AGGREGATES

 Aggregates are particles of random shapes. They are found in nature as sand, gravel, stones, or
rock that can be crushed into particles.
 Aggregates are the materials basically used as filler with binding material in the production of
mortar and concrete.

COARSE AGGREGATES/GRAVEL

 Aggregates predominantly retained on the No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm) resulting from natural
disintegration and abrasion of rock or processing of weakly bonded conglomerate.

FINE AGGREGATES/SAND

 Aggregates passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm) and predominantly retained on the No. 200 sieve
(74 micron) resulting from natural disintegration and abrasion of rock or processing of
completely friable sandstone.

BANK GRAVEL

 Gravel found in natural deposits usually intermixed with fine material such as sand, clay, or
combination.
 Gravelly clay, gravelly sand, clayey gravel, sandy gravel.

CRUSHED GRAVEL, STONE, AND ROCK

 Crushed gravel is the product resulting from the artificial crushing of gravel with substantially all
fragments having at least one face resulting from fracture.
 Crushed stone is the product resulting from the artificial crushing of rocks, boulders, or large
cobblestones, substantially all faces of which have resulted from the crushing operation.
 Crushed rock is the product resulting from the artificial crushing of all rock, all faces of which
have resulted from the crushing operation or from blasting.

NATURAL & ARTIFICIAL

 Natural aggregates are obtained by crushing from quarries of igneous, sedimentary, or

metamorphic rocks. Gravels and sand reduced to their present size by nature also fall in this
category.
 Artificial aggregates are broken bricks, blast furnace slag, and synthetic aggregates. Broken
bricks known as brick bats are suitable for mass concreting like foundation bases.

BASED ON SIZES

 Coarse aggregates are aggregates retained on 4.75 mm sieve. They are obtained by natural
disintegration or by artificial crushing of rocks.
 All-in-aggregates are naturally available aggregates of different fractions of fine and coarse
sizes. The deficiency of any particular fraction can be corrected for use in the mix but they are
not recommended for quality concrete.
 Graded aggregates are aggregates most of which passes through a particular size of sieve.
 Fine aggregates are aggregates passing through 4.75 mm sieve. They may be natural sand
deposited by rivers, crushed stone sand by crushing stones and crushed gravel sand.
 Rounded aggregates are generally obtained from river or sea shore and produce minimum voids
(about 32 percent) in the concrete. They have minimum ratio of surface area to the volume, and
the cement paste required is minimum. Poor interlocking bond makes it unsuitable for high
strength concrete and pavements.
 Irregular aggregates have voids about 36 percent and require more cement paste as compared
to rounded aggregate.
 Angular aggregates have sharp, angular and rough particles having maximum voids (about 40
percent). Angular aggregates provide very good bond than the earlier two, they are most
suitable for high strength concrete and pavements, and the requirement of cement paste is
relatively more.
 Flaky aggregates are sometimes wrongly called as elongated aggregate. However, both of these
influence the concrete properties adversely. The least lateral dimension of flaky aggregate
(thickness) should be less than 0.6 of its mean dimension.
SOURCE OF AGGREGATES

 Bed rock - solid rock on Earth’s crust.

 Sand or gravel banks - occur were at one time broken from massive parent rock.
 Till - deposits that simply dropped by a glacier.
 Outwash - deposits carried farther by melt water

METHODS OF EXTRACTION

 Underwater sources - Aggregates is brought up from lake and river bottoms by barge mounted
dredges with a single scoop or an endless chain of scoops and by dragline.
 Land sources - Aggregates are excavated from natural banks, pits, or mines on land by bucket
loaders, power shovels, draglines, and power scrapers. If crushed rock is to be used as
aggregates, it must be blasted loose with explosives and them crushed by machinery to the size
desired.

PROPERTIES AND USES

 The usefulness of aggregates to engineering and construction fields depends on the variety of
properties.
 Qualities that indicate the usefulness of aggregate particles to the construction industry are:
 Weight
Strength of the particles to resist weathering (especially repetitive freezing and thawing)
 strength as demonstrated by the ability of the mass to transmit a compressive force
 strength as demonstrated by the ability of the individual particles to resist being broken,
crushed or pulled apart
 strength of the particles to resist wear by rubbing or abrasion
 adhesion or the ability to stick to a cementing agent
 permeability of the mass without the loss of strength or the displacement of particles
 Riprap - This is placed along the edge of a body of water usually river banks, shorelines, or
canals to protect the bank or shore from eroding.
 Blanket of stones - This is placed to prevent erosion of sloping ground.
 Gabions - a basketlike container for stones that is made of heavy steel
mesh, forming the shape of a block with level top and bottom and four
vertical sides. Gabions are set in place to act as riprap or to form a
retaining wall to hold back on earth bank.

SIZES AND GRADATION

 A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a procedure used to assess the

particle size distribution (also called gradation) of a granular material.
 The size distribution is often of critical importance to the way the
material performs in use.
STEEL

HISTORY

 UNTIL LATE 18TH CENTURY - Metals had little use in construction cast iron found limited use as
a structural material
 EARLY 19TH CENTURY - wrought iron and cast iron were used for structural purposes but not
extensively, because cast iron was brittle, and the production of wrought iron was limited and
expensive.
 1850’s - Bessemer process was developed.

Ferrous metals - are those in which the chief ingredient is the chemical element iron (ferrum). Iron
(chemical symbol Fe), mixed with other minerals, is found in large quantities in the earth’s crust.

Iron is found in large quantities in the earth’s crust. Pure iron, free from impurities and other elements,
is ductile and soft but generally not strong enough for structural purposes.

For commercial purposes, iron must have alloying elements added to improve its characteristics. Iron
can be hardened by heating and rapid cooling, and can be made more workable by annealing.

Pig iron is the base materials used to produce various types of iron and steel. Iron is used for a wide
range of purposes in construction. It is the main ingredient in cast iron, steel, stainless steel, and iron
alloys. Iron particles may be used as an abrasive for sandblasting and sometimes as aggregates for
specialized concretes. They also form the basis for some color pigments.

Mining and Processing Iron

Surface ores are mined, loaded onto trucks, trains, and ships, and moved to blast furnaces. If the iron
content of the ore is less than 50 percent, it is too costly to ship any distance

 Beneficiation - process that removes some of the unwanted elements, leaving an ore with high
iron content.
 Agglomeration - involves pelletizing the ore particles, which are then easier to ship than finely
ground ore. Iron ore dust produced during this process is recycled through sintering.
 Sintering - consists of fusing iron ore dust with coke and fluxes into a clinker that is high in iron
content.

Ores that have very high iron content are made into pellets and briquettes containing more than 90
percent iron. These pellets are so pure they are not used in pig iron production but go directly into
steelmaking. The method of producing these pure pellets is called direct reduction.
Producing Iron from Iron Ore

Iron ore is converted into pig iron in a blast furnace by smelting and reduction.

 Smelting - is a process in which the ore is heated, permitting the iron to be separated from
impurities that may be chemically or physically mixed in
 Reduction – is a process that separates the iron from oxygen with which it is chemically mixed.

The Blast Furnace separates the iron from the waste materials and sinters the ore and flue dust. It is
computer controlled, fed by a conveyor, and operates continuously.

A large blast furnace is capable of producing 8,000 tons of molten iron per day.

The steelmaking process, from preparing the ore, through processing into steel, to producing steel
beams.
Cast Iron - Iron containing almost no carbon is identified as a wrought iron. A mixture of low-carbon iron
and a large amount of slag, wrought iron is soft, tough, and ductile (easily worked). Ingot iron is a very
low-carbon iron that has no slag and is also tough, ductile, and soft

Steel Making - The production of steel entails controlling impurities in pig iron, adding alloying elements
as needed to produce required properties, and lowering pig iron’s carbon content. This involves
combining molten pig iron, scrap metal, and fluxes in a steelmaking furnace

Basic Oxygen Process - The basic oxygen furnace has a large pear-shaped vessel lined with refractory
material. The charge, consisting of molten pig iron, metal, scraps, and fluxes, is added at the top. A jet of
high-purity oxygen is shot into the vessel through a water-cooled lance. The heat of the molten pig iron
is great enough to start a chemical reaction between the oxygen and the carbon and other impurities.
This oxidation produces the heat necessary to melt the charge. The slag and molten steel are tapped off.

Molten iron is poured in the basic oxygen process using a jet of high purity oxygen plus the heat of the
molten pig iron to start the process.

Electric Steelmaking Process - High-grade steels, such as stainless, tool, heat-resisting, and alloy, are
generally produced in electric furnaces. These furnaces can develop the high temperatures needed to
produce required conditions.

Electric Arc Furnace - The electric arc furnace has a circular steel shell similar to a large cooking pot.
Several cylindrical electrodes project into the furnace from the top. A high-voltage electric current is
introduced through the electrodes, causing an arc to pass between them and producing the heat
needed to melt the charge. The furnace tilts and the steel pours off under the slag

Electric arc furnaces produce high-grade steels, such as stainless, tool, heat-resisting, and alloy.

The Induction Furnace - This furnace has a cylindrical vessel made of magnesia and insulated with
refractory materials. Outside the vessel are windings of copper tubing through which high-voltage
alternating current passes, creating an induction current resisted by the charge. This resistance
generates the heat needed for melting the charge. The vessel tilts and the steel pours off below the slag.

Manufacturing of Steel Products - Steel products are manufactured by rolling, extruding, cold-drawing,
forging, and casting. Items produced by casting are referred to as cast steel products and all of the
others are called wrought products. The most frequently used products are produced by hot-rolling and
cold finishing. Cast steel products are made by pouring molten steel into sand molds. The molten steel
goes through a process to alter its properties to suit the purpose served by the finished product.

These steel strands are produced by a continuous-casting machine. The slabs are cut into predetermined
lengths by an automatic torch machine.
Steel Recycling - Steel is one of the most widely recycled materials in the world. The steel industry has
been engaged in recycling for more than a century because it is economically advantageous. Steel loses
none of its inherent physical properties during the recycling process, and the energy and material
requirements for recycling are far less than that for iron ore refining

Steel Identification System - Nationally used metal and alloy numbering systems are administered by
societies, trade associations, and individual users and producers of metals and alloys. Among these are
numbering systems by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), SAE/Aerospace Materials
Specifications (AMS), American Welding Society (AWS), American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE), Federal Specifications, Military Specifications (MIL-SPEC), and the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).

Steel and Steel Alloys – “Steel” is a term generally applied to plain carbon steels that are alloys of iron
and carbon (with a carbon content of less than 2 percent). Other steel products include stainless and
alloy steels.

Plain Carbon Steels - Plain carbon steels have iron as the major element (more than 95 percent), but
they also contain impurities, such as sulfur, nitrogen, and oxygen. Other elements may be present as
residual impurities or as alloys added to change the properties of the steel. These can include
phosphorus, nickel, aluminum, copper, silicon, and manganese

Alloy Steels - contains one or more alloying elements other than carbon (such as chromium, nickel, or
molybdenum) that have been added in amounts exceeding a specified minimum to produce properties
not avail- able in carbon steels. These elements give particular physical, mechanical, and chemical
properties to the steel. Stainless steels, specialty steels, and tool steels are not considered alloy steels,
although they do contain alloying elements.

Type of Structural Steel

Steel specified for structural purposes is of major importance to architects and engineers. It has low-to-
medium carbon content. The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) publication Code of
Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges includes requirements that must be specified in
construction documents, including columns, beams, trusses, bearing plates, and various fastening
devices and connectors.

 Structural steels fall into four major classifications:

1. Carbon steel
2. Heat-treated construction alloy steel
3. Heat-treated high-strength carbon steel
4. High-strength low-alloy steel

Steel Products - Steel of various types is used extensively in construction, ranging from something as
small as a nail to large beams and columns. Following are a few of the products in common use
Steel Reinforcement

 Plain Rebars - It is typically a round rod without repeating patterns of ridges and depressions on
its surface.
 Deformed rebar - The majority of rebar are deformed. The ribs and depressions on its surface
can increase the bond strength with concrete and prevent slippage. The patterns can be
customized` according to customers requirements

Identification of steel reinforcement bars

A range of individual markings reveal the identification of each individual rebar:

 The first letter or symbol means producing mill and deformation pattern.
 The second marking means the bar size, in this picture, " 11 " means the diameter of this rebar is
#3.
 The third letter represents the type of steel as
follow:
o S: Carbon-steel (A615).
o W: Low-alloy steel (A706).
o R: Rail-steel (A996).
o I: Axle-steel (A996).
o A: Rail-steel (A996)
 The last marking shows the grade of reinforcing bar.
40: grade 40.
60: grade 60.
75: grade 75.
4: grade 420, also grade 60.
5: grade 520, also grade 75.
 Furthermore, the grade also can be identified by its additional lines, which must be at least five
deformations long.
Sheet Steel Products

Many products are made by rolling them to shape from flat steel sheets. Common among these are
roofing, siding, decking, and light-gauge steel framing systems.

Steel floor decking is made of steel sheets that have been bent or corrugated to improve their strength.

Corrugated steel floor decking is used with structural steel framing.

ASTM C191 – Standard Test Method for Time of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat Needle

ASTM C29 – Standard Test Method for Bulk Density (Unit Weight) and Voids in Aggregate

ASTM C128 – Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of
Fine Aggregate

ASTM D638 - Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics

ASTM C127 – Standard Test Method for Density, Relative Density (Specific Gravity), and Absorption of
Coarse Aggregate

ASTM C566 – Standard Test Method for Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying

Bricks

Bricks are one of the oldest building materials. Bricks have been produced since the dawn of civilization
in the sundried form. Due to its cheapness, durability and easy to handle quality, brick continues to be
the most popular and leading construction material.

History of Bricks

Turkey

 The earliest discovery of man-made bricks dates back to 7000 BC and was found in Turkey.
 The bricks were made of mud and were dried naturally by the sun

Egypt

 Ancient Egyptians were also known to make sun-dried bricks out of clay and straw. Evidence of
this can still be seen today at ruins such as Harappa Buhen and Mohenjo-daro. These bricks also
consisted of a 4:2:1 ratio which enabled them to be laid more easily.

Romans

 The Romans further distinguished those which had been dried by the sun and air and those
bricks which were fired in a kiln.
 Preferring to make their bricks in the spring, the Romans held on to their bricks for two years
before they were used or sold.

Greeks

 The Greeks also considered perpendicular brick walls more durable than stone walls and used
them for public edifices. They also realized how the modern brick was less susceptible to erosion
than the old style marble walls. During the 12th century bricks were reintroduced to northern
 Germany from northern Italy. This created the brick gothic period which was a reduced style of
Gothic architecture.

Usage

A brick is a building material used in masonry construction. Bricks are used as an alternative to stones in
construction purposes. Beginning in the 1800s brick became a popular building material in major U.S.
cities because they are more fire-resistant than wood. In densely populated areas with buildings close
together, it was important to find building materials that could prevent the rapid spread of a fire.

Characteristics

 Bricks should be uniform in color, size and shape. Standard size of brick should be maintained.
 They should be sound and compact.
 They should be free from cracks and other flaws such as air bubbles, stone nodules etc. with
sharp and square edges.
 Bricks should not absorb more than 1⁄5 of their own weight of water when immersed in water
for 24 hours (15% to 20% of dry weight).
 The compressive strength of bricks should be in range of 2000 to 5000 psi (15 to 35 MPa).
 Salt attack hampers the durability of brick. The presence of excess soluble salts in brick also
causes efflorescence. The percentage of soluble salts should not exceed 2.5%.
 Brick should not change in volume when wetted.
 Bricks should neither overburnt nor under-brunt.
 Generally, the weight per brick should be 6 lbs. and the unit weight should be less than 125 lbs.
per cubic ft.
 The thermal conductivity of bricks should be low as it is desirable that the building built with
them should be cool in summer and warm in winter.
 Bricks should be sound proof.
 Bricks should be non-inflammable and incombustible

Types of Bricks Based of Quality

First Class Bricks are good quality bricks compared to other classes. They are molded by table-molding
and burnt in large kilns. So, these bricks contain standard shape, sharp edges and smooth surfaces. They
are more durable and having more strength. They can be used for permanent structures. However,
because of their good properties they are costly than other classes.

Second Class Bricks are moderate quality bricks and they are molded by ground-molding process. These
bricks are also burnt in kilns. But because of ground molding, they do not have smooth surfaces as well
as sharp edges. The shape of bricks also irregular due to unevenness in ground. These also will give best
results in strength and durability. Smooth plastering is required on the brick structure.
Third Class Bricks are poor quality bricks which are generally used for temporary structures like unburnt
bricks. These are not suitable for rainy areas. They are ground-molded type bricks and burnt in clamps.
The surface of this type of bricks are rough and they have unfair edges.

Fourth Class Bricks are very poor quality bricks and these are not used as bricks in the structure. They
are crushed and used as aggregates in the manufacturing of concrete. They are obtained by over
burning, because of this they gets overheated and obtains brittle nature. So, they can break easily and
not suitable for construction purpose.

Tests

Compressive Strength Test

 A sample brick is placed on a compression testing machine and pressure is applied until it fails.
The ‘ultimate pressure’ level is recorded. Generally, five bricks are tested one at a time, with the
average ultimate pressure level being taken as the compressive strength of the bricks.

Water Absorption Test

 Bricks are weighed in their normal dry condition and then immersed in fresh water for 24 hours.
They are then weighed again. The difference between the weights indicates the amount of
water that has been absorbed by the brick. The less water is absorbed the greater the quality.
The amount should not exceed 20% of the dry weight.

Efflorescence Test

 If the whitish layer is not visible on the surface then it demonstrates an absence of alkalis in the
brick. The ranges that should be followed are:
 About 10% of brick surface: Acceptable range.
 About 50% of brick surface: Moderate range.
 Over 50% of brick surface: Severely affected by alkalis.

Hardness Test

 The brick surface is scratched. If no impression is left then it is of good quality.

Size, Shape and Colour Test

 Twenty bricks chosen at random are stacked lengthwise, width-wise and height-wise, and
inspected for uniformity of shape, size and colour.

Soundness Test

 Two bricks are held in each hand and struck together. They should not break and a clear metallic
ringing sound should be made if they are good quality.
New Technology

Smart Bricks is a revolutionary brick and the basis of a new construction system created by a company
called Kite Bricks.

The block is constructed of high-strength concrete with unique properties that allow for the building of
truly ecological structures, with large savings in electricity expenses associated with seasonal heating
and cooling.

Bricks are designed to be easily joined together, with open internal spaces for insulation and
infrastructure elements to be run through the bricks and allow for easy access to these elements.

Semi Automated Mason (SAM) is a bricklaying system designed and engineered to make the process
safer and less physically demanding. It is designed to assist your team, not replace them. It reduces
physical wear and tear, allowing employees to focus on exceptional results every day.

Aluminum

Aluminum occurs in abundance on the surface of the earth. It is available in various forms such as
oxides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates, etc. But is commercially produced mainly from Bauxite.

Aluminum is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal,
in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface.

Aluminum is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the
phenomenon of passivation. Structural components made from aluminum and its alloys are vital to the
aerospace industry and are important in other areas of transportation and structural materials. The
most useful compounds of aluminum, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulfates.
Brief History
USAGE

 Compared to other building materials like steel, wood, or stainless steel, aluminum is more
lightweight, making it ideal for all kinds of applications. For aluminum, its uses in construction
can range anywhere from structural or simply decorative purposes. Some of its most common
include window frames, door frames, and louvers. But it’s also a good alternative for wall
cladding/paneling, ventilation, heating and cooling systems, latches, studs, and railings.
 Aluminum has proven to be an effective alloy for construction. While it may not have greater
mass that is typical of construction materials, it’s a formidable choice due to its combined
durability and low weight.

USES OF ALUMINUM IN CONSTRUCTION

Wall Cladding

 Aluminum is a perfect wall cladding material due to its ease of installation, cost effectiveness,
and mach inability.
 Manufacturers can fabricate a wide variety of aluminum paneling designs that can meet the
customer’s needs.
 Making any modifications to the design is also possible by using different metal fabrication and
cutting techniques that are all effective on aluminum.

Window Frames

 Low-profile aluminum window frame. Low profile, meaning it doesn’t take too many aluminum
components in order to form a single aluminum window frame.
 Despite the low profiles, the window frames are still able to have the same sturdiness without
any quality drawbacks.
 Aluminum frames are highly thermally efficient, provided the window frames are fitted with a
thermal break.

Ventilation

 Proper ventilation structures and systems ensure that a building’s inhabitants are comfortable.
This means that the heat exchange process is working optimally to regulate temperature inside
the building.
 Aluminum is non-corrosive, which leads to infrequent maintenance and repair. Lack of corrosion
also entails that all kinds of gasses and fluids can safely pass through the ventilation tubing
without damaging nearby components

Studs

 Building studs provide stability and design to the entire structure. They may be used to support
other loads such as ceiling or roofing weight or they may simply be used as partitions for
different areas inside a room.
  Metal studs, like aluminum does not get affected by moisture.
 Aluminum studs can also be installed and designed in various ways.

Latches

 In small scale constructional uses, aluminum can also come in the form of flat bars. Once cut to
size, these flat bars can undergo further fabrication in order to become gate latches.
 Aluminum latches help combine the bold and lock system of any door or gate as they tend to
have a faster wear and tear.
 Aluminum latches for any gates/doors inside and outside a building can lessen the effort
required in buying new parts and replacing components altogether.
TESTS

Non-combustibility property test (ASTM E136-65) - Test specimens are conditioned in an oven set at
60°C for 24 hours prior to testing.

Penetration Test (ASTM D1586-11) - Authorized simulated attack performed on a computer system to
evaluate its security.

Impact Test - The purpose of an impact test is to determine the ability of the material to absorb energy
during a collision.

Missile test (ASTM E1996) - Widely adopted standard for assessing impact damage. Projectiles range
from a two gram steel ball (Level A) to a nine pound two by four (Levels D and E)

Salt spray test chamber (ASTM B117) - The ASTM B-117 salt spray test uses a closed testing chamber in
which a salt water (5% NaCl) solution is atomized by means of spray nozzles using pressurized air.
 PLASTIC

‘Plastic’ is a general name given to a wide range of synthetic materials that are based on polymers.
Plastics are made up of polymers which are consist of tiny particles called monomers (ethylene and
propylene)

Plastics are typically divided into thermoplastics that can be remolded into new products after their
initial use and thermosets that can be melted and shaped only once

BRIEF HISTORY

Alexander Parkes

 He created Parkesine, the first celluloid thermoplastic, in 1850 with the goal of developing a less
expensive alternative to ivory.
 Leo Baekeland created Bakelite, the first totally synthetic plastic, in 1907.

Some builders coated bricks with plastic before building materials with insulation became available. A
lot more decorative elements may be added to brick buildings because to the ability of plastics to be
melted and molded into various shapes than was previously conceivable using conventional brick
building methods.

USES OF POLYMERS IN CONSTRUCTION TODAY

 Plumbing, home appliances, electronics, and other construction items all frequently contain
polymer compounds nowadays. Despite the fact that these versatile materials have been
around for more than a century, building material applications have only just started to utilize
them more frequently.

USE OF PLASTICS

Usage of Plastics

 Plastics has become a widespread material in everyday life, thanks to its flexible and long-lasting
qualities, which make it excellent for a wide range of uses.

General Use of Plastics

 Plastic parts and recyclable containers of all kinds; laboratory equipment, water and sewer
delivery systems, automotive parts, medical equipment, packaging, building and construction,
textiles, consumer goods, transportation, electrical and electronics, and industrial machinery.
 Nearly all sectors uses plastic. There is not a part of the world that has no plastic.

ADVANTAGES OF PLASTIC

 Can be mass produced

 Lightweight with a high strength-to-weight ratio
  Can be manufactured inexpensively
 Water resistant
 Thermally and electrically insulating
 Shock resistant

DISADVANTAGES OF PLASTIC

 High embodied energy content

 Low modulus of elasticity
 Combustible
 High thermal expansion rate
 Hard to recycle
 Toxic chemicals

PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS

 Appearance - With additional pigments, plastics can be made to have variety of opaque, stable,
and translucent colors.
 Chemical Resistance - The plastic has great resistance to moisture, chemical, and solvents.
 Dimensional Stability - This property favors satisfactory with other engineering materials.
 Ductility - Plastics has excellent electric insulating property.
 Maintenance - Easy to maintain, does not require protective coat of paints.
 Melting Point - Plastic has low melting point, therefore can’t be used in positions having high
temperature
 Recycling - Plastic used for bottles and bags can be recycled into carpets, pipes, benches, etc.
 Sound Absorption - Acoustical boards are prepared by putting fiber-glass with phenolic resins
 Strength - Plastics are reasonably strong, its strength can be increased with reinforcing it with
fibrous materials
 Weight - Wether thermo-plastic or thermo-setting, plastic has light weight
 Weather Resistance - Mixing fillers can add resistance to plastics from sunlight
 Thermal Property - Plastics has low thermal conductivity, and can be compared with wood
 Optical Property - Several plastics are translucent and transparent

Plastic Testing

Melt Flow Testing is one of the most common and essential forms of plastic testing. A small amount of
the thermoplastic sample is heated to a specific temperature, melted to a fluid and forced through a die.
This sample’s weight and volume are recorded, giving the melt flow rate (MFR) and the melt volume
rate (MVR).

Impact Testing There are two types of impact testing, drop tower and pendulum. The main purposes of
these tests are to measure the resistance of plastic by dropping a dart of different weights onto the
plastic at different heights and velocities.
This method can be used both to measure the resistance of the plastic, but also how much energy the
sample will absorb.

Mechanical Testing is the process of testing elements of plastic such as the stress and tensile properties,
compressional properties and the peeling properties, or how strong the bonds of polymers are.

Rheology tests are undertaken when a polymer is in a melt phase in order to test how the stress in a
material or the force applied is related to the deformation of the material.

The reason for doing so is that in understanding the rheological properties of a polymer can help to
optimize the product and product press with minimal product degradation, resulting in greater cost
efficiency and less waste during production.

Thermal Testing of plastics allows for measuring complications like ageing processes, the effect of
additives and the influence of varying production conditions on a polymer.

Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) is a commonly used technique when it comes to examining
chemical and thermal decomposition and melting.

Bricks & Blocks is a construction system made of 100% recycled plastic.

Not only is this new technology a solution to mitigate pollution, but the system also transfers the main
benefits of plastic as a material, offering a very competitive alternative due to its characteristics.

Since each type of plastic gives the bricks a different property, they are mixed in with different ways to
obtain the desired product.

The Plastic Flamingo (Construction)

 Use Plastics as alternatives use of wood

Eco Lumber

 Durable
 Rot-Proof | Termite Free l Low Maintenance
 100% Made of Plastic Waste

Eco Boards

 They are stiff and ready to be used which can be compared to marine plywood.
 Each board is unique