AIC

l o u clathe layey o h Is OSI mode

Coreleted d TCe/ 1P model
model De tineel after he aclvemd ob inteme.
Sevvice intertae amd Paatocols uwene not cdenny
cistinguised beta e. TCP IP oupponls 9nterne worhing
asseky layerel Potocal Dependent Stamdand Hone
aedible T eliab y oleives Packets P does nd
te lably eleliverpaches &1 has 4 laye

Is0/ osL Detined belore advent ointerne Sevice

intertace and Protocods aMe clew distinquished
nol duPpoukd 3rid loHeung roto
ute unelwOYki
cd independer? slandad less Caedible An packeb
h a s 7 10jes.
1elably cleliværed

Nhat. is Tansmission impaiment 2 ExPlainthe

A
ypes o impanment 9
Iransmision impuirmenl 2-
hete aMe some
Communication when
An he alala
Aansmlssion mecdíumaSo the Signas
imfertetten im Mealium Me no
hstouh heransmissifon

Set tha ate rangm1thed

ertact that s the Signals aHe nol 4he
bignning he medium
at the Jhad Cue 1eceivecl
as Simas hia hha
Aame medium
JheWhat
a t h e end o ECEMee). Thu
not Signal impaitmed. 7hese
Cause
impet@chon impaio1men.
aLe Jhuee
 aAHmuation
bistoy hian
LCNoise

(a) Altensahlons-
AHenuahien mean lassceneAY hat
Sh eng th o S i 4 n a l deeyease with ireas
elislane hich Coe Jass _emegy in
oveComihi cteisBance mecium. t s also
known aHtenuae Siaal.
bDistorion
Distrhitn means if a ieSirgal Changey
rm 0Y shape.

Nolse
J heie
A1e Seme andom 0T Unuited in
mix up wihthe
Neise. ongialignalis called

3a WhaB advandage elue Cikcuik

Pachet Suitkhing oYe
swilching9
Data SuHch
A ASuilch b a that Hautes am iypuf Sign
am uBpu line for eample to
Connect w o Campurn o_ane Prink1 h
ldata Switches have clias or btttons
Switches det for ALtem-
Stgnals m heinput
ines amd piai tixs-Cme fist Senee
Suilthing
 Rajshree
PAGE NO S
OATE

Types o claa suithirg

Packet Switthing
Packet Bitchiny t h approach wee y Deme
Computer ehsoth Protccolso leliver lala aros
lotal or long chstance Copn echiom. Erunples
of pachetSwithingpyotecos CHe rame Relny,-
and A25

How Packet Swithing Works

Packd Swiching_etilPakasing clata cin
specialy fomated unidhat0e pially
tautee rom SnuALe lo deshrahen using
nehork witches Cmd LHOdeLs Each pachet
Comtaim Qeldre,inpmaten h ldemifieny the
Sendng (em puter and jtended Aeciplent. Uei
hese cldnesse netotk Sulhhes md stnfeu
How bet to tanufer he Pachet
olehemine
behweenhops en dhe Path te b clesiahen.

Ciraut Switkhing 1USes atechnique Callesl

The Phone Sstem
Switrhing:
Cne C Call has been empletes) the ser
a et o "_yirhLal wires betuween
(ommunicahingendpaini

he 20e1 emcba lonnuu 3hmeem oldata

which he chamnel quasantees_do delie ata-
knowh Yae._

Dla tranumilsien hamdledelegan uHDy

 Raiskrece
PAGENC
DATE

TDM or FDM Ncte that DMJFDM wOXk wel

because h e clata uat is PrLclictable. the
voice rade Si4nals Samplecl uing Pen
generahhg aSady Shream e brs.

Adranages
fined
orcircuit Switching
barclwidh, quasanteed Capocity
Low YAHEance emd-to-end clela
Drawbachesi-
onnechion Sehp intodures ole lay betort
Cemmunicahen Com begin
Use Pays oI_CirCLit 9 even when not
SEnding- CAn4 clata.
2Cthe Camat use
USeLL_
banduiith et ohe
CixLuit hat aHe nat ochually being used
eg in _mast Comyensahienj Oniy ne
Penscn Speaksat a hime hus, halfs the
tundelyinghandwith wasted

uuiy i dais that focket Switching Jnples

atshcal mulhipleing 9
Ntlieleoings
hen uot Communitahg nodes e lomne cheo
Ahaug h AeMeHalLy heppendha
ban duieth meaia imea
grealE
hom h a Lommumi(ahna Modes. tansh
ime bu
 PAGE NO
Rajshre
5
DATE

Slow Andeepansiye, The whole apicity o_dhelink

n o t being utilinecl An hi_Lae 4h ink an
bu fwther xpkaitecl y Demdita evgual Signals
Combinedinle Cme thu
Ccmbining Sfgals ine
Cne (allcel muliplexing.
Fequency OMsjon ultiple>xing (FDM)
This is Possible the e wHe ransmlaicn meclia-
has a bomdwidh han he Hequired banduidth
Sienas o be ransimited. A numb o ignalsotambe
HYansmited d the Same ime Each Solnce s allotel
arequancy4ap
Sgnals t
giNen behoten w o adjesrent
ANd OXeHtapping u s tupe of
mulhpleri Commony een uh he Ceble Tv
Ktuaks
FDM Muutplexip1 Proe&S
todylaed Signa
T Amelide
Modülahg
tuth cayouett
siands Combined

oduahd Sihat
Am Pltude
Aodaul ehigp
wH Caue

&.me Qivision MulHplexna

This passiblewhen data onsmission Yate o
Ane media muth. higho am hat c he dalo
Nade t h e Sauce dulKeesianals Cam be transmi
hed i each Signal o be tran Smute
 Raishree
PAGE NO
DATE

deinte Umoum_o me.

3Synchxonaus TDM3=
ime Sots aHe preáissingned Cmd ae fix ew.
Eauh anCe ú given ids time Slat af eYey
Hun clue t Thi LMM may be nLe pon
if tt d l6o this slats 8iYem
eYen ifthe SourCe is not HPadywithdhh
Sothú& slor ansHansmHed emety
Syhchron us TDM MuHPlezing Procery

AAAA
FirumeyFrame 3frane 2 Framef
M A DITA D 3A DCBA
U

.Asynchro nos TDM

th method Slds ane nt fizee They o
allatec dynamicallydlependilg m &peeelr Soura
amd whethet h He Headl or hromsmisgin
 PAGE NO
Roishre
DATE
SymthEOTCL TOM:
MuHPTzing Proces
AAAA

Frome y Frome 3 Frome2- FYume |

AL DAD ADCOA

5why we neecl o the packef swithing gIplain_

ANUTKiNg packe Switthing amcl also metod
packe 3wichicng 9
Pachet Sulching entails Puekanging dlata in
speialy fumateel unils hcd ase tupicy
Stutesl hoLum uce o cleshinaien Ung
netork Switches and uiauteud. Lach papket
ContainsQddne inDImahcn h identihieug
h Semding. Cnmpute amc intended Aeipend.
Usin these acldresbe network Suitchesand iaded.
olefcxmine how bext anssen he pachet
beheen tups n the Path to cleshinatien.
Pucket Suitching4 A he atexnahiye to ciYuuit
Suhching protocos e histoyi cally for telepre
netuous Ahd Someimes wh TDN Conne-ioma-
 DATE

swithing,pachet swidthia
packet: swidthis
cirut Swithmng ,
Lompaned

pffers h e fullowing oVeiall,_pathet

ewitth
effcientuse a inutouha
flexibilty
More due tn
netwrkbanduiclHh_

oue
shanec Links Racket
Ahe S m e l l e x
packet cheape tobuil
ane aften
SwiBching nehzorks
neded Aiven_his abilHy
Jessequipment
0s
Ha shate
eceia mesAge due-too
mge dela in CUmd utcaute_
Ahe Äme H0qiec opackage
packes.fbr many appliccahiens,
ackages AMagh o be
delays ma
atah PetiomaneQpphcoieM
siamificamd hu for
Loldiicna data
ike ieal-imeyideo
etechnolagy Cffen
Cnpression Amd aDs
Cuchieve he leqiyec per-
omance lewels

fatential to nenak Decui uiska due to

14he shaHeelphasital imks Pubtok
amd okhen Helated elemenis on Paket
Swihing4 netuorks_ muAt designed toth the
apprupiate pLéCAi.crs..

ing SianalA emt Gven lKH-

chant whes Sn aho A 20 cl8.
whod he muximu mdclieable clala pne-
 Rajshre
PAOE NO
DATE

a LaplaumFON Cme DM nde uhich bHCLOmSthacs

a hey Lwes hat are Qcharlags ib
fnyTn HelecommunicaBicns, hequomC sadxartag
didain
multplescing LEDM) a, echniquu y hich
banousith aNailablk um Lommumica
meoliiu alnncleal onen
oveulappug Trequamcy bamly ch ushich
seel o CaUAHLy
Thú allnos
0epcouall ignal-
na ammikiem medun
LSuch a o microuave Masliolink Cabular
phita iben to be shauel by MmLlhpl Udepem
dent Siznak fanothen 243e so Co
Sepnae Segmen o Lo
háhen Hale
Anal uhn aerlled

The nnt Common erample _at YeqyeML4

oliisiem muliplecing Haelto amd teleisken
brbodcashing-
atolifeuemm
in whth muliple taclio Gignals_
Yequemlies pas hamgh sthean
a Jhe Scume ime, Amothe 2Dcamfle
Cable eledsion n Lshich manyHeleisienn
channels CAHe CoLLie imuldrMeML n a
Single lable a l k 0 seel by telephere
Saem ramsmit mulhple telephane Calls
high unkliny enmumuahkea
Sate lihes ransmiE
muliple_elephone Calu
Chonnels clata
1plink Cmc clonsrlik
Hadio beams- broaolbanel D92 meodes
ranAmL langeOmounlE_f Comuderclata
hetough Yelepapnme ume
ommg man Otho 2U3es
 Rojshree
PAE NO O
DATE

adrarkyea g

Nct only cloes FDN's Melahively hick layen

heigh meon that itt Not jdeal fer
Panu Lwth &mal delalt hud
als meams hat fAinished Products_A
hely hOve Agh hurface Cond eqLuÚre
Po pyoceasing Dchieve a amoathe
ush.

lot ofohenhen CLrellhic cm

prgori2ahien nd J ranqe planning
nuthes duwnid esD is hat hu
ehoreehoren aemiy Them EDM_

wAplain and Compaie 1DM_ancA STOM9_

ryS79OM is more elticient-than sandarel TDM.
In ancland TDM time Slots AHe_allot
channels eYen when hexeis no_gata
rasmit This leadsta wastedbandtith
TDA WOS Orginally developed do acldyey
m ineitiency hete he me alb(ab
b lines hapaens Cmy hemit s Atuay
equlred This is Ottaineo hrouginte ligen
deynces ha idea foridenH fyin
O dle
Aeminal
STOr is SOme C
at 1DM with the erte phien
ty isra is CAighee a alot
 Rajshree
PAGENO
DATE

base On priority arc clemand this

inclica e S that STDM is_an' nelemano
EYVise OPPasec to ahixed Cne
Stardard TDA Onc auins Hhe clsLcuit
SuHching Ceecute at he Physial
layer in he OSL ond Tcp/1P madel,
while STD eZecud at the dala link,
laye anc abae
enanoos o1 Stahishical ime dinton mulipleaing
Qe
The APEL dranseort Sheam e l fer digilal y tan
missicn S70Mis Lsed t PeHmit multiple doda,_
Qudio ancl Streamsof ditteron olata
ates tobe broadcasted aass a bansluith
imited channel
The Tcp and DP protccks,, in which dat rean
f em Yariau cupplicahan ProCEMes 01e
mulhpleXEd cgether
h e yame lay packeSuitching anX.125
Protncals in Lihich thpocket have clef1ETen
lenath
h e 4SYnchrons 1ranste rMade Pahet-SUitzhecl
Protbca n whirh_he Pachet maurin a finte
enah
 OATE

u s uthat a haor majo uliploing technj'gue

Any utiple>ing S
uliglexing he sharing o CL
medium oy bandwHh i he proLes in
n
which mudtipleS$gnals COming rom mulipk
ASoun(es e Combin.ed and rans miHed bYe
a Single Cammunicahion physical ine.

MU link nchannels

hree
maior Mulkplexingtechmique31
Erequens Dixisionm duliplexing LEDN)_
zime Diisiom,_ Muliplexing (TDM)
KlaYelength_ Diisiom MulipLEX ing WDM)
A equenu DixisionMulhplexing
frequen- Divison daliplexina is define as a duped
multiplexinq wherethe bandiaidth b a sina)e phgi
edium s diided Into
ndepend ent a_number Smller
irequencychanela
IMV channet
Line Sl Channel DEMUN Oltpu
haAnelS
Line
1equeny
in adio divisionduliplexina
ond *elevision
ts ed
mssnni ilem.
unssrmniailom
 Rajshree
3
DATE

Tn FDM, We can obseve a lot of inher

channe (xasS.falk, alue do he tact thal: in
Ahis Hype ul he band width js dlinde
itd requeny
mulipleing
ehannels In ordey tu prevenf
he itler Channel crass talk, unused Ships o
bahdwidth must be plaued behween each
chamnel. hese unuedStmps behween each
AChanne ULe knyum CLA quatal bamds.

Channel Ghannelz Channelrn

Onuard andh

- tTme Qivision phulHplexcing9

ime Division plulliplexing is olehined asa ype o Nutilexi
Uhete in FprM imste.ad dshunng L Poisn_or he
anclwidth_ mthefom d chanelsin r t Timeis
shed.Each Connection OcCuies a Pouhbh ot dme n
he nk
n me DivisiunuiPlxing -
all Sigmals alerate wth_
he ame requêncy adiffenen, mey
 3 3 2 1L DEMDA
Lires

oxelenath iysion Nulkiplexing2=

axelenadh isionNulHplexing is ued cn iben
inreae he
aingle
analo4 mul plering technique.
Apital ianals
Lembined
he help band of lig
emd he
mlhplexensA
demulhiplexon_ Sepmaade) he HeCeiin
ho gnals
ansmit hem n hair Hexpechve deintn

da ya meam bg P andd DPc.

a uhat in_he Samaply Hole d PM it
eau enu 6ana n tam Lo.oo H2 o um H2
wh in_ he requem Moduloion kupe
impleBide_ mndaron

Analug sienol .
A i akind waYe Aat han
Or me Amloa ana move ika
 PAGE NO
Rajshree
OATE

WOves m his
typeo Signal the Sendig devie
Convertdata ito wcnye and load haSL _uwave
em the meclia The receiring clevice pick up
HHhose waye rom he meclia and canved
me m into the cdata.

bDigital Signali
Fisnun Conh nau)discreke ine sizna. g
Casveies intoxmahon _o da in the _bnay m
94 also represent theclatain he fom: pfi bib.
These Signals Can be decompsed into Sîn_
waYes
This Sig Singal COmbealefined by bid interva
Well_aS bite rae

ues whatdo yos mean bs_PCN and DPaA.

An Ause (ode Modulahion (P(M):
PCN s the -fechnique ued yemodeling analo
Sianal into diailal Signal pulse code pdulahen_
ha 400c i4nal to noiáe Hano for ronsmiw
Channe Dulse Code Moclulalahion neecs high
bancluidh reum DPCM
is split unb 3Compmeni , ínitia
lhe pcN method
hranssmia at the Supply finih,
is had hO runsminon_Path
yeJeneNahen a he
SÉRCnd
he 1Pceiving fmish.
amd also
heseskps ansiting end
Opexohion perumed ct SaurCe
 PAGE NO
Rajshrece
DATE

Source O
CamH'naustime low pass fihe mple OaThzeEncods
Yessage STgna

sequege ¢hanh
6utput
OPerohonertomed a he imeoletegenexaiem
along he fronsmissi on paBh-
PCN claka TYansm teY ReJenerahvet TTanSmitte
Shaped fy ine RepeakeY
egemk
ine Kepeaty
TRansmitte
Channel
CutPut
Opexaia pexfomea o Receiring end
channel Kesenexahom DEoden
(enct Recomshrtcho hots
De
Ailter

Dittenenhia Pulae Lde rlodulain

DecM is Same athePC
0Pcr
Hechniques useek to
hemadeli.ng- Signal indo cltyihal giaal.
OPCN has Madenate Siana t noie raio.
DPer dhters a eSult i t
quarh2 +he citichon O the Pahuula1
Sample amc epectocl pile. hat's he e
planah Iefieuer clifferental t
at DLcrN unmiHhen an DICM
CLHE ANen bebu thvo ugh fiautE
 Rajshre
PAGE NO
CATE

Sampleinpd Companabyr aummer Enocdn DPeM

Jatu
Sequene

Cmpaw
Predlchowm
Hkea
DPctransmitter

OPCM uantzer Compaatoy

Sequence Hessa
Signa
= Predichon

DPCM Recievdx

uewhatsthe Sampling tHahe Y_PM if

equeny e L0DH2 Uo0o u2
nPcM ncodinj the re4uencY_Yanse fuen
Solve High ass Discrehe level11D
u2 Le passz: UD H2.
Bandwidth LoL uigh=U%-Gto
SD H2 ifan-

why in the equeny_Muchulakcn s supeucr

impetzde maclulahi n
AsIn adio Hronsmissien an_ccanterg o freque
madulahem is that At Hngle-tod-
sMahioCUmd houcore ject agio-
heaLOMe- inteueiemco bekexthan am equal
 Roishrece
PAOE HO
DATE

POWeH Cmpltude modulahon (AM) Siqna F

is_reason nost music is Tadiast is vex
EM
HoweY undex_ Seeueeuy h mulh path
Condihioma pentamuy much moe poofal
than AM with distnic igh equeny nbi
ati fac t h a t CIHe audible Lih loueH yolu
and less Complex ones dh high emmnah
Noluns ond COieu deiahom uplio elistoa
Stawts ha O-theawie Would'nt
preseynd withourt nulhipah UT iHh Om_An
Sianal.
modulahan Cndlhae-madulat
he Cemplememduw inipal_
mehods amal modulahon phase
Mccdulahigm is oftem aminhey-
medicd hep n Achieve
equemcy moduao
methels comhrast_with eLmplitude
oclahior_ in wie hich he CAmplhhude
ot he CAHHIeA_ yOuis shile he
YequeMLu pras rémalm Lonstunl

u deine Bamduidth 0thvatz amd channe (apau

Tnditates heSpeesl c data
Am micn sctual Laala mE Hahe
Tade Yalue dosi ham_badwidlh
 Rajshree
PAGENO
DATE

Band width
Tndicates the numbeY T bitspen seconcd d
ehemmel OY netJork Cam tangmt or LACLÍVe
Maximum alata ranaro Yate_posiblelauncuidh
9reaherthan OY qLLal bit yate
Landwiclth hh rade
chamel -
cheunnelopuaity a maimum imbmahon rrto
h a o channa CAm ranmi t Á meaJAecl
nDits e Aecmd (hrs). chomeCopacityÚd
Ughsalue meusuing akes indn aLraud
Lhde AmnM_ O dat
hamsheuee hut eves Lemumt
CCmmunicaion quality

dusIfh e itrahe o ana ( te Lems.

s aD bit ls. o many bit can be Semtin
Secon.d(Us) gnd Lo_ms
 Raishrec
PAGE NO
DATE

CueH heCommechon u mecdeunu estabitdel

CAmd terminaBeclLAing s w ulel ske
handhaemecdamum Dobcubt i Selons 9
nuThis Cald akso seen ab a w0 hou
TP Connechon_ is estublishecd Getur getir
he cdeicils let o k at Jome
baLsics TP gtands fpY Tanim'aien
Conho robcol nich indi.cotez nat tdo
Samchinmg a lanroltne ransmiSsLon_ a
Hhe olata
in_a Meliabe
He Process of Communicahm behw ee ceMi
ove the internet
hupfen _aCOxclap
he CuHMend TpTP Suihe mode he apPhc
ap il o A SBach of TC)f
madelstaom
ke hHenltuork_HeeH enced appliCahh
wh&howsels n he lient &ide
eskablish onnechon uith
he pplicahun ePY he he Servet. hTen
ansherred intomahenis
the htuspurt
lae uhee c
omA noHhe pichus .The
wD
impurtantpruutolohis
DP CUser_ DcdagramPyofDcol\ lyeA a-T
s pYO Nal ent u o whid
On pPicahon HloweNer ou
y Ou Lan Srd
ptUDP n QuHuing can he D
Ahe bincy
Domain NOAMMO
e Pquivalen or he
Or tho ebiBe.
TCP SIN
Client TCP
Cient larsb SYACK Serve

ACK Setyeyfw
 Rajshrea
PACSE NO
DAIE

TP Povides
Heliable Commuicaion Lwidh
Calleal Pasitive Auwleogement_usilh Ke- omelhip9
trm mittion.
cPAR). The rotcolplata Lmit CPDID f he
trunafort
ayesCalleol
Yesenc he olala
asegment. Now a oleve 2ip, PAR
LUmit umtil ieceies am
OckroulelaemetIf_tho_clala
teceiver¥s
umit s1eCeived al Jhe
emal is lemqgealtho Heceivet olisands
he Segment _So dho encle Hou to He3 he umi
oYuhich pasilive acknowledgmentis nat eceivedGa Can
ealize romthe above meachism mC hanim that
Hiexee Segment_aHeexchange beoeen Semden Cund
Heei HOCeiVeI OY 0 eliable TP Comnecdn
Hogeteastebliahee let us_olelve into ho he
mecnoni&m WOrkS

HasT PP
ttost
Send SYN ¥eLeive
C segx9+ (seq_)
Aelceive S y 9end sYN
Cse Ack =aAl)
Yeceive Ack
Sena ALk Ca )
Ca ck- y+l)

aplain e model in detail.s9

TP modelg
aenerall 1 is descibeck ing hnee
 Rasorce

Ho ive uncional la To desCobe IP d

chaien 4he CumunDoD 1freng
model ialao known ilup.trate h
wnkth
entefrenemodel.g he Irdemet yeteYenLe
yeferencp Tuda
4
applicohion layer lanus.
af applications ond prucessas tha
etheneuvoh
Host to Hot tanspurt laye
Povide end-to end data
delivex Servites
2
anterhehwrk. layer defines the
clalagam and handles the rtuhing
at oleaa

Netuwok access layer

for aCCessing Coni Iunnes
Physical nehwork.
IP sbased on a fo
eAlL Protocols hat helun JouersAeeLence
to he 1P
mode
Mode
Cule located in the Prutut
his mode hsee lDH)
A Shownin he following
laye ofhe IP mude) lusraion, ea
more 2oryespords TE
tconechem (osa ) tefer en pen
by he Anternathona mude pro po
standard) raanlzuin
 Ral hre

ICP/If mode A

TCP/1P rotocol suiBe

APPlicahion
loyer
Telnet FTP SN7P DNs

Transpot TCP VOP MP

ta yer

Tnteme T TPSEC
Tayey

Network Etherne Token RirgiFrame ATM

Kelay
Iterface
layer

ueDesoaribe uDp, Diference blw uDP& TCP.9

TCP UDP
i astarods onransmissiona slads on we alatagram
Control protocol. protocol

(i) s Heliable prchco)Tis am unyeti oble protncol

j) is Connechen ornerhed.}is (annechonlel

iV)1Send mesag.e in_ TA send messagL m unordend

Seauene.
Ord eued sequence.

Jbh wdaht_prutocol.
WTis heayy weight Proctxd
TiDodaram,. omepacke
vsheaming olala b_lead|
a a s t ream" with Pe one Yead (all._
nctting disinguishi ng hee
 Rajskree
PENO

me pcke enmds omd

maher beains hee mm
he muhple packes peY

ii More OVe¥head. sSOVerheld.

ialawEY hTuahput Fasterhaaug hpt o has
misic
aug protcel ack Usetu r_upplicahion h
le neec o tag met daz
pplicai sry _prmesls
ih ug TCP Appliccbony_ar pmhie's
that SE LDP
Pelme -SNM
FIf
TFTP
SHIP
HIP NES
-ON