PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr.

Peter Thomas

UNIT III Exploring the Nature of Critical Thinking

General Unit Objectives:

This Unit seeks to help students to:

• Combine comprehension, analysis and critical thinking skills in evaluating a wide range
of materials, situations and events.
• Determine how the various facts of life sway thinking ability and vice versa.
• Face some of the challenges of life
• Learn to adjust to the day-to-day upheavals of life to effect meaningful changes.

Student learning Objectives

At the end of this unit, the conscientious student should be able to:
• Develop a satisfactory working definition for critical thinking
• Appreciate critical thinking as an indispensable part of daily living.
• Consider critical reading, listening and thinking as essential tools for gathering and
assessing information
• Understand why classroom experiences should be transformed into professional and daily
performances.

Content:

Introduction
A. Improving skills in…
(a) Reading
(b) Listening
(c) Understanding
(d) Communication
(e) Critical thinking – definition and components.

B. Connectivity
(a) Thinking and critical thinking.
(b) Reasoning and critical thinking.
(c) Reflectivity/reflection and critical thinking.
(d) Intelligence and critical thinking.

C. Benefits of critical thinking skills.

D. Critical thinking skills and attitudes
(a) Essential skills
(b) Ancillary skills
E. Barriers to critical thinking
F. General profile (characteristics) of a critical thinker/thinking vs uncritical
thinker/thinking.

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Introduction:
Responsible living, in any age and time, demands critical thinking. People are called upon,
regularly, to express an opinion, to cast a vote, and to have a say on policies and other matters of
life. A true demonstration of these abilities rests upon responsible and essential (and ancillary)
thinking skills and judgement. Those of us who can read, must do so critically; but all of us must
learn to develop sound judgement and understanding skills. Development of skills is a process
and critical thinking and critical reading are processes. We need understanding skills to analyze
and evaluate a wide range of materials, including spoken and written communication, and to
make objective and independent decisions.

There is need to establish the links between critical reading (NOT necessarily Communication
Studies) and critical thinking, and to see how such links can improve our individual levels of
education. But what is education?
• Mr. Brand Blanchard thinks that “the main aim of education is practical and reflective
judgement, that is, development of a mind trained to be critical everywhere in the use of
evidence …”

• Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. believes that “The main function of education is to teach one
to think intensely and to teach critically.”

• The UNESCO maintains the common educational policy that “

The one common thread of all educational purposes is the ability to THINK and to make
sound JUDGEMENT.”

Note: not one of the quotes mentions:

- Amazing large wealth
- Sophisticated degrees.

A. Improving Skills in -
(a) Education:
1. Living peaceably and harmoniously with and among our fellow men.
2. The power
- To think clearly.
- To act well in the world of work
- To appreciate life.
3. What is the meaning of the abbreviation UNESCO?

(b) Reading:
Reading is the process or ability of exchanging information via print. Exchanging
refers to:
• Sending written information (author/writer)
• Gaining or receiving information (reader)

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A process is a series of actions or behaviors to achieve a particular goal. Our particular

goal here is to understand or comprehend for the corresponding action/reaction or
feedback. That was the aim of your secondary school English A Course. Our actions or
reactions or feedback is the step or steps we take to achieve or master our understanding,
and this is part of the education process.

Not cramming
- Observe
- Read
- Ask/answer questions
- Get involved

Stages:
Most young Grenadians are not fond of reading and, whenever they do, it is with great
confusion and/or difficulty. (COM 103)
Genuine reading has three stages:
i. pre-reading
ii. during-reading
iii. post-reading

i. Pre-reading:
This is the stage or process of deciding on whether or not to read, and what to read. If I must
advise, I will say read whatsoever you lay your hands on.

It involves:
• wondering/imagining/predicting what the reading material is all about (predicting).
• thinking about what the reading material reminds the reader of (recall).
• what the reader wants to know/gain from the reading material
(information/knowledge).
• relationship of description/contents of materials with things already known
(relationship)

ii. During reading:

This is the stage at which one has actually chosen and is reading something. It involves:
• monitoring or keeping tabs of the comprehension or understanding process (monitor)
• juggling (series of recall, comparisons and contrasts) with the information or
knowledge received (question/evaluation).
• Continuation or questioning and reflection on information (thinking).

iii. Post-reading:
This is the stage at which one consolidates what one reads and applies it to other aspects of
life. It calls for the skills of rethinking, discussing and applying what is already read and
deciding on the level of understanding.

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The stages are summarized in the following table:

Stages Activities Mnemonic

Pre-reading • skim S
• scan S
• predict/imagine P/I
• think T

During-reading • monitor M
• question Q
• reflect/rethink R
Post-reading • discuss D
• apply skills A
• think T

Types:
There are three basic types of reading as follows:
i. Quick Reference Reading (QRR):
This type of reading seeks specific information that addresses precise questions or
concerns. Students use it to locate information on topics for home/class assignments or
for general purposes. It involves skimming or quickly checking to confirm information
already known or scanning for quick review of information. This type of reading,
including dictionary and telephone directory consultation, provides the main idea (MI)
of a piece of work, as well as signals or gives clues leading to needed information to a
piece of work. Clues or signals include conjunctions or transitional phrases that reveal
the trends of author’s thoughts.

ii. Aesthetic or Pleasure Reading (A/PR):

One needs only basic reading skills for this type of reading. Aesthetic/pleasure
reading helps readers to:
• enjoy author’s style
• use humour
• relish interest in the topic
• enjoy leisure time while reading

Overall, through aesthetic/pleasure reading, people get to:

• develop their proficiency in writing
• be exposed to new strategies of writing
• make mental journeys through mild adventures as bedtime stories, and
• build their vocabulary.

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iii. Critical/Deep Reading (C/DR):

This is the main issue for critical thinking. Such reading is concerned with author’s
intent or purpose for writing and with special methods for conveyance of ideas or how
the authors bring across their ideas. Here we are dealing with analysis, reflection,
evaluation of work and judgement of position. The reader is able to delve into the
author’s devices, strategies and writing techniques. All of these demonstrate the
author’s specific use of language to impress his/her readers. Language technique
includes several figurative languages: metaphor, simile, hyperbole, repetition or
rhetorical questions.

The type of reading material one chooses to read demonstrates critical/deep reading
skills. During this reading, there may be critique of contents of reading material,
where the reader makes judgements, especially if those judgements differ from or
contradict those of the author or even the reader him-/herself. One is even able to
recognize the relative merits and flaws (fallacies) of different perspectives.

(b) Listening – Exchange of information through sound. (see p 101 – 102 of CAPE
Communication Studies)
This is the active process of identifying, interpreting, attaching meaning and attending to
sounds or oral communication. In other words, it is the conveyance of messages through
sounds, speech or the spoken word. It is a mental communicative act that involves some
measure of concentration and effort for an action or reaction to sounds or speech.

Purpose for listening:

Listening is a very important part of livelihood. In fact, much of the information we
receive is through listening and seeing even though we do not react. People listen for
many reasons including:
• appreciation: for enjoyment and aesthetic pleasure. How many people
do you pass with earphones on and listening to cell phone music?

• information: for learning, receiving directions/instructions, generally

gathering information or knowledge for future use.

• therapy for creating social bonding, for sharing feelings; and for
interpersonal contacts.

• critiquing: to be able to interpret, consider and judge information.

Components of Listening:
Listening is a non-linear process i.e. it is not a start-to-finish act. It is a juggling, criss-
crossing, back and forth process.

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Effective listening follows five steps:

(i) Hearing: automatic reaction of the sensory (audio) system. It is the response of
the sensory apparatus to the perception of sound. How do you feel when a
mosquito buzzes in your ears?

(ii) Recognition: the attention paid to sounds received.

(iii) Interpretation: determination of the correct meaning or the intent of
sound messages.
(iv) Evaluation: making decisions on the sound messages, values and
relationships to the sender and receiver
(v) Response: feedback in words/actions to indicate/demonstrate value of
sound.
- decision, action/reaction based on sounds e.g. response from
mom, police, teacher, honk of a vehicle’s horn, roar from a bull
or snarl from a dog.

Diagram of the Process of Listening

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Skills:
The active listener develops and demonstrates the following skills:
- preparedness for listening: having a clear mind and focusing on the relevant purpose for
listening.
- attention concentration: giving speaker solid or undivided attention
- listen for key words: listening for uses like repetitions for emphasis; introductions of new
points; indications for conclusions.
- delayed opinions: holding back on opinions until speaker makes his/her point.
- note-making: jotting down important points; listening for main ideas (MI), supporting
ideas (SI) and techniques.
- establishment of eye contact: watching speaker for assurance or guidance in live
audience.
- dismissal of distraction: removal of elements that contribute to inactive/passive or
ineffective listening.

Barriers:
Anything that impedes effective communication is noise, barrier or distraction. Some barriers of
effective listening include:
- day dreaming: allowing the mind to stray idly from the subject.
- poor posture: any physical position that interferes with muscle tone and/or blocks blood
circulation.
- mental argument with speaker: antagonistic flow of information from speaker to listener.
- negative attitude to speaker/message: any ugly attitude that listener has with speaker or
the message will negatively impact the listening process.
- physical discomfort: pain, worries, sadness, anguish and the like serve as listening
blockers.
- speaker’s disposition: voice, gestures, appearance and the like all negatively affect the
listening process.

(c) Understanding
This is a term that is used interchangeably with comprehending or comprehension, and
can be confusing at times. Much of our CSEC(CXC) English A emphasizes
understanding. It is defined as the “art/action of grasping with the intellect “(Webster).
Actually, it refers to the ability to grasp the thoughts and ideas of a writer/speaker/scene
and to apply those ideas in various contexts. Like comprehension, understanding is a
process, and can be developed and controlled. A serious, understanding/comprehending
person possesses or has developed the following skills:
• ability to reflect and get into the inner thoughts of a subject or a piece of work
• ability to make inferences (active part of thinking) and logical deductions, obviously
with reasons.
• ability to present an idea in many different forms to convey the original meaning
(John Ruskin), as we do in CSEC(CXC) English A.
• ability to establish relationships (comparisons/contrasts) between content, memory
and concept i.e. showing how what is seen (perception), what is already known
(experience) and what is deduced (deduction/concept) are related.

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In short, we have a 3-some marriage: perception + experience + deduction or concept =

understanding.

Exercise:
- expository writing for practice and experience.
A “Dear Santa Claus” letter.

(d) Communication (CAPE Communication Studies, pp 76-90):

Again, this is NOT a lesson in Communication Studies. It is done here to emphasize the
importance of effective communication, and how mastery of it can enhance our
improvement in life. Students are therefore advised to be more attentive to their manner
of communication.

Functional literacy today has gone far beyond the well-known 3r’s (Reading, wRiting
and aRithmatic). Literacy on the whole is hinged on language and broadened by
technology. Our world has dwindled substantially today, and each community, each
individual, has to learn to play in this global arena. Some of us can read (call words), yet
we cannot function. We lack the essential skills. Bob Marley puts it in song when he
said, “Dem belly full, but dem hungry still.” Functional literacy is the ability to:
• read (and speak sensibly)
• write – verbally express oneself in print.
• understand – grasp issues intellectually.
• reason – evaluate issues
• think through issues – analyze, synthesize & expose issues/ideas
• make worthwhile decisions or judgements independently.

These essential functional skills are learned from our individual culture, our type of technology
and the pains that we take to communicate effectively.

i. Culture and communication:

We have already established that communication is the exchange of information.
Effective communication is influenced by cultural, geographical and historical
implications. Culture refers to the practices and beliefs which a specific group uses for
survival (see “Functions of Language”). Have you ever pondered upon the part that
voodoo/obeah plays in the effectiveness of African movies? Culture is reflected in our
language, history, music, food, dress and in our general interactions. Culture influences
our calibre of information exchange, and how (including type of languages) we use it to
do so i.e. register. Simply put, register is specific language used to transfer specific
information on specific subjects, to specific people, on specific occasions. Each
individual is similar to others in many ways, but is also unique in others. Smooth
interactions of these different groups of people require certain experiences and skills
including, among other things:
• knowledge: having information on or being aware of the way of life of each
other.
• care: be oneself and yet not trampling on the rights of others.

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• tolerance: understanding the atmosphere and realm in which people live or

operate.
• control: taking charge of one’s emotions to avoid dangerous encounters.
• respect: maintenance of dignity for self and others.

ii. Technology and communication:

Technology is simply any method or means used to make work (in this case,
communication) easier. According to the communication loop, technology refers to the
medium or channel used to convey or relay messages. With technology (“know-how”)
people learn to develop the skills of (See “Strategies for Success”):
• Innovation: thinking up of new/novel ideas for comfortable livelihood outside of
the box
• Entrepreneurship: being able to make a living off ideas/activities developed, and
if it can be maintained, we say it is sustainable so “sustainable entrepreneurship.”
• Selectivity: ability to choose features of conventions and mannerisms (etiquette)
to suit each circumstance, gesticulations, jokes, etc.
• Manipulation of expression: the type of use one puts into one’s voice, video, texts
and images to obtain maximum outputs/results.
• Effective listening: for mutual understanding, full sharing of information and
consideration for others’ view points
• Exhibition of ethics and responsibility: for comfortable growth and development.

iii. Technology and culture:

With technology come cultural adaptation, improvision and eventual change. Think of
how computer language has revolutionized the world. Though technology and
differences in culture may be good for the times, they can be confusing or staggering at
times for those who are afraid of change, especially the use of new-found gadgets as
iPad, etc., email, Instagram, WhatsApp and the like.

(e) Critical Thinking:

Students ask, “What, really, is critical thinking?” Before answering this question, let us
briefly examine the term, “critical thinking”.

I. Critical:
The term “critical” is an adjective. Do you remember the parts of speech? It comes from
the noun, “critic” which is “one who judges, or evaluates.” It is also related to the noun
or verb “critique,” which refers to a “treatise of a piece of work” or “the art of pointing
out strengths, weaknesses and ways of improvement.”

II. Thinking:
“Thinking” is the present participle of the infinitive part of the verb “to think.” It is also a
participial noun or gerund. As a noun, it is qualified by the adjective “critical.” The
word, “thinking,” basically means, “having thought or some form of mental ability or
dynamism.”

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So when we look at the term, “critical thinking,” seriously, we can say that no-one is an absolute
beginner. Our most everyday activities require some basic skills in critical thinking. Very often
we wonder:
• Do I really believe what I see or hear?
• What steps must I take to determine whether something is true or not”
• How must I go about arguing my own case if I do not believe?

We undertake everyday activities with a certain level of trust to avoid rechecking every little
detail. We must decide on:
• What and how much information is needed for each activity, and
• What level of doubt (skepticism) is needed in each case.

The level and type of information/knowledge vary with the task to be performed. Put simply,
critical thinking involves:
• careful identification of issues if one needs to gain more information.
• effective selection of the right type and level of information for the purpose or task at
hand.

People are expected to use good critical thinking skills if they are to succeed in most professions.
In academics, students need increasingly sophisticated critical thinking skills at every level of
studies. So, in perspective, we (human beings) are expected to apply critical thinking to:
• anything we hear, see and do
• the type of materials we read or work with
• the manner in which we interpret new situations or events.
• what or how we write, speak (say) or present information to other people (audience)
• our learning or study habits, or how we go about doing daily chores or our professions.

So what can I say to you? How can I help you to develop a better appreciation for a course of
Critical Thinking? To those of you encountering the course for the first time, I advise you to:
• be aware of and understand the technical terms used so as to stay with conversations and
be able to use them in relevant circumstances.
• develop confidence that you are able to use critical thinking techniques.
• examine closely the opinions, views and arguments of others.
• get the evidence and respectfully challenge other people’s views or opinions.
• above all, keep an open mind and make meaningful, independent decisions.

Now that you have a fairly broad overview of the realms of critical thinking, let us try to develop
some working connotative definitions or concepts of the term. More precisely, critical thinking
can be considered to mean:
1. that conscious, mental PROCESS performed to solve problems, to make decisions and to
gain knowledge or understanding.
2. that quest or search for answers by asking [the right] questions (Socrates). Look at FBI
Files on You Tube and observe how the investigators arrive at answers to their questions.
3. that mental process that sets out to test claims and arguments in order to determine their
merits and/or demerits

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4. that line of disciplined thought (thinking, reasoning) governed by clear, intellectual

standards utilized to solve problems and to resolve conflicts. The critical thinking
standards referred to here are: clarity, precision, accuracy, relevance, consistency, logical
correctness, completeness and fairness.
5. a complex process of deliberations involving a wide range of skills and attitudes as:
• definition, skills & attitudes of Critical Thinking
• cognitive activity associated with use of mental processes to examine issues
analytically and communicate in ways and means of controlling one’s attention
categorization selection and judgement in solving solutions.
• identifying other people’s positions, arguments and conclusions e.g. gay rights,
lesbian rights, religious rights,
• evaluating pieces of evidence for alternative viewpoints.
• weighing up opposing arguments and evidence fairly
• ability to read between the lines, seeing beneath the surface and identifying false or
unfair assumptions.
• identifying techniques used to make certain positions more appealing than others. E.g.
false logic and persuasive devices as repetition in “… I have a Dream” speech by
Martin Luther King, Jr.
• reflection on issues in a structured way to bring logic and insight to bear.
• drawing conclusions as to whether arguments are valid and justifiable based on good
evidence and sensible assumptions. E.g. Britney Griney for possession of cannabis
and now in jail in Russia (2022)
• synthesis of information: drawing together one’s judgement of the given evidence and
building them up to form one’s new position.
• pressing a point of view in a structured, well-reasoned way that convinces others.

So my dear students, can you write up your own definition now?

III. Critical Thinking- - - a Process

We established under “Improving Skills in Reading, that a process is a series of actions or

behaviours to achieve a particular goal”. Critical thinking, as a process goes through a
series of steps which characterize it.

Characteristics of Critical Thinking

As a process therefore, critical thinking is:
• Systematic: having some method, order or logic of approach
• Documentational: recording of methods of approach for future reference or reproduction.
• Durational: having a time element for collecting (gathering) and recording data or
information. Data collection includes literature review, discussion and opinions, and
reviews.
• Analytical: careful study of collected data or information which is so lacking in most
students.
• Conclusive: having an end result of cases under study.

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knowledge
Over to you What is the difference between “data” and “information”?
Specific/relevant
information

IV. Components of Critical Thinking:

Critical thinking is not one of those activities that can be successfully done in a vacuum. It is
a very lively activity – one that is done by making connections.

Critical or creative thinking is making connections, staying in touch with what is already
known, what is known now and what is to be known in order to solve problems (as will be
seen in Unit IV). At all times, one must be innovatively or creatively thinking, to reveal
fresh ideas or perspectives.

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Features of Critical Thinking

Very important in creative or critical thinking are:

• Identification of main issues (MI).
• Evaluation of arguments or evidence put forward to support the main issues
(supporting ideas)
• Considerations of other possible positions or alternatives on the matter at hand.
• Recognition of sources of bias or fallacious arguments. There is need for evidence.
• Formulation of an independent conclusion or judgement based on evidence. This is
important especially as we are often plagued with general elections, referenda, CCJ
matters, and more.

The five features cited above are not done in isolation or in linear fashion. For instance, we
must do some long-term planning by considering our career options; but we can never
successfully do so unless we reflect and analyze our personal strengths and weaknesses, our
experiences and whatever professional opportunities we identify. We have to make
connections with our academic expertise and the requirements of the projected professional
context. We have to demonstrate independence to take practical steps to achieve our
professional goals. In short, there is a criss-crossing, overlapping or inter-connecting of
features over time before we can say, “We have arrived”. The inter-connected associations
are summarized in the diagram given below.

/interdependence

The Inter-Connected Components of Critical Thinking

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The inter-connected associations include:

1. Connections:
This simply refers to networking or integration to build effective work relationships
mentioned under First-week strategies of Unit I. This relies on identification of useful links
and implications. Practitioners of this feature must be able to connect:
• Whatever ideas they encounter
• Whatever information they already have
• Those ideas to the task to be undertaken.
• Network with classmates and others I going forward.

Have we ever wondered why the infamous ISIS is doing so well?

Successful connections are enhanced by:
• Discussions in order to see how ideas are related.
• Excessive reading to perceive links i.e. excessive communication or links.

Connections are also hindered by:

• Stress which inhibits or blankets concepts, data and flow of ideas. Stress comes in all
forms – hunger, violence, family disturbances, etc.
• Lack of clarity or uncertainty of task to be performed.

2. Reflectivity:
This is the act or practice of thinking back, reviewing or reconsidering our thoughts, ideas,
actions and experiences. It is a period or practice that enables us to stay connected to our
past, to create links between those thoughts or ideas, and to deal with them in greater depth.
It enables the practioner to examine and learn about his strengths and weaknesses and to
apply relevance to the future… “go back to the drawing board”. Critical reflection builds
confidence after a fair evaluation and clarifies and affirms ideas in the presence of evidence.
It enables us to give systematic consideration to every side of an issue. Reflectivity has spin-
offs:
(a) Positive spin-offs:
Done well, reflectivity enables us to:
• Develop clear guidance, both for ourselves and for others.
• Understand the theory behind what is being done for future reference. E.g. Fish
Fry in Gouyave.

(b) Negative spin-offs:

• Prevent us from developing self-awareness (“not knowing oneself”)
• Force us to manage our time ineffectively – procrastination. Take time to
meditate.

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3. Independence:
Nothing is more annoying than when people have to depend on others for almost everything
– students depend on tutors for every piece of information; teenagers do not know how to
earn an honest dollar. In critical thinking, independence is having a point of view and
defending it with evidence. It requires innovation and well-supporting evidence, as well as
self-assertiveness. Of course, it is developed with adherence to keen guidelines, wide
reading, and exploring beyond one’s ordinary boundaries i.e. “thinking outside the box”.

Independence is influenced by:

• Know-how: i.e. building assurance with knowledge and practice
• Confidence: belief in “self”.
Independence is hindered by:
• Lack of discipline and familiarity, and
• Fear – He/she who is afraid will scarcely launch out.

4. Time-Management:
Proper time management is very important in all aspects of life. It calls for early planning as
indicated in Unit I. Planning can be done on the macro-as well as the micro-levels.
(a) On the macro-level, one needs to pay attention to whatever
• demands are made on relevant course/business activities on workshops,
discussions, seminars.
• deadlines are set for assignments, reports, data, etc.
(b) The micro-level concentrates on:
• determination of writing a particular assignment or report in good time frame and
proper penmanship (or type).
• working backwards from deadline to determine when to start a project.
• production of a plan or draft to gauge whether project is in the proper frame.
• whether sufficient time is left for revision, editing or fine tuning. This is very
important.

Critical thinking is very important here. One needs to exercise:

• Good judgement
• Personal organization of activities (Unit I)
• Limitations or sacrifice of some activities e.g. extra-curricular activities.
• Care to formulate a proper working schedule (Unit I).

Proper time management does have or yield positive results/impacts. It enables one to:
• Plan at both the macro- and micro-levels,
• Develop good organization skills
• Be conscious of one’s limitations for certain commitments
• Develop proper self-discipline.

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5. Contexts:
Refer to the section of (Thinking and Context) Unit II, which deals with the “arena” in which
things occur. This should remind you that context refers mainly to an assessment made
during the progress of an activity in terms of time, place and persons (audience). During this
assessment, one must pay attention to:
• Type of audience (hence register) What is register?
• Bias and hidden assumptions in evaluation or discussion
• Reliance on general knowledge, experience and theoretical understanding.

To enhance all of the above, one should be able to:

• Read a wide range of all types of materials.
• Keep abreast with current affairs (news).
• Keep good records of sources of information for reference.
• Attend meetings and other sessions as…
• Take clear notes and participate fully in… workshops, debates, seminars.

6. Analysis:
This may appear simple, but not exactly so. Analysis is breaking down a subject into its
constituent parts. Overall, the activities involved in this process are:
• Breaking down a subject into its components;
• Examination of each part, in depth;
• Investigation for interrelationship of each part,
• Assessment of the parts to see how they serve a particular purpose.

Analysis is more so important for the examination, collection and evaluation of materials and
for the particular purpose of the project or task. For analysis to be deemed a success, one
must employ special skills, including:
• Skim reading and efficient scanning of sources
• Having a critical or bias-free mind
• Exercise doubt (skepticism) about sources and personal perspective, until carefully
verified.
• Proper time management and concentration.

Analysis can be enhanced by:

• Developing reading strategies, and
• Practice

If the analyst
• Sets unrealistic goals, or
• Works with unachievable time scales, evidently his/her activities will be hindered or
negatively affected.

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7. Long-term planning:
Every individual should have some system in place to gauge his/her progress. As students,
you should have
(a) A short-term or immediate plan to get by on a day-to-day/ semester-by-semester basis
in each course. Of course, this entails doing all that is required, regularly consulting
with your advisors and instructors to make sure you are in line, and examining your
Progress Reports, to make sure that you are LEARNING!!
(b) Medium- or intermediate plan to get a panoramic view of the world of careers. This
will help you to have a better perspective of yourselves, your prospective career and
the adequacy of your preparation. You should be asking yourselves, here:
• What do I want to be/ or to do 𝑥 years from now?
• What type of training/preparation am I doing/getting? or should get/do
• How can I maintain or improve this training/preparation?
Here, at TAMCC, much too many students are concentrating on the “glamour” of
Graduation Day instead of LEARNING and attaining the required STANDARD, which
can open the gateway to myriads of successes.

(c) Long-term or long-lasting planning: - - do not get boggled down by lack of money.
This is the ability to identify personal, academic and professional goals, and working
towards achieving them. This includes:
• Choice of programme of studies
• Choice of courses, including General Education courses.
• Do you need a course in Critical Thinking, Sociology or Political Science if
you plan to study Medicine? Why not? A medical doctor needs to know
more than just cutting up people or stuffing them with chemicals.
• Pay attention to schedules, including deadlines for university applications,
interviews and commencement of classes.

Long-term planning enables the individuals to judge when and how to revise their
goals or methods used in pursuing them. It is not etched in stone or gold. i.e. it can be
altered.

Long-term planning does not guarantee total success. Rather, it provides checks and
balances for success. It requires pursuit to:
• Identify concrete objectives
• Have clear aims.

It is hindered or negatively impacted by:

• Setting of unrealistic goals, and
• Adhering to unachievable time scales. Do you know some students spend 4
years doing a 2-year programme?

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

8. Intellectual development:
Examine the term, “intellectual development”:
• “intellectual” is the adjective derived from the noun, intellect. Intellect means,
“having the power of knowing or understanding”.
• “development” refers to “the manner in which people (human beings) grow to know,
think and behave about the world around them (environment) and what they
eventually become” (outcome, consequence). So, you may begin to ask yourself,
“Exactly who am I?” - - product of circumstances and consequences.

You noted that “intellectual development” is a process, and becomes a composite of all the
other components of critical thinking. It is nicely dealt with by various scholars of
psychology. These scholars proposed theories or theoretical approaches, namely:

i. The Stimulus-Response Approach: person = environment x experience

This school of thought focuses on a person’s behavior as a product of the
environment and past learning i.e. accumulated learning skills, or experience. This is
the kind of drive that influences people to move on and up in a particular direction, to
become exemplary citizens or menaces to their respective societies.

ii. The Cognitive Approach: person = thought (maturity) x environment

This is the notion or belief that a person behaves according to an act of thinking about
a situation. It relates to the environment, but also to an individual’s inner maturation.
Each of us harbors some negative thoughts at times but our maturity/maturation
prevents us from pursuing the resultant negative action/reaction, which can be
detrimental to self and society.

iii. Psychoanalytic Approach: person=level of thought x drive = consequence/outcome

The prefix, “psycho”, refers to an activity that is “of” or “related to” the mind.
“Analysis” is adequately dealt with in #6 on page 16. So together, “psychoanalytic”
is an adjective, and it describes the “approach” or method that makes use of the mind
or mental framework to bring preconscious, and conscious material to a state of
wakefulness and responsiveness. Though a study in depth is beyond the scope of this
lesson, it is wise to mention here that the psychoanalytic approach deals with those
mental structures comprising the drives and feelings of which an individual is
unaware (unconsciousness). It also deals with physical facts and mental concepts
(consciousness), and the manner in which we deal with them (outcome/consequence).

B. Connectivity/Connection:
We must concern ourselves with the link or relationship between/among some of the
issues/topics dealt with so far.
(a) Thinking and critical thinking:
Both are voluntary or mental activities. Thinking is merely an appearance and
disappearance of ideas or thoughts. We conceptualize an idea at this moment and, in
the twinkle of an eye, it disappears. Alas! So, what’s wrong with our mental capacity
i.e. retention?

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Critical or deep thinking as mentioned before, is:

• Purposefully controlled thinking.
• Uniquely mental – making use of brain substance. It is purely a human
activity, as different from that of the great apes, monkeys, dogs and dolphins,
etc.

During this type of thinking, humans concentrate on intent/purpose of what is seen,

heard or experienced. We look at devices of structure or appearance, methods of
operation (modus operandi), techniques of composition (figurative language, tone,
atmosphere, etc.) and strategy or manner in which the whole operation is
orchestrated. Unconscious or passive thinking comes in when the controls of critical
thinking are switched off e.g. dreaming.

Like studying, listening, writing, communicating, etc., deep or critical thinking is a

process and follows a series of steps. This serious thinking process comes in two
phases:
i. The generation of ideas or creativity:
This involves the widening of focus or the stretching of the thought power i.e.
brain-storming which is despised by most young people. It calls for the search
of possibilities or alternatives.

ii. The evaluation of the generated ideas or thoughts:

This may also be called meta-creativity which is “thinking of what we think”.
It involves the narrowing of focus or short-listing of ideas, and identifying the
almost reasonable ideas. Scripture refers to these as “Many are called but few
are chosen.”

The generation and evaluation of ideas can be improved by proper training and diligent
practice. These can be achieved by successful schooling and developed thinking skills.
Critical thinking skills and proper guidance from your tutor(s) can be of great importance
here. Generation and evaluation of ideas can be achieved at any level, and in any course,
provided that both tutor and students:
• Make thinking skills and eventual learning a direct objective, and that …
• Tutors encourage students (and that students themselves must be prepared) to
grab) the opportunity to generate, practice and evaluate ideas including their
own.

This activity is good for all levels --- school, career, community, personal or professional
relationships.

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

Over to you
“What advice can you give to mend or improve a relationship with someone with whom
there is a broken friendship?”

(b) Reasoning and critical thinking:

By now you will agree that critical thinking and reasoning go hand-in-hand. Both are
related to rational thought or thinking. Rational thinking is rationality which,
obviously, is “making use of reason”, or brain power. Human beings are a cut above
all the other animals in that they (should) use reason. Dolphins, baboons and the
great apes and the computer are said to operate with reason! But No! They all do
what humans teach/tell them to do. Human beings possess the unique ability to
reason, and with great skill, because they possess complex BRAINS. The brain, this
reasoning organ, makes humans WHAT they are and HOW they THINK. No
wonder biological sciences refer to humans as “Homo sapiens” or “wise man”,
because they can share their experiences and impressions with others by reasoning
and description. i.e. expressive function of language.

There is/should be reasoning in every conscious action/reaction. Everyone should

have a reason for:
(i) Stance:
• What he/she believes e.g. use of classified substances,
• What he/she does/decision he/she makes e.g. Teacher talks, you laugh.
Why?
• Awareness of the above – education, protection.
Only fools say and do things without having a reason.

(ii) Evaluating what he/she believes and his/her line of reasoning:

• With consistency – maintenance of standard.
• Logical, methodical order/structure for coherence and flow of ideas,
and proper perception.
• With evidence for supply of supporting information (SI), basis of
hypothesis.

(iii) Decision-making:
• Possession of information, knowledge as evidence or proof.
• Questioning before judgement for clearing doubts, raising skepticism.
• Do you recall the arguments posed for and against the CCJ a few years
ago? Did/do you have an opinion? On other words, what is your
belief → leading up to the consequence or outcome?

i.e. belief →evaluation →decision→ CONSEQUENCE

→ OUTCOME

(iv) Character assessment:

• For future safety and success, especially for the person concerned
• Development of both assessor and assessee

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

By definition, reasoning may be considered to be logic which is

(a) the art of:
• appraisal of the correct form of thinking
• critiquing incorrect reasoning
• demonstration of correct reasoning or simply the art of appraising, critiquing
or demonstrating correct reasoning.

(b) The science of: designing and developing models and principles for distinguishing
correct from incorrect reasoning e.g. calculators, mathematical principles,
computer programming, spirit levels, clocks, lie detectors, etc.

Logic is deeply rooted in or associated with the life and times of SOCRATES, the Greek
philosopher. Who was he, really? In essence, therefore, reasoning/logic is the ability
which enables humans to:
• Think out things methodically, orderly or systematically
• Distinguish fact from non-fact or fiction (opinion) often (lies)

Recall that during the General Election Campaign in Grenada, in 2018, a small section of
the electorate preached, “Burn the bags” distributed by the then reigning government
(and political party). “They encourage demons.”

What is your take on that call? Do we have proof/evidence? What was the logic? Have
we seen any demons since?
• Evaluate and understand significant issues. What is the significance of essay
projects, class assignments and discussions? [see Unit I]
- to determine reasoning powers
- to produce valid evidence
- to provide organizational skills.

During the reasoning process, each thought or idea gives support to the one before or
after it, and is related to it. Do you hate Math? Let us look at the operation of addition.

We think of 1 + 1 = 2 (on the base-10 system).

• First, we think of the number 1. If we dismiss or forget it, then we merely think
or had a thought. i.e. we could have had any other thought.
• Then we have the plus sign, +, which means “add to”, “improve” or “increase
by”.
• Then we follow with another 1. So, we have added, increased or improved our
first 1 to another 1.
• Our operation thus far has grown to the number, 2. But we could not have gotten
there unless we did 1 + 1 to get a number that equals, =, 2.
i.e. we could not get to our final destination or reach our cherished total unless we
performed our required and subsequent steps of addition (+) and equalization (=).

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• The steps signal RELATIONSHIP, and bear the characteristics of being

“systematic, documentational, durational, analytical and conclusive”. In short, we
have actively reasoned that 1 + 1 = 2 on the base-10 system.

As we read or listen, we allow our thoughts and those of the writer or speaker to become one.
We may doodle on our note pads to show that we are in sync with the writer or speaker. We
dance to music; we correctly obey instructions. In short, we INFER. Anytime we are reasoning,
we are actually inferring. Inference is the ACTIVE part of reasoning, and bears a special
relationship by an indicator, indicator word(s) or index. If, for example we were to say that “B is
inferred from A” or “(B → A)”, or if “B comes from A,” we are actually saying that whatever is
established for A is reasonably true for B. So B has to be true if A is true e.g. Certain strains of
diseases,… cancer, diabetes, sickle cell traits, run in family lines. We say it locally:
• Chip of the old block
• Child belongs to a family because of certain family signs/or traits.
• DNA tests for proof of paternity, etc.

[reason ≡ logic ≡ inference (if put into practice)]

Can we tell/do we know if we are reasoning? Let us look at some examples:

i. “Jack is tall and sings melodiously”. This may be so but strictly speaking, there is, in
nature, no correlation between height and sweet-singing voice. This does not fall to
reason or logic or inference. It does not add up.
ii. “Jack is tall, HENCE cannot stand in this room.” This is very true. There is correlation
between Jack’s height and the height of the room. This is clearly brought out by the
word, “HENCE”. Such word, one that shows correlation/relationship, is an indicator,
indicator word, or indicator index.

Some other indicators include:

• Therefore
• So
• As a result
• In that sense
• Consequently

Very often, the indicator (word or index) is hidden or unwritten, in which case we say it is
implicit, and most meanings derived therefrom are said to be of conjecture, opinion, assumption.
So we cannot build a strong case.

Take for instance, Scholar’s Calypsos: “She well hole him

“Seetahal doh like boom boom at all.”

If the indicator (word, index) is written, it is said to be explicit, and must be/or appear in the form
of a CLAIM, declaration, statement.

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A claim (declaration or statement) is a SENTENCE that can be judged true or false. Go back to
“The sentence” in UNIT II. If the sentence CANNOT be judged true or false, it is not a claim or
statement
(i) “The boy eats his food.” – can be judged true or false, hence is a claim,
declaration statement.
(ii) “Does the boy eat his food?” – cannot be judged ‘true or false’. It seeks
information (interrogation) so, not a claim,
declaration, or statement.
(iii) “Boy, eat your food.” – gives a command, order. It is an imperative and not a
claim, declaration, statement. Cannot be judged true or
false. It bears no active thought.

So we can end this lesson by indicating the following:

• A statement must be understood in the form of a sentence; but a sentence need not
necessarily be a statement.
• When an inference is in the form of a statement, it introduces an argument.
• An argument states a claim(s) and may be judged true or false.

Over to you
(a) Put “C” for claim, “NC” for no claim:
1. If I lose money in the class, then one of you is a thief: _______
2. Do not eat so greedily: _______
3. Each child carries a bag: _______
4. Are you eating to get sick? _______
5. There are classes in the building: _______
6. Some are blue; others are red. _______
7. Are all the stars out tonight? _______
8. Come, let us work together: _______

(c) Reflectivity/reflection and critical thinking:

Reflection is also deep or critical thinking. It is that structured, focused, conscious activity
that seeks to develop and strengthen understanding. It is increasingly used in academic and
professional circles for:
• Focusing attention back on experience e.g. sales, production of goods, mistakes
corrected.
• Clarifying the thinking process
• Deepening understanding
• Reinforcing learning so as to effect change or remodeling
• Challenging the memory and intellectual apparatus
• Working with raw materials to gain experience.
• Trying to perform with integrity, respect and excellence.
• Use of practice to support learning e.g. homework, assignments/projects – RE.
Assignments
• Keeping with conventional rules of academia and profession.

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Characteristics of reflection: How can we spot reflectivity?

Reflectivity/ reflection is typically characterized by:
1. Selection:
People cannot reflect on everything. More often than not, they
• Choose some area of experience, learning or professional practice for study.
Hence choice of study programmes.
• Prepare for the intensity of whatever activities are involved.
• Are required to spend some time & mental energy, to endure extensive emotional
stress and to expect to have a fair measure and choice of experience.

2. Changing perspective:
Those who are engaged in reflection are expected to:
• Examine experiences (and issues) from different angles, orientation, positions,
views and levels.
• Look at others’ points of view; speak with related people
• Look at their surroundings with fresh (objective, unbiased) eyes

The change of perspective may be done by:

(a) Doing detailed/thorough analysis. This entails:
• Examination of contributing factors
• Clarification of the sequence of events
• Identification of overlooked causes and effects.
• Recall or recollection of contexts of details which may be significant/ or
insignificant so as to employ different patterns and themes. e.g. varying
patterns of tiles on floor may express or depict a special theme.

(b) Considering the bigger picture:

This requires people to have a panoramic view of the issue. Students in this position
should think of themselves and their future, not so much for grades although those are
important, but more so for learning. Practitioners here should:
• Search their reflection for patterns and themes e.g. builders viewing their
work from a distance.
• See how their personal experience stands up against published theories,
research and professional knowledge (including those of their peers).
• Note the influence of political, social or ideological context [Who are you?
Are you easily swayed by external forces?].

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3. Return to experience:
There is the common saying, “History repeats itself.” In this context, people should:
• Ask when, why and how often events occur/reoccur. Students reviewing past exam
papers should make note of questions that recur, and be prepared.
• Consider whether they should forgive, forget or shelve offences.
• Look to the required outcome for a particular reason.
• Find the recurred experience necessary for many reasons, namely:
i. Significant one-off incident:
An example here is a lie or a cheat. We may lie or cheat on a particular occasion
to save self; but when we make it a habit to lie or cheat, this becomes a cause for
concern. Such may require detailed analysis for:
• Better understanding of events.
• An individual’s role and actions/reactions e.g. court cases, fines, jail terms.
• Consideration of outcomes or consequences.

ii. A recurrent situation:

Some people cause events to recur for their own selfish rewards. Some students
feign illness to invoke instructor’s sympathy either to gain free/cheap grades or to
be exempted from their duties. A case/ or cases like these may require experience
for reflection and refreshed study to:
• Build/rebuild observation to see things over a period of time
• Boost up a study of potential causes and effect
• Study and probably revise/review individual’s personal role or mode of
operation e.g. identification and operation of serial offenders.

iii. Assist or help to promote or improve an issue or theme:

No-one is all-perfect; and when obstacles appear, one should be sufficiently
mature to seek help, either to:
• Revisit the event or situation
• Identify patterns of actions as with detectives and offenders.
• Detect/observe emotional responses over time. [Why do interrogators leave
suspects to muse alone during an interview or interrogation?].

iv. Search for a particular project or challenge as a pattern/template. Very often,

events occur or reoccur along a certain path. Take, for instance, the game of
cricket. During the 1960’s and 1970’s, the W.I. Team were cricket lords while
the Australians and others were underdogs. Australia made it their business to
record and study each W.I. game. By the 1980’s, the W.I. performance began to
wane and that of the others began to wax. Why? The Aussies and others saw the
strengths and weaknesses of the Windies, and capitalized on them. That was a
clever move by the Aussies, for they had a:
• History of recordings of observations.
• Review of patterns of reflections over a 10-/20-year period
• Chance to make a decision on
- Their role and responsive actions

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

- The possible resultant effects

- Formulation of a plan of action.

Students reviewing past exam papers can do the same and benefit tremendously.

4. Analysis of role of individual: (what role does analysis play in reflection?)

Too often people vindicate themselves and blame others for their poor or lack of
performance. Students openly denigrate tutors for refusing to “give” them a grade A,
or B+ in a certain exam when they KNOW they do not deserve it. Such people must go
through a period of self-examination. See their short comings and stop levying blame
on others. They should look at the context of the scenario to determine:
• the impact/consequences of what was/was not done; and the reasons.
• the latent fears and motivations
• the displaced emotions and assumptions
• whatever hindrances/impediments obscured their success.

5. Drawing on received wisdom: How smart was the individual during reflection?
There is never a “dull day in one’s life,” for “every situation teaches a lesson”; and that
demands wisdom. People should learn or begin to:

(i) Relate every experience/practice to some theory. Do this by:

• checking research basis for availability of information
• updating yourself on current issues – literature review, news, views or fuse!
• stepping out of the box (the usual) for a while.
• trying to acquire fresh information i.e. gaining knowledge.

In doing so, though, beware of any:

• established and up-dated themes
• research that supports the themes
• criticisms of those themes.
• debates/discussions pertaining to your research subject or issue.

(ii) Look for corroboration/someone who shares your personal experience or theory:
• the knowledge of the “when” and “how” of the experience
• the reasons for any non-match/or data to suit the context.

(iii) Look for corroborating theories and findings:

• note any supporting or opposing theories (S.D.)
• note the influence of social, political and cultural issues.

(iv) Finally, obtain expert opinions:

Students are strongly urged to read article entitled,
“What is Evidence?” It gives guidance to reputable researchers/sources for:
• current research and findings
• reasons and impacts of research attitudes or behaviours

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

• effects/impacts of wider and narrower issues

• manner and impact action.

6. Deepening or understanding:
We have discussed, in some detail, the importance of understanding. Consistently
working with raw materials (new ideas) deepens one’s understanding. In short, we are
saying that “Practice makes perfect.” Such practice or constant work is relevant for
better knowledge of:
• situation and time of events
• the dynamics (shifts) of these situations and events
• the role of the individual(s), and the
• influence of context in a broad sense.

Overall, we are stressing that reflection is the gateway to understanding… revise; revise;
revise! Reflection/revision gives specific reference to:
• saving of time spent on irrelevant matter.
• selection of key insights
• determination of significance of performance as in group participation.
• the manner of operation of team work, and the
• nature of life of researcher e.g. destruction of witness’ evidence (checkered
history, the fallacy of… ad hominem)

7. Insights for effecting change:

Reflection can/and does bring about revolutions. Whenever there are changes, such
changes should:
• allow people to see the world differently, and
• live and act differently.

Reflection challenges:
Reflection is neither a utopia nor a visa to the Eternal Kingdom. It has its challenges—its ups
and downs. Leading of these challenges are
(a) a commitment to reflect and
(b) the discipline to reflect.

Many people want to reap glorious benefits but never want to spare the time to work and to
reflect on their quality of work. Locally we say, “We want to die, but we do not want to rot.”
Reggae singer, Anthony B, put it this way: “No-body wanna plant the corn [sic]. Everybody
want to raid the barn [sic].”

Right here I am reminded of the motto of my alma mater, GBSS, “Non palma sine labore: No
reward without labour.”

Concerning (b above), “the discipline to reflect”, I cannot refrain from mentioning a brief
comment on former magistrate, Mr. Jerry Seales, and what many termed his “hostile behavior to
bus drivers.” Yes, his behavior probably did hurt many people, and even ran many bus drivers
aground. But the goodly gentleman was acting in accordance with the law. He was given the

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instrument(s) to mean the magistracy, and was doing what the law permitted. What do we mean
by “too lenient” or “too stiff” a penalty? Do we have anything called “too lenient” or “too stiff”
a crime? If he had erred in the execution of his duty, then they should remove him. If, however,
he did what he was paid to do, “to uphold the law with dignity and respect,” then why seek to
punish him? Mr. Jerry Seales did his job; and should be commended. He was bold enough to
exercise the “discipline to reflect.”

Both the commitment and discipline to reflect are influenced by a number of factors. Leading of
these factors are:
• distractions: the type of lives and rewards that take away from fruitful reflection.
• confusion: introduction of irrelevant thoughts amidst purposeful thoughts.
• feelings: introduction of unwanted challenges or discomfort, unexpected emotional
responses and unwanted conclusions. Feelings and true critical thinking are strange bed
partners, but they are not unusual.
• management: implementation of the types of skills that strengthen the practice of
understanding critical reflection and promote overall achievement and upward mobility.

(d) Intelligence and Critical Thinking:

The recommendation here is that you revisit the article, “Notions of Language,” and read
carefully, the passage, “Literacy and intelligence.” You are also advised to study our
earlier lesson on “Functional literacy.” We have already made the point that thinking is
fleeting and critical, deep or reflective thinking is sedentary; at least it requires a pause
and deeper thought. The million-dollar question now is, “What is intelligence?”

Intelligence is:
❖ Thinking, processing and demonstrating the use of information to:
• Solve problems (more of this in UNIT IV)
• Resolve issues/conflicts
• Meet daily challenges.

In short, intelligence is the manifestation of thought, knowledge and understanding in

day-to-day livelihood. It is the kind of education we acquire and use to overcome
obstacles including poverty (of any nature).

To be able to overcome obstacles, we have to develop the ability to manufacture, evaluate

and make use of ideas; to begin to appreciate a body of science and technology. And we
have science (knowledge or principles) in every discipline of life. Science is “to know
that” and “know why” things exist. Technology is the “know how” of the existence of
things; and this is what drives the economy of the world today.

If we are to dabble with the “know-how,” of life, we need to REASON, (done before),
and reasoning along this line has its fore-runners, namely:
i. Hypothesis: the use of possibilities rather than certainties. It is offering
suggestions or possible reasons without much proof for the
occurrence of events. It is an assumption or a sensible guess, used
for further studies.

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ii. Investigation: this is the “further studies” referred to above. It is the search/or
test for reasons or trying to find explanation for an event or
situation based on the hypothesis. After a great deal of
experimentation and investigation, if the hypothesis holds true, it
(hypothesis) becomes a THEORY. If the theory survives many
more experimentations and results in enough indisputable evidence
i.e. supporting evidence, then it becomes a LAW.

Investigation in this sense can be very useful. It is synonymous to the biblical term,
“making use of one’s talents.” In business, investigation can lead to:
• research and development (R&D) – avenues that can open up the job market.
• sustainable development (SD) – generation of income for successful living.
• entrepreneurial skills (ES) – empowerment of people to enter business, to take
risks by using their initiatives.

Intelligence is dynamic – ever active, ever changing. It not only requires skill, but also
brings (dauntless spirit). Intelligence never ceases to shine, even in the worst of times.
Intelligent people do things; they take risks. Intelligent students speak out; they think out
of the box. They strive always to elevate their intelligence level.

Over to you
A once “stupid person” becomes a success!! Why is this so? What did he/she
do?

C Benefits of critical thinking skills:

Should one develop critical thinking skills? What are the benefits?
The ultimate objective of critical thinking is to:
• Come to correct conclusions
• Make wise (and independent) decisions.

This objective can be attained by the presence of valuable thinking skills and the
maintenance of acceptable standards (done before). Different schools of thought propose
different reasons for developing critical thinking skills. Moore and Parker, in their
College Learning Assessment (CLA) project of the Council for Aid to Education, list the
following reasons:
1. Determination of what information is or is not pertinent. (data vs information)
2. Distinction between rational claims and emotional ones. (feelings vs true critical
thinking)
3. Separation of fact from opinion.
4. Recognition of the ways in which evidence might be limited or compromised.
5. Detection of deception and holes in the arguments of others (bias and insufficiency).
6. Presentation of one’s own analysis of data or information – effective writing and
speaking. (Units I & II).
7. Recognition of logical flaws in arguments.
8. Drawing connections between discrete sources of data rather than opinion.

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9. Attending to contradictory, inadequate or ambiguous information (denotation vs

connotation)
10. Constructing cogent arguments rooted in data rather than opinion.
11. Selecting the strongest set of supporting data.
12. Avoiding overstated conclusions
13. Identifying holes in the evidence and suggesting additional information to collect.
14. Recognizing that a problem may have no clear answer and a single solution.
15. Proposing other opinions and weighing them in the decision - - use of alternatives.
16. Consideration of all stake holders or affected parties in suggesting a course of action.
17. Articulation of the argument and its relevant context.
18. Use of evidence correctly and precisely to defend the argument.
19. Organizing the argument logically and coherently. - - language effectiveness.
20. Omission of non-related elements in the argument.
21. Presentation of evidence so as to convince/persuade listeners.

Stella Cottrell, in her book, Critical Thinking Skills, p. 4, sums up critical thinking skills as:
1. Improved attention and observation.
2. More focused reading, [listening, and seeing].
3. Improved ability to identify the key points in a text or other message rather than
becoming distracted by less important materials [main idea].
4. Improved ability to respond to the appropriate points in a message.
5. Knowledge of how to get your own point across more easily
6. Analytical skills that you can use or choose to apply in a variety of situations.

Benefits from developing critical thinking skills:

The forgoing treats the benefits of critical thinking skills in a general way. More precisely, we
need to have and use critical thinking skills in:

(a) Academia”
This deals with critical thinking skills in schools and learning circumstances, with
teachers and students. Basically, we need these skills to:

1. Develop understanding:
Here we need to –
• dig beneath the surfaces of texts as part of the academic discipline
• engage in critical discussions as seminars, debates, presentations, publications
(writings) with evidence and with properly supported arguments.
• be able to develop critical evaluation of the works of others.
• be able to apply individual or personal knowledge - - wide reading.

2. Make meaningful criticisms:

• identify the strengths and dissatisfactory aspects of a piece of work (text).
• offer advice on the improvement of the work of others, or work criticized.

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3. Improve comprehension (with #1 above):

• for total, critical consideration of what is heard, seen (or observed) or read, with
respect to known or existing theories.

4. Distinguish an idea, work, text, theory or behavior from the owner and the presenter.
5. Address the more complicated, sophisticated and entangled issues – seeing below and
between the lines.
6. Use evidence skillfully in dealing with high-level thinking.

(b) Professional life (workplace): Transfer of Classroom Knowledge

Today, perhaps more than ever before, prospective workers and professional people are
expected to be pro-active. Sending out applications and waiting for an employer to call is
almost a “no-no.” Scripture has it as: “Many are called but few are chosen”. People who
just begin to work and those who are already working are expected to be:
• quick problem solvers
• creative, (especially in thinking) – people with “quick inventive brains.”
• good gatherers and processors of information (COM 101) – use of intelligence.
• good decision makers, based on thorough analysis
• efficient documenters with good, credible ideas – good note takers/makers.

In short, students are expected to transfer successfully, knowledge/information gained in

the classroom to their day-to-day activities, including the workplace.

The conscientious student today should learn and aim at transferring skills learned at
school to his/her career or workplace. These school-acquired skills enable students to
plan and/or choose courses that would be relevant for their future career or vocation, and
not just for an easy “A” grade. Many of these skills are learned or acquired through
assignments and research projects which involve:
• location of relevant information (data)
• processing large quantities of data, as exemplified in UNIT IV,
• development of critical perspectives which can bring tremendous benefits to
people (and themselves).

In a more specific sense, in the workplace, workers…

1. Establish connections (networking) with people and ideas: (UNIT I)
• network within and outside of the company i.e. teamwork (Strategies for
Success).
• identification of links for exchange and sale of goods.

2. Reflect:
• development of self-awareness and professional judgement.
• “yes” Take what you get/have (and work honestly at/with it) until you get
what you want, but be open. Keep thinking seriously of the whence and
whereto (whither) of your life. Do so with DIGNITY.
• monitor your progress and that of others, including family members.
• do research-based practices – writing, organizing, assembling
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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

3. Develop some level of intellectual ability (self-growth):

• willingness to undertake (undergo) training
• constant, useless complaints are deterrents.
• willingness (and ability) to learn from others.

4. Develop time-management skills (v. important):

• efficiency and competency at tasks in a timely manner.
• deliberate procrastination is a no-no.
• implicit/explicit daily planning - - having a sense of daily direction.

5. Develop and maintain some degree of independence:

• ability to negotiate well and with self-assurance.
• cultivation of respect – no dependency on others e.g. politicians, man, friends.
• proactivity – being and acting in the “know” and with positive
attitude/cognizance.
• self-confidence – belief in oneself (“Man, know thyself”—Socrates)

6. Consider context:
• having an idea/awareness of many perspectives
• a perception of key influences and pressures.

7. Make use of their analytical skills:

• ability to read (deep, careful, reflective), write (Amazing Power of Language)
and digest (make sense of) documents (understanding).
• ability to monitor and judge the day-to-day developments e.g. industrial
strikes/political upheavals. Who benefits in the long run?

8. Plan on short-, medium- and long-term bases:

• be sensitive to trouble shooters and deal with these whenever and however
they appear.
• prepare for, and learn to adapt to, changes.

(c) Everyday (day-to-day) circles:

This may be considered as using critical thinking skills in ordinary, day-to-day life.
Every time I teach this lesson, I am reminded of the heights that certain ordinary, lowly
people attained by merely thinking through their problems especially in difficult times…
• Samuel Pisar’s escape from Nazi Concentration Camp
• Levi Strauss’ development of Levi Jeans Industry
• Arthur Scott & manufacture of paper towels.
• and animals led to the manufacture of “Velcro”
• and many, many more.

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

The whole idea here is that anytime we think seriously and resolve to get out of the
dumps, we often find use for our hidden talents and teach a lesson to others. By seriously
thinking, we often guard against:
1. Making foolish mistakes or decisions as:
• bad consumer purchases – no bad spending; and if we do, there must not be
repetition.
• poor relationships (in all respects), again avoid repetition.
• unrequired or unhealthy personal behaviours.

2. Promotion of undemocratic processes or actions:

Yes, the majority may rule, but the majority are not always right. We should begin to
think seriously about:
• environmental degradation/destruction
• praedial larceny - - lawyers making excuses, “the people have to live”.
• nuclear proliferation - - disposed of iphone batteries, vehicle, etc.
• religious and ethnic tolerance
• decaying social norms. Carnival costumes, fancy mass.
• the state of education in our country – my course is too hard!! Quality of
teacher/education.
• health status – poverty, indigence, affluence, obesity
• joblessness, especially among the youth – how to develop self-employment.
• innovation, sustainable activities
• bribery in ‘high places’. – 1 highly-paid person on 3 or more statutory boards,
nepotism?

Correction of these must come from our individual thinking level; not from/at
government level – You, Me, Us!!

3. Personal derailment:
“Be wary of what we say, and do,
It will come back to haunt us one day, that’s true.”

Each of us must delay and exercise care whenever we say and do things; and
whenever we do, we must do so intelligently. Check the evidence before casting
judgement.
• look for the author’s credentials/experience in literary works.
• look for corroboration/similarity of texts.
• see the logic (reason) – What is the verdict? Is it based on personal
knowledge, familiarity or instinct?
• examine your peers. What do others think?

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

All of these constitute Hume’s and Descarte’s Principle which says, ‘Doubt
everything before agreeing/disagreeing based on evidence’. The Socratic Method
advises us ‘Not to accept anything readily before questioning.’ Questioning helps to
alleviate:
• unexamined assumptions
• biases. What, really, is bias?
• “say-say”, hear-say; dull, empty gossips.

Over to you
What is your opinion on:
• the 13th C “flat earth theory”.
• deamons are the sole causes of diseases.
• justification of slavery
• inferiority of women to men or vice versa
• aeroplanes bring babies into this world.
• at puberty and first menses, girls must not talk to boys…
− enter cemeteries (let alone trample on graves)
− climb bearing fruit trees.
• can you think of some more…?

D. Barriers to critical thinking:

- Each individual has certain/ various hick-ups about good, clean critical thinking.
- Each of those hick-ups is referred to as a barrier/ hindrance, for it hinders smooth,
uninterrupted thinking. Among the many barriers known, some really stand out. Some
of these outstanding barriers are:
i. Poor reading – understanding skills (relevant background):
- go back to your lessons on reading, listening, understanding.
- there are many advantages in doing these well.
- recall that in all cases, one is expected to THINK.
- poor understanding causes much misrepresentation.
- an example here is the meaning of criticism, critiquing and critical evaluation.
- all, in a sense, refer to consideration of strengths, weaknesses and suggestions for
improvement.
- for one thing, “suggestions” means “feedback: which is so true for effective
communication.

ii. Poor reasoning skills:

- can refer to over-belief (superiority complex) or under-belief (inferiority complex)
in oneself.
- superiority complex makes us feel “There is none like me,” so there is no need for
improvement.
- inferiority complex makes us feel, “Everyone else is better than me,” so why
bother?
- it helps to be precise, accurate and logical, especially for higher-level academic
and professional work, or to be sufficiently helpful in society.

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

iii. Lack of methods, strategies or practice:

- strategies used to study at school are not enough for higher-level thinking.
- continuation in thinking critically needs some knowledge of the next step for
improvement, and that requires a method, strategies and PRACTICE.

iv. Fear of critiquing experts:

- even those we love, respect or who should know better are wrong at times.
- there is nothing wrong, rude or nonsensical about giving substantiated evaluations
of the works of people who are experts in their fields.
- students are expected to question and challenge materials they encounter.
- overcoming this fear is one of the objectives of the teaching-learning process, and
that takes TIME, PRACTICE and BOLDNESS or AUDACITY.

v. Too much love, respect, emotions for self or others:

- emotional or affective reasoning kills critical thinking. E.g. Bus 499 → fish vendor
→ illegal drop off → police charges. (Get the story) i.e. Emotions/Feelings in
critical thinking.
- yes, make use of emotional content, but do so with EVIDENCE for conviction
- keep whatever beliefs are dear to you; but never allow personal feelings to override
EVIDENCE

vi. Fear to develop the ‘mental muscle.’

- Most people learn better by doing.
- having the information is not understanding it.
- learning is a process developed through understanding and insight; and by doing
- making use of the facts, and engaging in activities to demonstrate knowledge of
the facts help to develop well-founded judgements (homework). Intelligence
teaches that.

vii. Insufficient focus and attention to detail:

- accuracy and precision are given as standards of critical thinking.
- accuracy and precision require paying attention to details.
- good arguments are products of focus and good attention to detail.

There are several other barriers which can be explained on the internet or in other course books.
Some of these include:
• peer pressure
• bias *
• prejudice
• narrow-mindedness
• denial
• face-saving
• selective preparation
• superstition *- belief in the unnatural
• conformism – belief without agreeing

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

• stereotyping – “good boy, good girlism”

• close-mindedness
• wishful thinking
• fear of change

E. General Profile (characteristics) of a critical thinker/thinking vs a non-critical

thinker/thinking

Critical thinkers/thinking Uncritical thinkers …

1. Have a passionate drive for clarity,
precision and other critical thinking
standards:
accuracy, relevance consistency, logical
correctness, completeness, fairness
2. Are sensitive to ways in which critical
thinking can be skewed by self-
centeredness (egocentrism),
group-centeredness (sociocentrism),
wishful thinking and other impediments.
• Often think in ways that are unclear,
imprecise and inaccurate, etc.
• Often fall prey to egocentrism,
sociocentrism, relativistic thinking,
unwarranted assumptions and wishful
thinking.

3. Are skilled at understanding, analyzing, • Often misunderstand and evaluate

and evaluating issues, arguments and unfairly, issues, arguments, and
viewpoints. viewpoints.

4. Reason logically and draw appropriate • Think illogically and draw unsupported
conclusions from evidence and data. conclusions from evidence and data.

5. Are intellectually honest with themselves, • Pretend they know more than they do and
acknowledging what they don’t know and ignore their limitations
recognizing their limitations

6. Listen open-mindedly to opposing points • Are close-minded and resist criticism of

of view and welcome criticism of beliefs beliefs and assumptions.
and assumptions

7. Base their beliefs on facts and evidence • Often base beliefs on mere personal
rather than on personal preference or self- preference or self-interest
interest

8. Are aware of biases and preconceptions • Lack awareness of their own biases and
that shape the way they perceive the preconceptions
world.

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PHI 200 Critical Thinking Mr. Peter Thomas

9. Think independently and are not afraid to • Tend to engage in “group think,”
disagree with group opinion uncritically following the beliefs and
values of the crowd.

10. Are able to get to the heart of an issue or a • Are easily distracted and lack the ability to
problem without being distracted by zero in on the essence of an issue or a
details. problem.

11. Have the intellectual courage to face and • Fear and resist ideas that challenge their
assess fairly ideas that challenge even basic beliefs
their most basic beliefs

12. Pursue truth and are curious about a wide • Are often relatively indifferent to truth and
range of issues lack curiosity

13. Have the intellectual perseverance to • Tend not to persevere when they
pursue insights or truths despite obstacles encounter intellectual obstacles or
or difficulties difficulties.

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