Hardware

Architecture

Hardware architecture refers to the design and organization of computer systems at a low-level,
including the physical components and their interconnections. It encompasses the layout and
configuration of the central processing unit (CPU), memory, input/output (I/O) devices, and the
communication pathways between them.

Key concepts in hardware architecture include:

CPU: The central processing unit is responsible for executing instructions and performing calculations. It
consists of an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) for mathematical operations, a control unit for instruction
interpretation, and registers for temporary storage.

Memory: This includes primary memory (RAM) and secondary memory (hard drives, solid-state drives).
RAM stores data and instructions that the CPU needs to access quickly, while secondary memory
provides long-term storage for programs and data.

I/O devices: Input devices (keyboard, mouse) allow users to provide data to the computer, while output
devices (monitor, printer) display or produce the results. Communication between the CPU and I/O
devices is facilitated by buses or communication channels.

Bus architecture: Buses are communication pathways that transfer data and control signals between
different components. They include the data bus (for transferring data), address bus (for specifying
memory locations), and control bus (for coordinating activities).

Instruction set architecture (ISA): It defines the set of instructions that a CPU can understand and
execute. ISA determines the machine language and the available operations, such as arithmetic, logic,
and data movement.
Pipelining: Pipelining improves CPU performance by overlapping the execution of multiple instructions.
Instructions are divided into stages (fetch, decode, execute, memory, writeback), and each stage is
performed concurrently on different instructions.

Caches: CPU caches are small, high-speed memory units that store frequently accessed instructions and
data. Caches reduce the memory access time, improving overall system performance.

Parallel processing: In certain architectures, multiple processors or cores work together simultaneously
to execute instructions in parallel. This approach enhances computational speed and enables tasks to be
divided and executed concurrently.

Understanding hardware architecture involves learning about these components, their functionalities,
and how they interact to process instructions and data. It also includes studying different architectural
designs, such as von Neumann architecture and Harvard architecture, as well as specialized architectures
like GPUs (graphics processing units) for high-performance graphics rendering and AI workloads.