Chapter 2

Non-linear Electric Circuits

1
References

[1]. PT Cư, LM Cường, TTT Mỹ, Mạch điện II, 7th ed, ĐHQG Tp. HCM, 2016

[2]. Dương Hoài Nghĩa, Mạch điện, Trường Đại học Quốc tế Miền Đông, 2018

[3]. Leon O. Chua, Charles A. Desoer, Ernest S. Kuh, Linear and Nonlinear Circuits,
1st ed, McGraw-Hill College, 1987

[4]. Adel S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 7th ed, Oxford
University Press, 2014

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Chapter Outline

1. Non-linear Elements

2. Analysis of non-linear circuits

3
1. Non – linear elements

4
 1.1 Non – linear resistor

֍ Linear resistor

• 𝑢𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑖𝑅 (𝑡)
𝑢𝑅
• 𝑢𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) is a linear function

𝑖𝑅
𝑖𝑅 𝑅

+ 𝑢𝑅 −

5
 1.1 Non – linear resistor

֍ Non – linear resistor

• 𝑢𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) is not a linear function

𝑢𝑅

𝑅 𝑖𝑅
𝑖𝑅

+ −
𝑢𝑅

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 1.1 Non – linear resistor

֍ Diode

𝑢
𝑢 𝑢

𝑢<0⇒𝑖=0 𝑖>0⇒𝑢=0

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 1.1 Non – linear resistor

֍ Diode Zener
Reverse
Breakdown
bias

−𝑉𝑍
𝑢
+ 𝑢 −

𝑢
0 𝑉𝑍
+ 𝑢 −
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1.2 Non – linear inductor

• 𝜓 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑖𝐿 (𝑡) is not a linear function 𝜓

𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝜓 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑖𝐿
• 𝑢𝐿 = = . = 𝐿 𝑖𝐿 𝑖𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝐿 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐿(𝑖𝐿 )
𝑖𝐿

+ 𝑢𝐿 −

9
1.3 Non – linear capacitor

• 𝑞 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑢𝐶 (𝑡) is not a linear function 𝑞

𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑢𝐶 𝑑𝑢𝐶
• 𝑖𝐶 = = . = 𝐶 𝑢𝐶 𝑢𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑢𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐶(𝑢𝐶 )
𝑖𝐶

+ 𝑢𝐶 −

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2. Analysis of non – linear circuits

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2.1 Kirchhoff’s Laws

֍ Kirchhoff 1: ෍ ±𝑖𝑘 𝑡 = 0
𝑘

֍ Kirchhoff 2: ෍ ±𝑢𝑘 𝑡 = 0
𝑘

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2.2 Graphic Method

֍ This method is to find operating points which are solutions of

a circuit with DC input

֍ Operating points are the intersection points of the load line and
the VA characteristic of the non – linear element

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2.2 Graphic Method

֍ Series non – linear resistors

𝑢 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2

֍ The equivalent VA characteristic is the

sum of compositional ones with respect to
voltage

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2.2 Graphic Method

֍ Parallel non – linear resistors

𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2

֍ The equivalent VA characteristic is the

sum of compositional ones with respect to
current

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2.2 Graphic Method

Example 1: 𝐸 = 12V, 𝑅 = 1 kΩ, 𝑉𝑍 = 6V. Find 𝑢, 𝑖

𝑅
𝑖
֍ Kirchhoff 2 → Load line +
𝐸 𝑢
−𝐸 + 𝑅𝑖 + 𝑢 = 0 −

⇒ 𝑖(𝑚𝐴) + 𝑢(𝑉) = 12

֍ Intersection point: 𝑄(6,6) VA

𝑢 =6V load line

𝑖 = 6 mA
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2.2 Graphic Method

Example 2: 𝐸 = 18V, 𝑅 = 2 kΩ, 𝑉𝑍1 = 12V, 𝑉𝑍2 = 6V. 𝑅

Find 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑖 𝑖
+ +
֍ Add 2 VA characteristic (w.r.t 𝑢)
𝑢1
𝑖 > 0: 𝑢1 = 0, 𝑢2 = 6 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 6 −
𝐸 𝑢
+
𝑖 < 0: 𝑢1 = −12, 𝑢2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑢 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = −12 𝑢2
− −
𝑖 = 0: −12 < 𝑢1 < 0, 0 < 𝑢2 < 6 ⇒ −12 < 𝑢 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢2 < 6

+ =
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2.2 Graphic Method

Example 2: 𝐸 = 18V, 𝑅 = 2 kΩ, 𝑉𝑍1 = 12V, 𝑉𝑍2 = 6V. 𝑅

Find 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑖 𝑖
+
֍ Kirchhoff 2 → Load line
𝐸 𝑢
𝑢(𝑉) + 2𝑖(𝑚𝐴) = 18 −

֍ Intersection point: 𝑄(6, 6)

𝑖 = 6 mA, 𝑢 = 6 V 𝑄

So 𝑢1 = 0 V and 𝑢2 = 6 V
(look at VA characteristic of
each Zener diode)
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2.2 Graphic Method

Example 3: 𝐸 = 20V, 𝑅1 = 1 kΩ, 𝑅2 = 0.5kΩ, 𝑉𝑍 = 6V.

𝑅1 𝑖
Find 𝑢, 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 𝑖2
֍ Add 2 VA characteristic (w.r.t 𝑖) 𝑖1
+
𝐸
𝑢 = 0: 𝑖1 < 0, 𝑖2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑖1 < 0 𝑅2 𝑢

0 < 𝑢 < 6: 𝑖1 = 0, 𝑖2 = 2𝑢 ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑖2 = 2𝑢 −
𝑢 > 6: 𝑖1 > 0, 𝑖2 = 12 ⇒ 𝑖 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 > 12

+ =
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2.2 Graphic Method

Example 3: 𝐸 = 20V, 𝑅1 = 1 kΩ, 𝑅2 = 0.5kΩ, 𝑉𝑍 = 6V. 𝑅1

Find 𝑢, 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 𝑖
+
֍ Kirchhoff 2 → Load line
𝐸 𝑢
𝑢(𝑉) + 𝑖(𝑚𝐴) = 20 −

֍ Intersection point: 𝑄(6, 14)

𝑖 = 14 mA, 𝑢 = 6 V 𝑄

So 𝑖2 = 12 mA (look at VA
characteristic of 𝑅2 ) and 𝑖1 = 2 mA

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2.3 Linearization at the operating point

֍ Consider the circuit with only DC input to find the operating point

֍ Linearization: apply the 1st – order Taylor expansion for the function
𝑢 = 𝑓(𝑖) or 𝑖 = 𝑔(𝑢) at the operating point 𝑖 = 𝐼0 , 𝑢 = 𝑈0

𝑢 ≈ 𝑓 𝐼0 + 𝑓′ 𝐼0 (𝑖 − 𝐼0 )

𝑖 ≈ 𝑔 𝑈0 + 𝑔′ 𝑈0 (𝑢 − 𝑈0 )

֍ Find the approximate 𝑢 and 𝑖

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2.3 Linearization at the operating point

Example: 𝑒 = 250 + sin(25𝑡) V, 𝑅 = 15 Ω, 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑖 = 0.1𝑖 3 . Find 𝑢, 𝑖

𝑅
֍ Find the operating point
𝑖
+
Kirchhoff 2: 15𝑖 + 𝑢 = 𝑒 (1)
𝑒 𝑢
−
Consider 𝑒𝐷𝐶 = 𝐸0 = 250 V

15𝐼0 + 0.1𝐼03 = 250

⇒ 𝐼0 = 10 A

⇒ 𝑈0 = 100 V
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2.3 Linearization at the operating point

Example: 𝑒 = 250 + sin(25𝑡) V, 𝑅 = 15 Ω, 𝑢 = 𝑓 𝑖 = 0.1𝑖 3 . Find 𝑢, 𝑖

𝑅
֍ Linearization
𝑖
𝑢 ≈ 𝑓 𝐼0 + 𝑓 ′ 𝐼0 (𝑖 − 𝐼0 ) = 𝑈0 + 0.3𝐼02 (𝑖 − 𝐼0 ) +
𝑒 𝑢
= 100 + 30 𝑖 − 10 = 30𝑖 − 200 −

֍ Find the approximate 𝑢 and 𝑖

From (1): 15i + 30i − 200 ≈ 250 + sin(25𝑡)

1 2
⇒ 𝑖 ≈ 10 + sin(25𝑡) ⇒ 𝑢 ≈ 30𝑖 − 200 = 100 + sin(25𝑡)
45 3
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2.4 Piecewise – linearization method

2𝜋
֍ Find the solution in only 1 period 𝑇 =
𝜔

֍ Find unknown pieces of 𝑖(𝑡) and 𝑢(𝑡) of the non – linear element
based on its VA characteristic and the load line.

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2.4 Piecewise – linearization method

֍ Notes:

• sin 𝑥 > 𝑎 ⇔ arcsin 𝑎 + 𝑘2𝜋 < 𝑥 < 𝜋 − arcsin 𝑎 + 𝑘2𝜋

• sin 𝑥 < 𝑎 ⇔ −𝜋 − arcsin 𝑎 + 𝑘2𝜋 < 𝑥 < arcsin 𝑎 + 𝑘2𝜋

• cos 𝑥 > 𝑎 ⇔ − arccos 𝑎 + 𝑘2𝜋 < 𝑥 < arccos 𝑎 + 𝑘2𝜋

• cos 𝑥 < 𝑎 ⇔ arccos 𝑎 + 𝑘2𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋 − arccos 𝑎 + 𝑘2𝜋

𝜋 𝜋
with arcsin 𝑎 ∈ − ; , arccos 𝑎 ∈ 0, 𝜋
2 2
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2.4 Piecewise – linearization method

Example: 𝑒 = 12sin(𝜋𝑡/6) V, 𝑉𝑍1 = 6 V, 𝑉𝑍2 = 6 V, 𝑅 = 2 kΩ. Find 𝑢, 𝑖

𝑅
֍ Add 2 VA characteristic (w.r.t 𝑢)
𝑖
𝑖 > 0: 𝑢 = 6 + +
𝑢1
𝑖 < 0: 𝑢 = −6 −
𝐸 + 𝑢
𝑖 = 0: −6 < 𝑢 < 6 𝑢2
− −
֍ Kirchhoff 2 → Load line

𝑢(𝑉) + 2𝑖(𝑚𝐴) = 12sin(𝜋𝑡/6)

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2.4 Piecewise – linearization method

Example: 𝑒 = 12sin(𝜋𝑡/6) V, 𝑉𝑍1 = 6 V, 𝑉𝑍2 = 6 V, 𝑅 = 2 kΩ. Find 𝑢, 𝑖

2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑅
֍ Find unknown pieces: 𝑇 = = = 12𝑠
𝜔 𝜋/6 𝑖
• 𝑖 > 0: 𝑢 = 6 V
+
𝑖 = −3 + 6 sin 𝜋𝑡/6 > 0 ⇒ 1 < 𝑡 < 5 𝑢
−
• 𝑖 < 0: 𝑢 = −6 V

𝑖 = 3 + 6 sin 𝜋𝑡/6 < 0 ⇒ 7 < 𝑡 < 11

• 𝑖 = 0: −6 < 𝑢 < 6
0<𝑡<1
−6 < 𝑢 = 12 sin 𝜋𝑡/6 < 6 ⇒ ቎ 5 < 𝑡 < 7
11 < 𝑡 < 12 27
2.4 Piecewise – linearization method

Example: 𝑒 = 12sin(𝜋𝑡/6) V, 𝑉𝑍1 = 6 V, 𝑉𝑍2 = 6 V, 𝑅 = 2 kΩ. Find 𝑢, 𝑖

֍ In summary

6 𝑡 ∈ 1; 5
𝑢= ൞ −6 𝑡 ∈ 7; 11
12sin(𝜋𝑡/6) 𝑡 ∈ 0; 1 ∪ 5; 7 ∪ 11; 12

−3 + 6sin(𝜋𝑡/6) 𝑡 ∈ 1; 5
𝑖 = ൞ 3 + 6sin(𝜋𝑡/6) 𝑡 ∈ 7; 11
0 𝑡 ∈ 0; 1 ∪ 5; 7 ∪ 11; 12

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 2.5 Exercises

֍ Graphic method

• 𝐸 = 18V, 𝑅1 = 1kΩ, 𝑅2 = 0.5𝑘Ω, 𝑉𝑍1 = 12V, 𝑉𝑍2 = 6V

Find 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑖1 , 𝑖2 𝑖 𝑅1
𝑖1 𝑖2
+
+
𝑢1
− 𝑅2 𝑢
𝐸
+
𝑢2
− −
𝑢 = 6 V, 𝑖 = 12 mA
𝑢1 = 0 V, 𝑢2 = 6 V, 𝑖1 = 0 mA, 𝑖2 = 12 mA 29
 2.5 Exercises

֍ Linearization at the operating point

• 𝑒 = 30 + sin(6𝑡) V, 𝑅 = 16 Ω, 𝑖 = 𝑓 𝑢 = 𝑢3 /144. Find 𝑢, 𝑖

𝑅
𝑖
1 +
𝑢 ≈ 6 + sin 6𝑡 𝑉 𝑒 𝑢
13
−
3
𝑖 ≈ 1.5 + sin 6𝑡 𝐴
52

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 2.5 Exercises

֍ Piecewise – linearization method

• 𝑒 = 10 sin 𝜋𝑡/4 , 𝑅 = 1 𝑘Ω, 𝑉𝑍 = 5 𝑉. Find 𝑢 and 𝑖

𝑅 𝑖

+
10 sin 𝜋𝑡/4 − 5 𝑡 ∈ (2/3; 10/3)
𝑖=ቊ
0 𝑡 ∈ (0; 2/3) ∪ (10/3; 8) 𝑢
𝑒

5 𝑡 ∈ (2/3; 10/3)
𝑢=ቊ −
10 sin 𝜋𝑡/4 𝑡 ∈ (0; 2/3) ∪ (10/3; 8)

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 2.5 Exercises

֍ Piecewise – linearization method

• 𝑒 = 18sin(𝜋𝑡/4) V, 𝑉𝑍1 = 12 V, 𝑉𝑍2 = 6 V, 𝑅 = 2 kΩ. Find 𝑢, 𝑖

𝑅
6 𝑡 ∈ 0.43; 3.57 𝑖
𝑢= ൞ −12 𝑡 ∈ 4.93; 7.07 + +
18sin(𝜋𝑡/4) 𝑡 ∈ 0; 0.43 ∪ 3.57; 4.93 ∪ 7.07; 8 𝑢1
−
𝐸 + 𝑢
−3 + 9sin(𝜋𝑡/4) 𝑡 ∈ 0.43; 3.57 𝑢2
− −
𝑖 = ൞ 6 + 9sin(𝜋𝑡/4) 𝑡 ∈ 4.93; 7.07
0 𝑡 ∈ 0; 0.43 ∪ 3.57; 4.93 ∪ 7.07; 8
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