Electrical Energy Systems Engineering, US-Pakistan Center for

Advance Studies in Energy, UET Peshawar

CAS-EESE-520 Power System Transformers (3-0)

Spring 2023

Instructor: Engr. Muhammad Aslam

Lecture No. 03 & 04

What would happen if a power transformer
designed for operation on 50Hz frequency were
connected to an 45 Hz frequency or 55Hz
source of the same voltage?
Transformer Rating & Parameters

V = Voltage = 11kV
R = Resistance = 100Ω
L = Inductance = 0.3 Henry
f = Frequency = 50Hz, 45Hz & 55Hz
As we know that
current by I = V/Z (Ohm’s Law i.e. I = V/R)
where the Z is the impedance.
To find the impedance first we have to find the XL,
XL=Inductive Reactance = 2πfL = 2 x 3.1415 x 50 x
0.3
XL= 94.2Ω
Now to find the
Impedance Z = √ (R2+XL2)
Z = √ (1002+94.2 2)
Z = 137.4 Ω
The current in the transformer primary
I = 11kV / 137.4 Ω
I = 80 A
Now, Power
P = V x I x Cos θ
Power factor = Cos θ = R/Z
Cos θ = 100 Ω / 137.4 Ω
Cos θ = 0.73
P = V x I x Cos θ
P = 11kV x 80A x 0.73
P = 642.4kW
The rated Power.
To find for 45 Hz
XL=?
Z=?
I=?
P=?
To find for 55 Hz
XL=?
Z=?
I=?
P=?
Conclusions
 Introduction to Instrument Transformers

CT and VTs are the sensors for the relay.

They function like ‘ears' and the ‘eyes' of the protection system. They listen to and
observe all happening in the external world.

Relay itself is the brain which processes these signals and issues decision commands
implemented by circuit breakers, alarms etc.
Clearly, quality of the relaying decision depends upon ‘faithful' reproduction on the
secondary side of the transformer

10
 Basic Protection Scheme Components
The isolation of faults and abnormalities requires the application of protective
equipment that senses when an abnormal current flow exists and then removes the affected
portion from the system. The primary protective equipment components are shown in the
following figure:

The two primary protective equipment components used in the isolation

of faults and abnormalities are circuit breakers, and protective relays.
 Elements of a Protection System
1

The function of transducers (usually CT and VT) is to provide current and voltage
signals to the relays, to detect deviations of the parameters watched over.

2.1

2 A D

2.2
2.4 P
F.A.
2.3
3

Relays are the logic elements which initiate the tripping

and closing operations

12
Elements of a Protection System
1 4

2 Circuit breakers
isolate the fault by
interrupting the
current.

Tripping power,
as 1 4
well as power
required by the
relays, is usually
provided by the
station battery
because is safer 2.1
than the ac
faulted 2 A D
system.
2.2
5 2.4 P
F.A.
2.3
3

13
Instrument Transformers
 Why we need Current Transformer

For measurement of high ac current, it is usual to use low range ac

ammeter with suitable shunt.
For measurement of high ac voltage, low range ac voltmeters are
used with high resistances connected in series.
For measurement of very high ac current and voltage, we cannot
use these methods. Instead, we use specially constructed HV
instrument transformers to insulate the high voltage circuit from
the measuring circuit in order to protect the measuring
instruments from burning.
Application of Instrumentation Transformers In dc circuits for
current and voltage measurement, we use low range dc
ammeters and voltmeters with rectifiers connected in their
secondary circuits.
The vast primary application of Instrument Transformers is for
the protection and control of power system and power
equipment of high and very high ratings.
The working of these instrument transformers are similar to
those of the ordinary transformers.
 Instrument Transformers
What is an Instrument Transformer ?:

It is a transformer that is used in conjunction with any measuring instrument (i.e.,

Ammeter, Voltmeter, Wattmeter, Watt-hour-meter, …etc.)or protective equipment
(i.e., Relays).

It utilizes the current-transformation and voltage transformation properties to measure

high ac current and voltage.
 Current Transformers

Construction of CT:

C.T. has a primary coil of one or more turns made of thick wire connected in series
with the line whose current is to be measured.
The secondary consists of a large number of turns made of fine wire and is connected
across an ammeter or a relay’s terminals.
Construction Types of Current Transformers

Window-type Bar-type
Types of instrument transformers :

These instrument transformers are of two types:-

1. Current transformers
2. Potential transformers
 .

Instrument Transformers
Conventional:
Current and voltage transformers are responsible for scaling primary system
signals.
Typical nominal secondary values are 5 A and 1 A for current transformers and
110 V for voltage transformers. Conventional magnetic current and voltage
transformers are still in wide use in power systems. For voltage levels greater
than 230 kV, we substitute capacitive-coupled voltage transformers (CCVT) for
VTs.

New trends in current and voltage transducers are low- power-output current and
voltage transformers (recently included in an IEC Standard) and magneto-optic
current and voltage transducers (MOCT and MOVT). MOCTs use the Faraday
Effect, and MOVTs can use either the Faraday or the Pockels effect.
 Principles of Current Transformers

The initial problem was how to connect a low-voltage device to the high-voltage system
and have the ability to handle large fault currents (kilo-Amps). How can we make the
relay measure the currents flowing in the high-voltage system in order to detect these
faults?
The main parts of a current transformer are:
• Iron core
• Secondary winding
• Primary conductor
• External insulation
Some current transformers do not have a primary conductor. In those cases the primary
is the line or bus itself. Sometimes the core and its secondary winding are directly installed in
the bushing of the circuit breakers or transformers. These CTs are called “bushing CTs”.
Some current transformers may have a primary that consists of several turns. Typically
there are no more turns than the natural, which is equivalent to say that the primary number
of turns is 1.
The total load connected to the CT terminal (g and h in this case) is called “burden”. Ideally,
the secondary current of a CT is perfectly proportional to the primary current. It will be shown
later that in reality this is sometimes not true.
 Current Transformers

Theory of current transformer :

When the current passes through the primary coil, a magnetic field is generated in the iron
core that produces an electromagnetic force that determines the current value in the
secondary coil, where it converts the current passing through the primary end to a current
proportional to it on the secondary end.
Core and Secondary Winding Example

High-Voltage CT Example
 For example, In a current transformer has conversion rate of 100/1 current, a current of 100
ampere is passed in the primary coil and The current on the secondary coil is 1 ampere.
Also when the 80 ampere current passes through the primary coil of a 100/5 CT , the
current value on the secondary coil is 80 * 5 / 100 = 4 ampere.
Construction of the DOUGHNUT Type C.T. :
The most common type of C.T. construction is the “DOUGHNUT” type. It
is constructed of an iron toroid, which forms the core of the transformer,
and is wound with many secondary turns.

Secondary Winding Primary Conductor

Iron Core
The `doughnut' fits over the primary conductor, which constitutes one primary turn.
If the toroid is wound with 240 secondary turns, then the ratio of the C.T. is 240 : 1
or 1200 : 5A

This type of `doughnut' C.T. is most commonly used in circuit breakers and power
transformers. The C.T. fits into the bushing, and the porcelain bushing fits through
the centre of the `doughnut'.

Up to four C.T.'s of this type can be installed around each bushing of an oil circuit
breaker. This arrangement is shown in a following diagram.
Substation Class Circuit Breakers' CTs

Polyester Taped Bushing CT on

Outdoor Circuit Breaker
CT Actual Connections

Typical window CT
Power Transformers’ CT Connections
Slip over current transformer for installation over
exterior of outdoor bushing

Outdoor Type BO7 for Retrofit

Generators CT Connections

Board Mounted Generator CT

Types of current transformers
Outdoor current transformers:
It is used in high voltage and is installed outdoors in the air and is widely used in distribution
substations.

Indoor current transformers:

This type is internal inside the cell or distribution boards and takes different shapes suitable
for the place of installation and ways to connect the interior where there is a circular
current transformer or in the shape of a bar, rectangular and cylindrical shape.

circular rectangular cylindrical

Substation Class Circuit Breakers’ CT’s
Ground Shield

Outdoor BO7 - Replaces BCT’s

in shielded aluminum housing
The specifications of current transformers
1- Operating voltage.
2. Classification of the grade in terms of a measuring transformer or a protective
transformer.
3 - conversion rate of the current transformer.
The purpose of grounding the current transformer
The objective of any grounding operation is to protect against excess current or short circuit
currents where by grounding the current is leaked to the ground due to breakdown in
insulation.
Where one of the ends of the secondary of current transformers must be connected in star
connection to the ground due to protect the measuring and protection when breaking
down the isolation of the transformer and also avoid passing the high voltage from the
primary to the secondary side.
Conversion rate in current transformers
It represents the ratio between the number of coils of the secondary to the number of coils
of the primary and also equal the ratio between the value of the primary current to the
value of the secondary current.

Power of current transformers:

It is the power withdrawn from the connected load of the secondary coil and expressed in
volts ampere (VA) at the rated secondary current and equal 5 - 10 - 15 - 30 - 60 volts amp,
calculated from the following relationship:

VA represents the consumed apparent power

K = 0.44 in the case of secondary coil current of 5 ampere
K = 0.0176 in the case of secondary coil current of 1 ampere
S Area of the cable
L Length of the cable
 Calculation of Current Transformers on Cables and Transformers

Practical Example

The cable works on a 33 kV operating voltage, and carry a power of 25 MVA. What is the
current transformers required for this cable?
To calculate the highest current value in the cable
I = S / √3 * V
= 25 MVA / √3 * 33 KV = 438 A
A 500/5 transformer is selected and the conversion ratio is 100
The secondary current is in the case of normal load = 438/100 = 4.38 amps

In the case of two cables with a total capacity of 25 MVA, the current transformer value is
calculated according to the total capacity. If one of these cables fails, the current
transformer is installed at a value of 500/5 on each cable.
 Current Transformers
The Design parameter of Current Transformer (CT):
A current transformer is a transformer, which produces in its secondary winding low
current, which is proportional to the high current flowing in its primary winding.
The secondary current is usually much smaller in magnitude than the primary current.
The design of CT depends on which type of instrument is connected to its secondary
winding. Measuring instrument OR Protective instrument.
-Measuring instrument CT is expected to give accurate results up to a maximum of
125% of its normal full-load rated current.
-Protective instrument CT is expected to be accurate for up to 20 times of its
normal full-load rated current (about 2000% of its full-load rated current!!..??).
Based on the type of equipment for which the CT is used for, its saturation point will
vary. At the same time it is expected to be linear in the entire working range.
 Current Transformers

“Class” of a CT:
The extent to which the actual secondary current magnitude differs from the calculated
value, expected by the virtue of the CT ratio, is defined as the accuracy “Class” of the CT.
The greater the number used to define the class, the greater the permissible “current
error” [the deviation in the actual secondary current from the calculated value].
 CT Metering Accuracy

Since actual secondary current

= Rated secondary current

Then:

The difference in % is known as the

“Accuracy” or “Class”
of the CT
 Specifications of CT:

CTs should be specified as follow:

RATIO : Input / output current ratio
VA: Total burden (rating) including pilot wires.
Common burden ratings are 2.5, 5, 10, 15 and 30 VA. For
example:
Moving iron ammeter is 1-2 VA
Moving coil rectifier ammeter is 1-2.5 VA
Electro-dynamic instrument is 2.5-5 VA
Maximum demand ammeter is 3-6 VA
Recording ammeter or transducer is 1-2.5 VA
 CLASS : The accuracy required for the operation
DIMENSIONS: Maximum & minimum limits. For example:
0.1 or 0.2 for precision measurements.
0.5 for high grade kilowatt hour meters and commercial grade kilowatt hour meters.
3 for general industrial measurements.
3 or 5 for approximate measurements.
BURDEN (OHMIC): (Depending on pilot lead length)
 Connections of Current Transformers

Single-Ratio CT Multi-Ratio CT
Multi-ratio CT:
As indicated in the previous Figure, current transformers having a
center tapped secondary are referred to as a dual ratio CT.
Dual ratio CT are used in applications where it is necessary to have
available two ratios of primary to secondary current from the same
secondary winding of the CT.
This may be accomplished by adding a tap in the secondary winding to
get a second ratio.
The ratio obtained by the tap is usually one-half the ratio obtained by
the full secondary winding.
A schematic example is previously shown with 200 amperes flowing in
the primary, a connection X2 – X3 will produce 5 amperes out of the
secondary. As the load grows to 400 amperes, the secondary circuit
will be reconnected to X1 – X3 to still produce 5 amperes in the
secondary circuit.
Burden
Load connected to CT secondary
Includes devices & connecting leads
Expressed in ohms
Standard values = B0.1, B0.2, B0.5, B0.9, B1.8
E0.04, E0.2
CT accurate Burden Calculation

ZT = RCT + RL + ZB
ZT = Total burden in ohms (vector summation of
resistance and inductance components)
RCT = CT secondary resistance in ohms
RL = Resistance of leads in ohms (Total loop distance)
ZB = Device impedance in ohms
 Why CT secondary should never be open ?:

Ammeter resistance is very low ,the current transformer normally works as a short-circuited
instrument.
If for any reason the ammeter is taken out of secondary winding then the secondary winding
must be short-circuited with the help of a short-circuit switch.
If this is not done, then a high m.m.f. (Ampere-turns IT) will set up a high flux in the magnetic
core and it will produce excessive core loss which produce heat and high voltage across the
secondary terminals .
The high voltage can damage any electronic components in secondary side.
Hence the secondary of any current transformer should never be left open.
Note:
The secondary circuit of the current transformer should not be opened because it increases
the magnetic flux at the transformer's iron core. As a result, its temperature increases and
causes breakdown for the insulation of the coil and the voltage will also increase more.
Instrument Transformers

Polarity of Instrument Transformers

 Instrument Transformers

Common connections of instrument transformers

CT Turns-ratio (TR)
Transformer Ratio = Primary Current
_____________________
Secondary Current

Primary Current Secondary Current

(100 amps) (5 amps)

100 = 100:5 or 20:1

___
5
Polarity
Direction of
Secondary Current
Direction of
Primary Current
X1 IEEE Secondary
S1
IEC Polarity
Primary IEEE H1
Marks
Polarity
Marks IEC P1

Primary current into “polarity” forces

Secondary current out of “polarity”
CT Saturation
Factors Affecting Degree and Time to Saturation
1. High DC offset
2. High fault current Magnitude (symmetrical current)
Example:
•100 to 5 CT@20 times= 2000 amps.
•Also @20,000 amps we have 200 times CT

3. Low CT Turns Ratios

4. High secondary burden
5. Low CT Accuracy (Class)
6. High reminance flux
• Can occur if current interrupted when core is saturated
• If DC flows in windings during testing
• Need a voltage above 60% of knee point to reduce the Reminance to less than 10% of
saturation flux density.
Tips for Avoiding CT Saturation
1. Use higher ratio CTs
2. Use separate set of high ratio CTs for high fault current
tripping
3. Reduce secondary burden by:
-Selecting low burden relays & meters
-Distributing single phase burdens among phases
-Increasing the size of secondary leads
-Reducing the length of secondary leads
-Using “step down” auxiliary CTs
Avoiding CT Saturation
with Linear Operation
(Knee limit of the Curve)
Why we need Voltage Transformers
Methods to get 100- 220 voltage from voltage transformers?

Method 1:
By using a distribution transformers that converts high voltage to low voltage (400 volts), it
is used to operate the measuring instruments.

MV distribution panel
Transformer
LV distribution panel
Method 2:
The use of DC power source batteries, but this is expensive because we need the means to
convert the voltage from constant voltage to variable by different efforts and this is not
preferred.

MV distribution panel Transformer

LV distribution panel Batteries panel
Method 3:
Using a voltage transformer for each cell to convert the voltage from the high voltage to the
appropriate voltage value for the protection and measurement devices where the voltage
transformer is installed for each cell of high voltage and sometimes in the case of medium
voltage cells to reduce the cost

HV panel with VT Potential transformer

MV distribution panel
 Potential Transformers

What is a Potential Transformer (PT) or (VT)?:

A PT or sometimes called VT is a step-down transformer having many primary turns but
few secondary turns.
In a step-down transformer the voltage decreases and the current increases, thus voltage
can be easily measured by using a low-range voltmeter instrument.
The voltage is stepped-down in a known ratio called the voltage ratio.
 Potential Transformers
Construction and working of P.T.:
Construction:
A potential transformer has many primary winding turns but few number of secondary
winding turns that makes it a step-down transformer.
A Voltmeter is connected to the secondary winding is usually a voltmeter of 150 V.

Working (Measurement):
Primary terminals are connected in parallel across the line to which the voltage is to be
measured.
The voltmeter reading gives the transformed value of the voltage across the secondary
terminals.
The deflection of the voltmeter when divided by the transformed ratio gives the actual
voltage across the primary winding as:
The Line voltage = deflection / transformation-Ratio
Where transformation ratio = V2/V1
 Potential Transformers

Precaution for P.T.:

Since the secondary of a p.t. is connected to relays, their
ratings are usually 40 to 100 Watts.

For safety purpose the secondary should be completely

insulated from the high voltage primary and should be in
addition grounded.
 Potential Transformers

Types of P.T. :
Some types of P.T. are:
Shell type
Dry type
Oil type
Rating Type
1. Below 5000 v Shell type
2. 5000-13800 v Dry type and oil type
3. Above 13800 v only oil type
Potential Transformer
Common Ratios
VP
14,400/120 = 120/1
4200/120 = 35/1
2400/120 = 20/1
Vs

Relay
Connections of 1-Phase Potential Transformers
Other PT and 3-Phase Typical Connections

Open Delta Connection Y – Y Connection

(2) Double Bushing VTs (3) Single Bushing VTs
 Selection Voltage Transformers
Voltage transformers are connected across the points at which the voltage
to be measured.
Types of voltage Transformers:
There are three main types of voltage transformers:
1. Magnetic voltage transformers (ordinary two winding type – used for L.V. and M.V).
2. Capacitive Voltage Transformers (CVT), used for high and extra high voltages.
3. Magneto—optic voltage transformers (new ).

Magnetic Voltage Transformer (VT)

Line

Vs = 110 or 120

66
Voltage Transformer Components:
The voltage transformers are made up of two isolated coils and magnetically coupled with
silicon steel slices.

A secondary coils can have more than one coil in order to get more than one voltage on the
secondary side.

Primary HV Secondary HV
Size of the voltage transformer:

Therefore, the size of the voltage transformer is large if the primary voltage is high due to
the large size of the insulation, which is often made of porcelain. The transformer is often
made up of more than one iron core and each core has its primary and secondary files,
where each core and its coils are considered as an independent voltage transformer for a
conversion ratio and a different accuracy level depending on the desired use.
 Need of CVT why ?
For measuring high voltage (above 100kV) the high insulated transformer is required. The
highly insulated transformer is quite expensive as compared to the normal
transformer. For reducing the cost, the capacitive potential transformer is used in the
system. The CVT is cheap, and their performance is not much inferior to the highly
insulated transformer.
 Types of Voltage Transformers

1- Capacitor Potential Transformer

In high voltage, it is preferable to use the capacitor voltage transformer for two reasons:
A. It is less expensive than magnetic voltage transformers.
B.The capacitor works as a connection capacitor for the communication system on the
power transmission lines for communication purposes in addition to the connection of
protection devices.
Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT or CCVT)
 Capacitor Voltage Transformer

Capacitor Voltage Transformer (CVT) or Capacitor Coupled Voltage Transformer (CCVT) is

a switchgear device used to convert high transmission class voltage into easily measurable
values, which are used for metering, protection, and control of high voltage systems.
Additionally, a CVT/CCVT used as coupling capacitors for coupling high-frequency power line
carrier signals to the transmission line.
Capacitive voltage transformer (CVT) Working Principle

Capacitive voltage transformer (CVT) Working Principle:

CVT is working under principle of potential divider. It consists of two capacitors to
form a potential divider, line reactor and a step down transformer. Here line reactor
is used to compensate the capacitor’s phase shift. The value of inductances is
adjustable. The inductance compensates the voltage drops occurs in the
transformer because of the reduction of the current from the potential divider. But,
in actual practice, the compensation is not possible because of the inductance
losses.
The voltage across the individual capacitor is V1 , V2 and the line voltage is
Vline/1.732 =Vp as the potential transformer is connected across the line to
ground.
Hence the Voltage across the Capacitor C1 is, apply potential divider rule.

The voltage across the capacitor 2. V2.

As the voltage across C1 is greater than the C2 exactly to say V2 < V1. Thus the
value C1/(C1+C2) is small. The low value of voltage is obtained from the
capacitor C2. The low voltage can be easily step down by the potential
transformer.
Name plate details of CVT: C2>>C1
CVT in 750kV
2- Normal Potential Transformer
It is called the magnetic voltage transformer and is symbolized by the symbol VT or PT
The magnetic voltage transformer consists of a closed circuit consisting of silicon wafers
with two coils.

11 KV Oil immersed type Potential

Transformer
The primary coils contains a large number of coils and connected parallel to the load
source, while The secondary coils contains a smaller number of coils and connected parallel
to the protective or measuring devices. A dielectric is placed between the primary coils and
secondary coils a which depends on the operating voltage.
The greater the operating voltage, the greater the isolation of the coils.
Power of Transformer Voltage (VA)
The location of the installation of voltage transformers
The location of the voltage transformer is placed in different places as shown in the figure. Each
transformer has its own voltage to feed the measuring and measuring devices. Each bar has a
voltage transformer and each side on the transformer has a voltage transformer.
 Application
1. The CVT is also useful in communication systems. CVTs in combination with wave
traps are used for filtering high-frequency communication signals from power
frequency. This forms a carrier communication network throughout the transmission
network.
2. Voltage Measuring: They accurately transform transmission voltages down to useable
levels for revenue metering, protection and control purposes.
3. Insulation: They guarantee the insulation between HV network and LV circuits
ensuring safety condition to control room operators.
4. HF Transmissions: They can be used for Power Line Carrier (PLC) coupling.
5. Transient Recovery Voltage: When installed in close proximity to HV/EHV Circuit
Breakers,CVT’s own High Capacitance enhance C/B short line fault
performance.
 Difference between CVT and PT
CVT PT
where as CVT is capacitive voltage transformer Potential Transformer is Inductive step down transformer
consisting of stack of series connected capacitor the used for measurement of voltage and protection.
voltage across the capacitor is used to measure the
voltage. It also serves the purpose of power line carrier
communication.

CVT is rated for extremely high voltage levels above while PT's aren't designed for such large values.
230KV.

CVT's offer the advantage that the voltage divider Core loss is too much high and so it is less economical
capacitor, being itself relatively smaller and lighter,
configuration makes the transformer's iron core much
smaller in size, and hence more economical, versus what
it would be if a pure magnetic transformer would be used.

Also the CVT's can be tuned to the fundamental PT's can't provide such advantage.
frequency of the line, and the capacitance prevents the
inductive "fire-back" of the coils in the transformer when
a breaker trips.
Basic important rules for Instrument
Transformers
Rule # 1
Never open circuit a current
transformer secondary while the
primary is energized
CTs are intended to be proportional current devices. Very high
voltages can result from open circuiting the secondary circuit of an
energized CT. Even very small primary currents can cause damage.
Rule # 2
Never short circuit the
secondary of an energized VT

VTs are intended to be used as proportional voltage

devices. Damaging current will result from short
circuiting the secondary circuit of an energized VT.
Rule # 3
CT secondary leads must be
added to the CT burden

Electronic relays usually represent very

little burden to the CT secondary circuit.
In many cases the major burden is
caused by the CT secondary leads.
Rule # 4
Never use a 60 Hz rated VT
on a 50 Hz System

60 Hz VTs may saturate at lower frequencies

and exceed temperature limitations. VT failure
is likely…severe equipment damage is possible.