Problem of equivalence: The concept of equivalence is central to translation

studies, but it has been the subject of much debate and controversy. One of the
main challenges of translation is that there is no one-to-one correspondence
between languages, which means that it is impossible to find perfect equivalents
for words, phrases, and concepts across languages. Therefore, translators must
find creative ways to convey the meaning and intent of the source text in the
target language, often relying on various translation strategies and techniques.

Translation theory: Bassnett explores various theories of translation, including

linguistic, literary, and cultural theories. Linguistic theories focus on the structure
and meaning of language and seek to find correspondences between languages.
Literary theories emphasize the aesthetic and creative aspects of translation, and
often see translation as a form of literary creation. Cultural theories view
translation as a process of cultural mediation, and highlight the importance of
context, power relations, and ideology in shaping the translation process.

Translation strategies: Bassnett discusses various translation strategies that

translators use to deal with the problem of equivalence, including literal
translation, cultural adaptation, free translation, and domestication and
foreignization. Literal translation aims to reproduce the source text as closely as
possible, while cultural adaptation involves making adjustments to the text to suit
the target culture. Free translation involves taking liberties with the source text in
order to convey the intended meaning, while domestication and foreignization
refer to strategies that either make the target text more familiar to the target
audience or preserve the foreignness of the source text.

Loss and gain: Bassnett explores the idea that translation involves both loss and
gain. Loss refers to the inevitable loss of certain aspects of the source text in the
process of translation, such as wordplay, cultural references, and idiomatic
expressions. Gain refers to the new meanings and perspectives that are added to
the source text through the act of translation, such as the opportunity to bring a
new work to a new audience or to enrich the target culture with new ideas and
perspectives.

Overall, Bassnett's "Translation Studies" is a comprehensive overview of the key

concepts, theories, and debates in the field of translation studies, and provides
valuable insights into the complex and multifaceted nature of the translation
process

the theory and craft of translation:

Translation theory: Translation theory is the study of the principles and concepts
that underlie the process of translation. It encompasses a wide range of
approaches, including linguistic, literary, cultural, and pragmatic approaches,
among others.

Equivalence: Equivalence is a central concept in translation theory, referring to

the relationship between the source text and the target text. It is often used to
describe the extent to which the target text reproduces the meaning and intent of
the source text.

Translation strategies: Translators use a variety of strategies to deal with the

challenges of translating from one language to another, including literal
translation, cultural adaptation, free translation, and domestication and
foreignization, among others.
Loss and gain: Translating from one language to another often involves both loss
and gain, with certain aspects of the source text being lost in the process of
translation while new meanings and perspectives are added.

Translation as a craft: Translation is also a craft, involving a set of practical skills

and techniques that are developed through experience and practice. These
include language proficiency, research skills, critical thinking, and the ability to
make effective use of translation tools and resources.

Professionalism: Professionalism is an important aspect of the craft of translation,

and involves a commitment to ethical standards, quality control, and ongoing
professional development.

Overall, the theory and craft of translation are complex and multifaceted,
encompassing a range of theoretical and practical considerations that must be
taken into account in order to produce high-quality translations that effectively
convey the meaning and intent of the source text to the target audience.

What the theory of translation is about?

Definition of translation: The theory of translation seeks to understand the nature

of translation and the processes involved in translating texts from one language to
another. Translation can be defined as the process of transferring the meaning of
a text from one language to another.

Theoretical frameworks: The theory of translation draws on a range of theoretical

frameworks from various disciplines, including linguistics, literature, and cultural
studies. These frameworks provide different perspectives on the nature of
translation and the ways in which meaning is transferred between languages.

Concepts and issues: The theory of translation addresses a number of key

concepts and issues, including the problem of equivalence, the role of the
translator, translation strategies, the nature of the source and target languages
and cultures, and the relationship between translation and power.

Translation strategies: Translators use a range of strategies to translate texts,

including literal translation, cultural adaptation, free translation, and
domestication and foreignization. These strategies aim to address the problem of
equivalence and to transfer meaning from the source text to the target text in a
way that is appropriate for the target audience and culture.

Loss and gain: Translation involves both loss and gain, as certain aspects of the
source text may be lost in the process of translation, while new meanings and
perspectives may be added to the target text. The translator must balance fidelity
to the source text with the requirements of the target language and culture in
order to achieve the best possible translation.

Overall, the theory of translation seeks to understand the complex processes

involved in translating texts from one language to another, and to develop
strategies and approaches that can help to bridge the gap between languages and
cultures.

Communicative and semantic translation (I):

Communicative translation: Communicative translation is an approach that takes

into account the communicative function of the source text and aims to convey
the intended message to the target audience. This approach emphasizes the
importance of the target audience in the translation process and requires the
translator to adapt the source text to suit the target culture and language.

Semantic translation: Semantic translation, on the other hand, focuses on

reproducing the exact meaning of the source text. This approach places more
emphasis on the source text itself, rather than the target audience, and aims to
produce a translation that is as close to the original as possible.

Communicative vs. semantic translation: Newmark argued that both

communicative and semantic translation are important, but that they are suited
to different types of texts and situations. For example, he suggested that
communicative translation is more appropriate for literary texts and texts that
have a specific audience in mind, while semantic translation is more appropriate
for technical texts and legal documents.

Translation strategies: Newmark also identified a number of translation strategies

that can be used to achieve communicative or semantic translation. For
communicative translation, he suggested strategies such as paraphrasing, cultural
equivalent, and transposition, which involve finding ways to convey the intended
message to the target audience. For semantic translation, he suggested strategies
such as borrowing, calque, and literal translation, which involve reproducing the
original meaning of the source text as closely as possible.

Importance of context: Finally, Newmark emphasized the importance of context

in the translation process. He argued that the context of the source text, including
the cultural and historical context, as well as the intended audience and purpose,
must be taken into account in order to produce an effective translation that
communicates the intended message to the target audience.
communicative and semantic translation (II)

Communicative translation: This approach focuses on conveying the intended

message of the source text to the target audience. Communicative translation
takes into account the communicative function of the source text, as well as the
cultural and linguistic context of the target audience.

Semantic translation: This approach focuses on reproducing the exact meaning of

the source text in the target language. Semantic translation aims to preserve the
content, structure, and style of the source text, and may involve literal translation
or sense-for-sense translation.

Word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation: Newmark distinguishes between

two translation methods: word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation. Word-
for-word translation involves translating each word of the source text directly into
the target language, while sense-for-sense translation involves translating the
overall meaning or sense of the source text into the target language.

Literal translation and free translation: Newmark also distinguishes between two
types of translation methods: literal translation and free translation. Literal
translation is a word-for-word translation that aims to preserve the grammatical
structures and word order of the source text as closely as possible, while free
translation involves taking more liberties with the source text in order to convey
the intended meaning and style.

Communicative translation strategies: Newmark identified a number of

communicative translation strategies, including omission (leaving out elements
that are not relevant or necessary for the target audience), addition (adding
elements that are necessary for the target audience but not present in the source
text), and adaptation (making adjustments to the source text to suit the target
culture or audience).

Overall, Newmark's approaches emphasize the importance of considering the

communicative function of the source text and the intended audience in the
translation process, as well as the need to balance fidelity to the source text with
the requirements of the target culture and language.

thought, speech, and translation:

Language and thought: There is a complex relationship between language and

thought, with some scholars arguing that language shapes the way we think and
perceive the world, while others argue that thought is independent of language.
However, it is clear that language and thought are closely linked, and that the way
we use language can affect the way we think and communicate.

Translation and thought: Translation plays an important role in shaping our

understanding of other cultures and ways of thinking. However, translation is not
a straightforward process, as the meaning of words and concepts can vary across
languages and cultures. Therefore, translators must be sensitive to the cultural
and linguistic context of the source text in order to accurately convey the
intended meaning.

Speech and translation: Speech is an important aspect of translation, as it reflects

the way people use language in everyday communication. Speech can vary widely
depending on factors such as social status, regional dialect, and cultural norms,
and translators must be aware of these variations in order to accurately translate
speech in the target language.

Translation and interpretation: Translation and interpretation are closely related

processes, but they are not interchangeable. Translation involves the written
transfer of a text from one language to another, while interpretation involves the
oral transfer of spoken communication from one language to another. Both
translation and interpretation require a deep understanding of the cultural and
linguistic context of the source and target languages.

Overall, the relationship between thought, speech, and translation is complex and
multifaceted, and requires a nuanced understanding of language, culture, and
communication