all the free water and have a rather stiff consistency (earth- moist). Now make a
second pool, add the remaining water and repeat the rest of the mixing procedure. This will result in a
mortar of a plastic consistency. To make sure the mixing is thoroughly done, turn the mortar over a third
time.

 5.3 Concrete Block Size and Weight

W x H x L   Description App. Weight Units per Cube  

2″ Concrete Block
2x4x8 Concrete Brick Solid 5 720
2x8x16 2” Concrete Solid Block… (Soap Block) 17 240
3″ Concrete Block
3x8x16 3” Concrete Solid Block 25 162
4″ Concrete Block
4x8x16 4” Concrete Line Block 26 150
4x8x16 4” Concrete Solid Block 32 120
4x4x16 4x4x16 Concrete Solid Block… (Slug Block) 17.5 216
4x8x16 4” Concrete Interlocking/Return Corner Block 34.6 120
4x8x16 4” Haydite Line Block 19 150
4x8x16 4” Haydite Solid Block 25 100
6″ Concrete Block
6x8x16 6” Concrete Line Block (Window Corner/Jam mixed in cube) 32 120
6x8x16 6” Concrete Solid Block 51 72
6x8x16 6” Concrete Solid Top Block 35 90
6x8x8 6” Concrete Half Corner Block 16 —
6x8x16 6” Concrete Interlocking/Return Corner Block 36 90
6x8x16 6” Haydite Line Block (Window Corner/Jam mixed in cube) 24 144
8″ Concrete Block
8x8x16 8” Concrete Line Block (Window Corner/Jam mixed in cube) 38 90
8x8x16 8” Concrete Solid Top Block 51 60
8x8x16 8” Concrete Open Bottom Bond Beam 40 90
8x8x16 8” Concrete Double End Corner Block 44 90
8x8x8 8” Concrete Half Corner Block 24.6 180

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8x8x16 8” Concrete Floor Slab Block (L Block) 51 72
8x8x16 8” Concrete Sold Bottom Bond Beam 50 90
8x4x16 8” Concrete Half High Block 21 180
8x8x16 8” Concrete Split Face Block 44 90
8x8x16 8” Concrete Split Face Corner Block (1 Side + 1 End) 50 90
8x8x16 8” Haydite Line Block (Window Corner/Jam mixed in cube) 28 90

7.0 Cement chemistry

Two main classes of constructional cements are defined: non-hydraulic cements – do not set under
water (see box), and hydraulic cement. Non-Hydraulic cements The relatively high solubilities of portlandite
(Ca(OH)2) and gypsum means that they deteriorate rapidly in moist or wet environments. Hydraulic cements –
more durable Hydration products are very insoluble cements set under water use of limestones containing silica
and alumina.
7.1 Portland cement – Made from finely ground limestone and finely divided clay to give a burned
product containing 65-70% CaO, 18-24% SiO 2, 3-8% Fe2O3, 3-8% Al2O3 plus smaller proportions of
minor oxides (e.g. Na2O, K2O, MgO, etc.). Modern plants permit much more efficient processing and in
addition, proportion raw mix compositions to produce cement from which a range of strength
development and durability properties can be expected.

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Efficient grinding and blending of raw materials is essential. Firing of blends (raw meal) takes place in a
rotary kiln following drying and dehydration in cyclone preheaters and pre-calciners. Materials undergo
solid state reaction and partial melting (clinkering) at temperatures of up to 1500 oC (in the hot zone of
the kiln). Cement clinker is recovered on the cooling grate and sent for grinding and blending with
gypsum. Cement clinker composition: main clinker minerals are alite, belite, aluminate and ferrite.
Proportions vary depending on raw meal composition and firing and contribute to defining the hydration
and strength development properties of the cement product.
Alite–            C3S, 3CaO.SiO2 (idealised): Minor – Al2O3, MgO, P2O5, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O
Belite–          C2S, 2CaO.SiO2 (idealised): Minor – Al2O3, MgO, P2O5, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O
Aluminate – C3A, 3CaO.Al2O3 (idealised): Minor – Fe2O3, SiO2, MgO, Na2O, K2O
Ferrite –       C4AF, 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3 (idealised): Minor – SiO2, MgO, TiO2, Mn2O3.

7.2 Chemical composition of cement

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  Elemental composition in weight percentage. By convention, the elements are expressed in
form of their oxides (exception; Cl, F).
 Usual sequence of elements in cement chemistry
 L.o.I.: e.g. at 1050 °C, mainly due to CO2 and H2O

7.3 Chemical Formula

 The chemical formula indicates the elements occurring in a chemical compound:
 For a molecular compound, type and absolute number of elements are given

For a mineralogical compound, type and relative number of elements are given

Note: In mineralogical compounds, the elements need not necessarily occur in simple numerical ratios
(impurities, solid solution).
Composition of material, expressed in weight-percentage of the occurring minerals

In the cement chemistry, shorthand’s are often used:

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Note: Difference between chemical and mineralogical composition

Chemical Parameters for Cement-Specific Materials

Titration
Content of carbonates as determined by acid-base titration, expressed as CaCO3
% Titration = 1.786 CaO + 2.48 MgO
Applied for:   Limestone Marl Raw Meal
Lime Saturation
Significance of Clinker Minerals for Cement Properties

7.4 structure of cement

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7.5 Tests on cement

Cement is the most essential and most popular construction material. Cement contains multiple
ingredients like lime, silica, alumina etc. Cement is made by two types of the manufacturing process,
i.e. dry manufacturing process and wet manufacturing process. Cement work as a binder in a
concrete/mortar and bind the all ingredients together. Most of the tests are performed in the
engineering laboratory. But for any project every time you may not be able to test all tests in the
laboratory. You need to certify and allow its use by field observations or certain “to do field” on site
itself. Such tests of cement are called field tests of cement and anyone who is constructing his/her
home must know and use such tests, to get returns on money spent. The physical tests which are
generally performed to determine the acceptability of cements are –
1. Fineness Test
Fineness is the mean size of cement grain. Fineness test is done to measure the mean size of cement
grain. The finer the cement the surface area for hydration will be large and it increases the strength of
cement. But the fineness varies in different types of cement. Following three methods are applied to
test the fineness of cement

 Sieve method
 Air Permeability method
 Sedimentation method

2. Consistency Test
This test is done to estimate the required water quantity to form a normal consistency cement paste. It
is defined as the percentage of water required for the cement paste.

3. Setting Time Test

Cement has two types of setting time, one is initial setting time and another is final setting. Initial setting
time is the state of cement mortar or concrete when it starts to become stiffen and unworkable. Final
setting time is the state when cement mortar or concrete has become fully unworkable. Two methods
are used to find the initial and final setting time of cement

 Vicat needle method, and

 Gillmore needle method

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4. Soundness Test
Soundness of cement means it doesn’t undergo large volume change after setting. Large changes in
volume produce cracks, disintegration and distortion, ultimately leading to failure. So it is very important
to test the soundness of cement. To test the soundness two methods can be applied.

 Le-chatelier method
 Autoclave method

5. Strength Test
Cement has two types of strength – compressive strength and tensile strength. To know the
compressive strength and tensile strength of cement following tests are performed –Cement mortar
cube test (for compressive strength)

 Briqutte test (for tensile strength)

 Split tensile test (for tensile strength)

6. Heat of Hydration Test

Cement produce large amount of heat during hydration process. When large amount of concrete
volume is poured the inner temperature is greater than outer surface of concrete. Because outer
surface is exposed to weather. Thus surface shrinks rapidly than the inner and tends to produce cracks.
That is why it is important to test the heat of hydration of cement. Following test is performed to know
the heat of hydration of cement

 Calorimeter method

7. Specific Gravity Test

Specific gravity of cement is a comparison of weight of a cement volume to the weight of same volume
of water. Le-chaterlier flask is used to test the specific gravity of cement.

8. Color Test of Cement

The color of the cement should be uniform. It should be grey colour with a light greenish shade.

9. Presence of Lumps
The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are formed by the absorption of moisture
from the atmosphere. Any bag of cement containing such lumps should be rejected.

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10. Cement Adulteration Test
The cement should feel smooth when touched or rubbed in between fingers. If it is felt rough, it
indicates adulteration with sand

11. Temperature Test of Cement

If hand is inserted in a bag of cement or heap of cement, it should feel cool and not warm.

12. Float Test

If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, the particles should float for some time
before it sinks.

13. Setting Test

A thick paste of cement with water is made on a piece of glass plate and it is kept under water for 24
hours. It should set and not crack.

14. Strength of Cement Test

A block of cement 25 mm ×25 mm and 200 mm long is prepared and it is immersed for 7 days in water.
It is then placed on supports 15cm apart and it is loaded with a weight of about 34 kg. The block should
not show signs of failure. The briquettes of a lean mortar (1:6) are made. The size of briquette may be
about 75 mm ×25 mm ×12 mm. They are immersed in water for a period of 3 days after drying. Cement
is of sound quality such briquettes will not be broken easily.

15. Date of Packing:

Strength of cement reduces with time, so it is important to check the manufacturing date of the cement.
Generally, the cement should be used before 90 days from the date of manufacturing.

8.0 HEALTH PROJECTS

8.1 Introduction
Modern planning and designing demands a very precise system of environmental projects (water
supply and disposal of sewage) in a building. If properly laid this system leads to a healthy and hygienic
living. It deals with water supply in a building and then its proper disposal in the form of sewerage from
the same building. Graphical symbols and depiction of sanitary fittings be thoroughly understood before
making such drawings.
It is a basic requirement of all designers/environmental health experts to know about the details in an
environmental health project drawings, for the best orientation of the sanitary facilities.

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8.2 SANITATION PROJECT
8.2.1. Drains: the collection and disposal of sewage (wastewater that usually includes excreta and that
is, will be, or has been carried in a sewer) is done through drains and sewers. Surface drains are made
in different shaped sections for easy flow of sewerage. Drains are provided with a normal gradient to
create a smooth gravitational flow. The following shaped drains are commonly used, for detail sections
of these drains. Drains are normally laid close to the boundary of a building or side edges of a street or
road, thus forming on stable edge for the drain.
8.2.2. Sewers: the under ground pipes, of any material, used for collecting and carrying the sewerage
to the disposal points are called sewers. These get discharge from kitchens, bath rooms, toilets, water
closets, urinals and rain. A sewer should be smooth, strong and durable so as to withstand the acidic
effects of sewerage. The joint properly lay so as to avoid leakage. These sewers are circular in section.
8.2.3. Manholes: it is a masonry chamber built in a sewer, of such a size, that a man can enter in it or
leave it for carrying out inspection, repair, cleaning, testing, or joining of other sewers. It also gets
connections from soil wastes, liquid wastes, and ventilating shafts. It can be square, rectangular or
circular in shapes. Its depth goes on increasing along with the falling gradient of the sewer.
8.2.4. Septic tank: it is a watertight chamber for the retention, partial treatment, and discharge for
further treatment, of sewage. It is a rectangular tank built of masonry below the ground for anaerobic
bacterial action.
The guiding principles in designing a septic tank are:
• To provide sufficient retention time for the sewage in the tank to allow separation of solids and
stabilization of liquids;
• To provide stable quiescent hydraulic conditions for efficient settlement and flotation of solids;
• To ensure that the tank is large enough to store accumulated sludge and scum;
• To ensure that no blockages are likely to occur and that there is adequate ventilation of gases.
8.3. Secondary treatment and disposal of the septic tank effluent: the effluent from the septic tank is
disposal off by one of the following methods:
8.3.1 Soak pits or seepage pits: pits used to dispose of effluent from septic tanks are commonly 2-5 m
deep with a diameter of 1.0-2.5 m. the capacity should be not less than that of the septic tank.
8.3.2 Drainage trenches: the disposal of the large quantity of effluent from septic tanks is often effected
in trenches, which disperse the flow over a large area, reducing the risk of overloading at one place.
The effluent is carried in pipes, which are normally 100 mm in diameter with a gap of about 10 mm
between each pipe.

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8.4 Traps: The depression or bend provided in a drainage system, which is always full of water and
prevents the entery of foul gases into the atmosphere is termed as a trap. The water inside the trap is
called seal. Traps are made of glazed earthenware, vetereous, porceline, cast iron, and PVC or hi-
density polythelens.
8.5 Simple Pit latrines: The simple pit latrine consists of hole in the ground covered by a squatting slab
or seat where the user defecates. The superstructure design is irrelevant to the operation of the latrine
but crucial to the acceptability of the latrine to the user. The cover slab should be raised at least 150
mm above the surrounding ground to divert surface water away from the pit. For detail section of this
8.6 Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine: VIP-latrine; pit latrine with a screened vent pipe and a partially
dark interior to the superstructure. For detail section of this see
8.7 Incineration: it is a process of burning the combustible components of garbage and refuse. Disposal
of solid waste by incineration can be effectively carried out on a small scale in food service
establishments as well as in institutions such as school, hospitals, etc. single chamber on-site
incinerator is one of the common means of disposing combustible solid wastes/refuses. A typical
design consists of the following dimensions: width = 110 cm; length = 110 cm; height in front = 135 cm;
height at the back = 150 cm. concrete base (chamber) = 60 cm by 75 cm by 10 cm; top fueling door =
60 cm by 60 cm square, with thickness 5 cm. for detail section of this see figure
8.8 WATER PROJECTS
8.8.1 Domestic rainwater harvesting system
A domestic rainwater harvesting system can consist of a collection surface, a storage tank, and
guttering or channels to transport the water from one to the other. Other peripheral equipment is
sometimes incorporated, such as a first-flush system to divert the initial dirty water that contains roof
debris built up during prolonged dry periods; filtration equipment; and settling chambers to remove
debris and contaminants before the water enters the storage tank or cistern.
8.8.2 Spring water: are occurrences of groundwater naturally issuing at points where the water table
reaches the surface, or where the top-confining layer over the water bearing strata is broken. Springs
are normally found at the foot of mountains and hills, in lower slopes of valleys, and near the banks of
major rivers
8.8.3 Hand dug wells: Are wells that have been dug in to the upper most permeable stratum only. They
tap subsoil, which has been arrested by the first impermeable stratum. In shallow wells, the water level
always stands with in “Sucking” distance of a pump located at the top of the well.

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