PIPELINE CRACKS

WHAT IS PIPELINE CRACKING?

Cracks can develop in pipelines at any stage – during manufacturing, fabrication,
installation or throughout operational life. There are many forms of cracking, all
caused by different mechanisms. The morphology of cracking is highly variable, and
there may be many anomalies present in a pipe body and seam weld that would not
behave as cracks but create a crack-like indication in inspection data. Thus, it is
difficult to reliably identify the different cracking types based on inspection
data alone. The solution to identifying and managing cracks starts with an
understanding of the cause of the cracking.

Pipeline Cracking

Some examples of cracks and features that may appear crack-like in ILI data are
given below.

HIGH PH SCC
Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-high-ph-scc
HIGH PH STRESS CORROSION CRACKING - SCC

High pH SCC occurs on external pipe surfaces at locations of coating disbonding and
partially shielded CP. The cracks generally form colonies that align axially with
the pipe. Propagation through pipe wall thickness is of inter-granular nature. The
cracks are not usually associated with any external pitting or general corrosion. A
number of factors contribute to the initiation and growth of high pH stress
corrosion cracking, including high stress, pressure cycling and development of a
carbonate-bicarbonate environment, partial shielding of the applied cathodic
protection, moderately elevated temperatures, and permanent or seasonal wetness in
the soil.

NEAR NEUTRAL PH SCC

Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-near-neutral-ph-scc
NEAR NEUTRAL PH STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Near-neutral pH SCC also occurs on external pipe surfaces under areas of coating
disbondment but where CP is fully shielded. As for high pH SCC, the surface cracks
generally form colonies in the axial direction of the pipe.

Near-neutral pH SCC cracking typically occurs in association with pits and general
corrosion, as it occurs under freely corroding conditions, i.e. under no CP
polarization. In contrast to high pH SCC, the crack propagation through pipe wall
thickness is of a transgranular nature. The cracks tend to be wider, with corroded
crack walls and filled with corrosion products.

It is thought to be most prevalent in high latitudes where there is a marked

seasonal change in the carbon dioxide content of the soil. Some investigations have
also associated anaerobic microbial activity with the initiation of near-neutral pH
SCC; overall, however, the mechanism remains unclear and debated. It is
nevertheless accepted that some level of stress cycling is required for initiation
and growth.

CIRCUMFERENTIAL SCC
Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-c-scc
CIRCUMFERENTIAL STRESS CORROSION CRACKING

Circumferential SCC (high pH or near neutral) occurs where the environmental

conditions are right and the peak stress in the pipe is axial. Axial stresses are
usually created by the pipe bending to follow the ground profile or additional
loads imposed by ground movement (landslides, subsidence, etc.).
SOUR CRACKING
Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-sour-cracking
SOUR CRACKING - HIC, SULFIDE STRESS CORROSION CRACKING (SSCC)

Environmentally assisted cracking can also occur internally in pipelines. The most
common conditions for these are sour environments. Following aqueous corrosion
reactions in the presence of H2S on the pipe internal surface, atomic hydrogen is
produced and absorbed in the pipe steel.

When atomic hydrogen is trapped at irregularities within the pipe steel – e.g. at
inorganic inclusions (manganese sulfur) – and allowed to recollect with other
trapped atomic hydrogen, this leads to the formation of molecular hydrogen and
local buildup of pressure, which results in mid-wall blisters and cracking parallel
to the wall. Cracks may join up, at different levels through the pipe wall, to
create through-wall cracks (Step-Wise Cracking – SWC). Surface blisters may also
contain cracks. A variation of the HIC mechanism is Stress-Orientated HIC (SOHIC).

In parallel events, once atomic hydrogen is absorbed within the microstructure, it

can also diffuse into solid solution, leading to local crystal embrittlement and
ultimately stress corrosion cracking in the presence of residual or applied tensile
stresses. This mechanism is referred as Sulfide Stress Corrosion Cracking (SSCC).

GIRTH WELD CRACKING

Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-16-girthweld
CIRCUMFERENTIAL CRACK IN GIRTH WELD

COLD CRACKING
Also referred to as hydrogen-induced cold cracking, hydrogen cracking and delayed
cracking, it requires the following during welding: the presence of diffusible
hydrogen, stress and a susceptible metal microstructure.

HOT CRACKING
Also referred to as hot shortness, centerline cracking and hot tearing, hot
cracking mechanisms generally depend on three influencing factors: inadequate
supply of liquid metal at the solidification front as a result of low melting-
temperature impurities, shrinkage stress across the solidifying weld and a
susceptible weld size (depth to width ratio).

SAW WELD CRACKING

Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-SAW-weld
SAW WELD PLANAR FEATURES

COLD CRACKS
Cold cracks can be in the weld or HAZ (or a combination of both) and be surface-
breaking on the inside or outside surfaces. As an example, toe cracks occur at the
transition region between the SAW weld and adjacent pipe surface. The toe region of
SAW welds is particularly susceptible to cold cracking due to the microstructures
present in that region and the stress concentration at the weld toe.

HOT CRACKS
Hot cracks occur in SAW welds due to the presence of impurities in the weld metal
and/or an undesirable depth to width ratio.

LACK OF PENETRATION
Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-lack-of-penetration
LACK OF PENETRATION
Lack of penetration is a planar (i.e. crack-like) discontinuity where the full
thickness of the joint is not welded. In a double-sided SAW weld, lack of
penetration occurs between the inside and outside weld passes.

LACK OF FUSION
Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-lack-of-fusion
LACK OF FUSION

Lack of fusion is a planar (i.e. crack-like) discontinuity in which there is a lack

of union between the weld metal and the parent metal or weld metal. In the case of
ERW welds, the feature occurs between the parent metal and parent metal.

In SAW, pipe lack of fusion can be caused during manufacturing by a number of

factors associated with process parameters, contamination and poor QA & QC. Lack of
fusion in SAW welds may be associated with other defects such as trapped slag.

POROSITY

POROSITY

Porosity is cavity-type discontinuity formed by the entrapment of gas in the weld

metal during solidification. It can be present as isolated pores, multiple pores in
a cluster or elongated cavities also known as wormholes. It is not a form of
cracking but can add to the complexity of inspecting a weld.

ERW AND HFI SEAM-WELDED PIPE PLANAR FEATURES

ERW AND HFI SEAM-WELDED PIPE PLANAR FEATURES

Lack of fusion in ERW pipe appears as an axial, crack-like discontinuity at the

midpoint of the weld bond line. It is also referred to as cold weld, penetrator or
stitching, depending on its characteristics. As with SAW welds, it can be caused by
a number of factors associated with process parameters, contamination, etc.

HOOK CRACKS

HOOK BRACKS

Hook cracks occur in combination with non-metallic inclusions or laminations in the

edges of the strip used for ERW welds. These features become partially incorporated
into the weld as aligned discontinuities during the forming process, leading to the
characteristic hook appearance.

FATIGUE CRACKS
Illustration_Pipeline-Cracking-fatigue
FATIGUE CRACKS

Fatigue cracks are aligned at right angles to the principal stress. Cracks grow in
response to stress or pressure cycling. Stress concentration occurs at the
initiating defect or at the growing crack tip. Crack surfaces may show
characteristic “beach marks” that were formed at each stage of crack growth.
Fatigue cracking in pipelines is typically associated with areas of stress
concentration such as dents and seam weld flaws.

LAMINATION

LAMINATION
Laminations are unwanted discontinuities lying parallel to the pipe surface that
are usually marked by a concentration of non-metallic material. The rolling-out of
inclusions, blowholes or pipes in the parent material causes them. Typically,
laminations are not significant, but they may mask cracks.

Surface-breaking laminations can be initiation points for fatigue cracks and

hydrogen cracking in the pipe body. Laminations may cause detrimental planar
features and cracking in welds when the two coincide, such as SAW weld hot tears
due to laminations.

GIRTH WELD PLANAR FEATURES

GIRTH WELD PLANAR FEATURES

COLD CRACKING
Cold cracking can occur in the HAZ or weld metal at both the root and cap of the
weld bead. Cold cracking often originates in the HAZ of the root and cap due to
these regions being more susceptible in terms of microstructure present and the
stress concentration.

LACK OF PENETRATION
Also known as lack of root penetration in multipass girth welds, this is caused
when the root pass fails to penetrate into the root region of the weld preparation.

LACK OF FUSION
Lack of fusion in girth welds is caused by a non-union between the weld metal and
the base material or previous weld passes. Different types of lack of fusion exist
in girth welds based on location. These include, for example, lack of root fusion,
lack of sidewall fusion and lack of inter-run fusion.

WHERE IS CRACKING?
Cracking can be anywhere, but it needs some specific boundary conditions to
initiate. Therefore, similar to other typical pipeline anomalies, a fundamental
question is the time dependency of crack-like anomalies. For cracking, a time
dependency is hard to observe. Therefore, cracks in pipelines can be categorized
into environmentally assisted active cracking and mill-related or dormant planar
anomalies.

Cracking can be found at any location of the pipeline, be it in the pipe body or in
the welded areas. But cracks are always found perpendicular to the main local
stress direction of the pipe material. A pressurized pipeline experiences so-called
hoop stress, which creates an environment for axial cracking. Likewise, an axial
load on the pipeline supports the occurrence of circumferential cracking.

Another factor is the exposure of the pipeline surface. A corrosive environment or

other impact on the surface of the pipeline – mechanical damage, for example – also
support the initiation of cracking due to micro-embrittlement. Finally, the
pipeline material and its mechanical properties are contributing, as well. Low-
toughness pipe will be more susceptible to cracking than modern high-toughness
steel.

HOW TO MANAGE
AN HOLISTIC APPROACH

Just like every threat has its unique characteristics, so does every pipeline.
Approaching crack management for pipelines with a “big picture” mindset allows
operators to adopt the most effective way to “take control of cracks.”

The ROSEN Group has created a crack management framework that is a consolidation of
current industry best practices and the most advanced in-line inspection solutions
with the knowledge of subject-matter experts. It outlines all the key elements
needed to develop a comprehensive and justifiable crack management program. It is a
systematic, collaborative approach effective for managing even the most challenging
forms of cracking.

Crack Management Framework

This approach does not advocate employing the fanciest or most expensive detection
technology; instead, it suggests an added-value approach to ensure that objectives
and needs are understood. It includes pre-inspection elements that answer critical
questions to allow for optimal system selection.

The framework continues as a flexible guide through the entire process from
inspection to integrity, ultimately resulting in a proper threat management plan.
It is modular and adaptable, ensuring a common understanding and allowing operators
to choose which elements are relevant to them in reaching their objectives and make
the decisions needed for safe and efficient pipeline operation.

Find out more about our Framework

ACCURATE INSPECTION DATA COLLECTION

In-line inspection, of course, is a major part of the crack management framework.

ROSEN uses the latest generation of crack detection technologies. Using liquid-
coupled ultrasonic or dry-coupled electromagnetic acoustic technologies supported
by the unwavering magnetic flux leakage technology, RoCD provides reliable crack
detection and accurate crack sizing. The technology also establishes appropriate
baseline standards for the successful and effective management of pipeline
integrity.

AXIAL CRACKING DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES

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EMAT-C TECHNOLOGY
•Patented measurement principle for high-resolution electromagnetically generated
ultrasound
•Highly dependable detection and accurate continuous sizing of
axial crack anomalies
•Reliable detection of coating disbondment, a precursor of cracking
•Preferred service for gas or liquefied gas pipelines

More about our ROCD EMAT-C service

UT-C_40
UT-C TECHNOLOGY
•Ultrasonic shear wave technology for the detection and sizing
of axial-oriented cracking
•Highly dependable detection and accurate continuous sizing
of crack anomalies
•Preferred service for liquid pipelines from water to gasoline
to crude oil
•Increased sensitivity for crack detection using tailored probe
design and a high-resolution setup
•Full data recording; no data reduction for confidence and
future comparisons
More about our ROCD UT-C service

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MFL-C TECHNOLOGY
•Circumferential magnetic flux leakage technology
•Precise long-seam categorization and assessment using magnetic saturation
•Extra-high sensor density and high sampling rate support crack identification and
location
•Serves also as the supporting technology by collecting data that can increase POI
of crack features

More about our ROCORR MFL-C service

UT-Crack_Detection
CIRCUMFERENTIAL CRACK DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES

Basically, any of the above-mentioned technologies can be modified to detect and

size circumferential cracking as well. Since the determination of the axial load is
also important, supporting technologies like axial stress detection and bending
strain analysis are recommended. Circumferential Crack Detection Services are used
frequently but not as often as axial crack detection services.

INTEGRITY

Collecting the data is half the battle – using it properly and gaining the most
valuable information from it is the trick. Operators have to make the inspection
data work for them. This includes proper reporting and analysis along with further
assessments of the data.

reporting_and_analysis
REPORTING AND ANALYSIS
Close collaboration of expert data evaluators and senior integrity engineers with
extensive experience in dealing with cracks in pipelines ensures credible results
and that efforts are focused on the critical areas. Properly visualizing data in
reporting software based on fully analyzed data covering the entire pipeline
provides easy asses to the information at hand and is best for reviewing
potentially harmful anomalies.

Find out more about VIRTUALYZE

2016_01_21__8001643_cracks
IMMEDIATE CRACK PRIORITIZATION
A ranking of possible crack features identified by the inspection system allows the
operator to make decisions. It highlights failure risks, recommends further field
investigation and identifies pipeline compliance requirements. Once the preliminary
in-line inspection results become available, it is directly possible to calculate
indicative defect failure pressures to ensure that immediate integrity threats are
identified and prioritized.

In combination with a susceptibility analysis, and ILI data evaluator confidence,

the results will be used to drive the selection of sites for initial in-field
investigations. The process ultimately prioritizes features that need immediate
attention and identifies where further field verification is necessary.

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COMPLETE CRACK ASSESSMENT
For a complete crack assessment, final results from in-line inspections, any
testing and in-field work are combined, and the features assessed, to determine the
impact on the immediate and future integrity of the pipeline. The future integrity
assessment considers fatigue and environmental (e.g. SCC) growth mechanisms where
applicable. A summary of all previous activities – including root cause analyses
and metallurgical testing – provides a comprehensive list of mitigation and repair
actions.

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DEFECT CRITICAL SIZE
Using the chosen assessment method (e.g. API 579, BS 7910, MAT-8, ln-Sec,
CorLASTM), calculations are completed to identify defect sizes that would be
unacceptable. The output informs the minimum sizing requirements of the ILI system
to locate critical cracks.

It also highlights the impact of conservative assessment inputs, such as an assumed

fracture toughness. This can be extended to a Critical Crack Defect Manual, which
defines acceptance curves, response times and pressure reduction requirements to
assist in-field decision-making.

root_cause_analysis
ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS
A root cause analysis can range from diagnosing the types of cracking present on a
pipeline to a full investigation of crack-induced failures. Materials, corrosion
and welding experts experienced in all conceivable types of cracking are on hand to
accurately diagnose the cracking type. State-of-the-art laboratory testing is
available to support investigations when necessary.

risk-management
RISK ASSESSMENT
To ensure a comprehensive crack management strategy, the consequence of failure
must be combined with the threat of cracking to determine overall risk. A key and
unique input is our approach to susceptibility modelling: it starts with industry
good practices but is continuously modified and developed for each pipeline based
on the results of ILI and field verification activities to produce a detailed
bespoke model.

Elements of an operator’s existing risk assessment can often be adapted by adding

the latest data. It is also possible to develop a completely new model. Generally,
a consequence assessment is completed and combined with the results of the
optimized susceptibility analysis to produce an overall analysis and report.

threat_management
THREAT MANAGEMENT

The in-line inspection data is available. The data has been analyzed and assessed.
Operators can make short-term decisions to ensure the performance, lifetime and
safety of their asset. But the crack management framework goes one step further. It
includes the management “step,” which takes a more proactive, forward-looking
approach. This element brings the framework full circle and creates a result that
is greater than the sum of all the parts.

management-plan
MANAGEMENT PLAN
Pulling all the pieces together creates a robust, justifiable crack management plan
that delivers the optimum combination of activities (direct assessment, ILI,
hydrotesting, recoating, replacement) to ensure safety. A plan like this allows
operators to take the right maintenance steps at the right time in order to extend
the lifetime, safety and performance of their asset.

DATA MANAGEMENT
A basic prerequisite for the quick and reliable assessment of an asset’s integrity
is the availability of consistent and fully aligned datasets. Additionally, more
and more regulations now require that all pipeline records be traceable, verifiable
and complete.

However, with the amounts of collected data steadily growing, the establishment of
a system of record where all available data is readily accessible is becoming an
increasingly critical issue for pipeline operators.

Find out more about NIMA

TRAINING
Competence is a key consideration in managing pipeline assets. The risks they
present – and the safety of people and the environment – are becoming more
imminent. Plus, standards and regulations explicitly require all personnel to be
competent and qualified in their respective fields of responsibility.

Understanding this need, ROSEN has developed training courses, education programs
and qualifications specific to addressing threats. Specifically, training for the
management of cracking in pipelines is available for various integrity topics and
for the application of reporting software.