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A study of the fatigue properties of grouted macadams

Article · January 2007

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 A STUDY OF THE FATIGUE PROPERTIES OF GROUTED MACADAMS

Joel R. M. Oliveira *
Lecturer, University of Minho, Portugal
* Department of Civil Engineering, University of Minho, Campus de Azurém, 4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal
joliveira@civil.uminho.pt

Jorge C. Pais
Lecturer, University of Minho, Portugal

Nicholas H. Thom
Lecturer, University of Nottingham, UK

Salah E. Zoorob
Senior Research Officer, University of Nottingham, UK

ABSTRACT: Grouted macadams can be seen as semi-flexible materials, the behavior of which is still not well
understood. This paper presents a series of laboratory tests, carried out at the University of Nottingham, with the
objective of contributing to a better understanding of the fatigue performance of such materials. Two types of
fatigue test were used in this investigation (two- and four-point bending tests), and the results obtained for the
grouted macadam mixture are compared with those obtained for a conventional asphalt mixture in the UK (a
DBM 50 mixture). Rest periods between load applications were also varied in another series of four-point
bending fatigue tests, with the objective of determining a shift factor for grouted macadam fatigue
characteristics, in order to use the laboratory determined results in the design of pavements incorporating grouted
macadam mixtures. The analysis of the results obtained during this investigation has shown that the ‘traditional’
failure criterion used in fatigue tests may not properly represent the fatigue life of grouted macadams.

KEY WORDS: Grouted Macadam, Failure Criterion, Fatigue, Rest Periods, 4-point bending, 2-point bending

1. INTRODUCTION

Grouted macadams are known as semi-flexible materials, and are normally used as surface courses of specialist
pavements (industrial floors, distribution centers, harbors, airport pavements). They are composed of a
combination of an asphalt mixture and a cementitious grout in the same layer. In essence, grouted macadams
comprise an open-graded asphalt mixture (usually single sized), containing 25 to 35 percent air voids, which
forms the skeleton into which a cementitious grout is poured (Figures 1 and 2). The final product combines some
of the best qualities of concrete and asphalt pavements, namely the flexibility and freedom from joints that
characterise asphalts and the high static bearing capacity and wear resistance of concrete. The impervious
grouted macadam layer protects the underlying layers and its high stiffness effectively reduces the stress level in
the base layer. The speed of construction of grouted macadam surfacing and the period of time required ahead of
opening to traffic is a significant advance over conventional concrete [1]. This type of surface layer is normally
applied with a thickness of 30 to 60 mm [2], although some work has been done with thicknesses in the region of
80 mm [3] and some grout suppliers claim it is possible to use thicknesses of up to 200 mm [4].

The construction of a grouted macadam layer is a two stage procedure, since it is necessary to allow the asphalt
to cool down before applying the grout into its voids. Thus, construction is normally carried out on two
consecutive days. The porous asphalt layer is applied using a normal asphalt paver and is then lightly compacted
using a steel roller without vibration to avoid the formation of cracks or tracks in the material. As soon as the
porous asphalt mixture has cooled down, its voids can be filled with the selected high fluidity cementitious grout
[5]. The grout is spread on the surface, with the help of rubber scrapers (squeegees). Depending upon the powder
type used to produce the grout and the producer’s specification, a light steel roller may be used in vibration mode

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 112
to make sure that the voids of the asphalt are completely filled with the grout. After filling the voids, the surface
may be treated to improve its properties, namely skid resistance, durability and aesthetics.

Figure 1. Cementitious grout during the process of penetrating the voids of a porous asphalt skeleton

Figure 2. Ø100 mm cylindrical specimen extracted from a typical grouted macadam layer

Although grouted macadams have been used since the 1950’s [3], not much has been published about their
engineering properties. Thus, a laboratory study was carried out with the objective of better understanding how
this type of material performs, particularly in terms of fatigue.

2. LABORATORY FATIGUE TESTING PROGRAM

2.1 Background to fatigue test failure criteria

Rao Tangella et al. [6] carried out a research programme with the purpose of reviewing various fatigue test
methods and recommending the most appropriate method for defining the fatigue response of asphalt-concrete
mixtures. The evaluated test methods were classified into the following categories: simple flexure, supported
flexure, direct axial, diametral, triaxial, fracture mechanics, and wheel-track tests. These methods were evaluated
based on simplicity, ability to simulate field conditions, and applicability of the test results to designing a
pavement against fatigue cracking. In the study, the repeated flexure test received the highest ranking, followed
by the direct tension and the diametral (indirect tension) repeated load tests, these being highly ranked due to
their simplicity, lower cost and shorter testing time.

Several pieces of equipment have been used worldwide to assess the fatigue characteristics of bituminous
mixtures, using the simple flexure principle. Most of those recently developed [7,8] comprise a four-point
bending frame (Figure 3). Based on the aforementioned, it was decided to use a purpose built four-point bending

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 113
equipment to characterize the studied grouted macadams. The results were then compared with those obtained
using a two-point bending equipment.

Key
1 Applied load 5 Deflection
2 Reaction 6 Return to original position
3 Specimen 7 Free translation and rotation
4 Specimen clamp

Figure 3. Loading scheme of the specimens in the four-point bending test [9]

The results of any asphalt fatigue test are influenced by the mode of loading, which can be classified into two
different test categories: controlled-stress (or load) and controlled-strain (or displacement). Failure (or the
number of cycles to failure) in fatigue testing has been defined in various ways and sometimes arbitrarily, and
the value cited depends on the mode of loading [10].

In controlled-stress tests, some researchers have defined failure as the complete fracture of the specimen at the
end of the test [11,12]. In order to protect the instrumentation (e.g., LVDTs) a practical limit was suggested by
Rowe [13], who defined failure as a 90% reduction from initial stiffness, the point at which the specimen
displayed large cracks.

Regarding controlled-strain tests, failure of the specimens is more difficult to define, since the stresses within the
specimen decrease during the test, as it gets progressively weaker due to the accumulation of damage, and total
failure of the specimen is unlikely to occur. Several researchers have considered failure of the specimen when its
stiffness value has reduced to half of the initial value [12,14,15].

According to Rao Tangella et al. [6] the controlled-stress mode of loading appears to represent the response of
thick asphalt pavements to repetitive loading while the controlled-strain approach is suitable for thin pavements.
Controlled-strain tests generally give greater fatigue life than controlled-stress tests, for the same mixture and
similar initial conditions (stress/strain level).

Despite being the most common and widely used failure criterion, the 50% reduction in stiffness has not been a
consensual choice amongst the scientific community. It has even been criticized by some researchers as being an
arbitrary value that has no correspondence to any change in the properties of the material. Therefore, other
failure criteria have been proposed. Van Dijk [16] and Van Dijk and Visser [17] have suggested that the
dissipated energy approach allows results of different types of tests, carried out under different test conditions
with several types of asphalt mixes, to be described by a single mix-specific relationship that relates the number
of cycles to failure to the cumulative dissipated energy. Rowe [13] suggested a new concept related to crack

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 114
initiation instead of traditional failure of the specimen. In this concept, the number of cycles to failure is obtained
by an energy ratio, based on the dissipated energy in each cycle of the test. Different energy ratios are suggested
for strain or stress controlled tests. Ghuzlan and Carpenter [18] used a failure criterion based on the change in
dissipated energy (∆DE) between two consecutive cycles. The failure is defined as the number of load cycles at
which the change in this energy ratio begins to increase rapidly. Kim et al. [19] introduced the 50% reduction in
pseudo-stiffness as a failure criterion for fatigue testing, which was assumed to be independent of the mode of
loading. However, data in support of the 50% reduction in initial pseudo-stiffness, in constant stress testing, were
not shown. Al-Khateeb and Shenoy [10] proposed a new failure criterion based only on the observation of raw
data collected during a fatigue test. According to these authors, failure is revealed by observing the distortion of
the load-deformation hysteresis loop or the response waveform at the onset of the first appearance of cracking.

2.2 Fatigue test conditions and configuration adopted in this study

Regarding the laboratory testing program used in this study, a ‘standard’ grouted macadam mixture, commonly
used in the UK (produced with a 10 mm single sized aggregate and 4.1% by mass of mixture of a 200 pen grade
bitumen), and a Dense Bitumen Macadam, produced with a 50 pen binder (DBM 50), were used. A series of
tests was carried out on laboratory prepared specimens to determine the fatigue performance of both mixtures.
As mentioned above, two types of test (two- and four-point bending) were used for the grouted macadam
mixture characterization but only the two-point bending test was used to characterize the DBM 50 mixture.
Prismatic beams (50×50×305 mm, supported at 90 mm intervals) were used in the four-point bending tests while
trapezoidal specimens (Figure 4) were used in the two-point bending tests. All specimens were extracted from
slabs prepared using the same procedure. Naturally, the thicknesses of the slabs were adjusted to be able to
produce a representative number of specimens from each slab. The temperature used in both types of test was the
same (20 °C). Tests were carried out in displacement (strain) control at 10 Hz.

25 mm
250 mm

Thickness: 25 mm

70 mm

Figure 4. Dimensions of trapezoidal specimen used in two-point bending tests

3. FATIGUE LIFE OF GROUTED MACADAMS

In an earlier publication [20], the influence of several variables on the mechanical properties of grouted
macadams was evaluated. In terms of fatigue life (determined using the purpose built four-point bending
equipment), it was concluded that almost all grouted macadam mixtures tested gave results which lay on a single
fatigue characteristic. This investigation included results for both 50pen and 200pen binder, binder contents
between 1.5 and 4.1%, two different grout strengths, two different nominal aggregate sizes and a more broadly
graded aggregate. Thus, only the most commonly used mixture was considered in the present study. This
mixture, which composition was mentioned above, was classified as ‘standard grouted macadam mixture’. As
can be seen in Figure 5, the fatigue lines obtained for both types of test, using the same failure criterion (50%
stiffness reduction) are very close to each other and could be considered as one common trend line.

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 115
 1000
-0.2477
y = 2535.3x

Tensile Strain (microstrain)

2
R = 0.9838

100

-0.2631
y = 2648.6x
Grouted Macadam - 4PB 2
R = 0.8925
Grouted Macadam - 2PB

10
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of Cycles
Figure 5. Two- and four-point bending fatigue test results of the standard grouted macadam mixture

The results obtained for two-point bending tests show a higher amount of scatter when compared with four-point
bending test results. The reason for that may be related to the specimen dimensions, since the thickness of
trapezoidal specimens (25 mm) is just above two times the nominal aggregate size used in the mixture, in
contrast to the beam specimens used in four-point bending tests, where the minimum dimension of the
specimens is five times the nominal aggregate size. Therefore, in the trapezoidal specimens, a chance of
disturbance (concentration of voids, bitumen or fibers) within the mixture’s structure is more likely to influence
the fatigue life of the specimen than in the case of the beams.

Two-point bending fatigue tests were also carried out on a DBM50 mixture (using the same failure criterion), in
order to establish a comparison of both mixtures’ behavior. The results are presented in Figure 6, together with
the fatigue line of the standard grouted macadam mixture.

1000
Tensile strain (microstrain)

-0.2145
y = 1913x
2
R = 0.8767

100

DBM50 -0.2631
y = 2648.6x
2
Grouted Macadam R = 0.8925

10
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000 10000000
Number of Cycles
Figure 6. Two-point bending strain-controlled fatigue test results obtained for the standard grouted macadam and
a DBM50 mixture

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 116
Observations of the shape of the stiffness reduction curve for grouted macadams (Figure 7), during the four-
point bending tests, suggested a fatigue performance different from that of conventional bituminous mixtures,
presented in Figure 8 [13,21,22], which was confirmed in the DBM 50 mixture fatigue tests (two-point bending).
Therefore, in the present study, tests were carried out beyond the traditional failure criterion (50% reduction on
stiffness) and stopped only when the stiffness modulus had been reduced to 10% of its initial value. This allowed
a more complete assessment of mixture’s performance during the tests.

Stiffness

No. of loading cycles

Figure 7. Typical trend of four-point bending strain-controlled fatigue tests on grouted macadams
Stiffness

No. of loading cycles

Figure 8. Typical trend of strain-controlled fatigue tests on normal bituminous mixtures [13,21,22]

As can be seen in the figures above, the pattern of stiffness reduction during grouted macadam fatigue tests is
significantly different from that of conventional asphalts. This fact makes the definition of failure in grouted
macadam fatigue tests difficult to establish, due to the fact that the material continues performing well, after the
50% reduction of the initial stiffness value.

The stiffness reduction of a certain mixture under fatigue can be explained by the development and propagation
of cracks within the mixture itself. However, the mechanism of crack propagation in a grouted macadam mixture
is different from that in a bituminous mixture. In the first case, assuming that the aggregate is sound, the crack
has to propagate through the bitumen film surrounding the aggregates and the grout, only going through the
grout at the weak spots (thin connections between voids in the asphalt skeleton, subsequently filled with grout).
Therefore, the length of a crack is increased when compared with the case of a bituminous mixture, where a
crack can propagate through the mastic (bitumen with small aggregate particles), filling the spaces between
bigger particles. Figures 9 and 10 schematically represent the position of a crack on a 50 mm thick layer,

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 117
comprising respectively, a grouted macadam and a bituminous macadam mixture. In the latter case, no voids
were considered within the mixture. However, they actually exist and, consequently, the length of the crack will
be reduced according to the voids content, in such a scenario.

50.0

Crack length = 72.2 mm

Figure 9. Possible position of a crack in a grouted macadam layer

Figure 10. Possible position of a crack in a bituminous macadam layer

In the examples presented in the above figures, the crack in the grouted macadam layer is approximately 27%
longer than the crack in the bituminous macadam layer. The increased length and the more acute angles lead to
the need for more stress (or more load applications) to cause fracture, which can be seen as one of the reasons for
the shape of the stiffness reduction curves for grouted macadam fatigue tests. Due to the nature of the tests
(displacement control) the stresses applied to the specimen decrease during the test, resulting in an indefinite life
(without the second inflection point visible in the conventional asphalt tests – Figure 8).

4. THE EFFECT OF REST PERIODS ON THE FATIGUE LIFE OF GROUTED MACADAMS

A major difficulty with fatigue testing is developing a meaningful relationship between the results of laboratory
tests and field performance. Laboratory tests usually use sinusoidal loading and fixed strain or stress amplitude
during a single test, while in practice, the mode of loading is randomly distributed, including rest periods and the
effect of lateral wander of vehicles. Temperature variations in the asphalt layer and healing effects, due to
intermittent loading, also influence the field performance of asphalts. In order to take these effects into account,
correction factors (also known as shift factors) are usually applied. However, determination of the correct shift
factor is fairly complicated, since it depends on the type of test, mode of loading, testing temperature and type of
mixture [6 and 23].

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 118
Shift factors of 2-10 [23] or 20 [24] have been suggested to take into account the influence of rest periods.
Additional factors of 2.5 [23] or 1.1 [24] have also been used to account for the lateral distribution of loads,
while the fatigue life associated with the crack propagation phase has been considered by a shift factor of 20 [24]
or by the use of controlled-strain bending tests, instead of controlled-stress tests, which have been found to
correlate well with the failure stage in wheel tracking tests on asphalt slabs [23]. Therefore, ultimate shift factors
of 10-20 [23] or 440 [24] have been suggested. Rao Tangella et al. [6] mentioned values of 100 and 20 for shift
factors, considering high loading rate sinusoidal bending tests carried out with and without rest periods
respectively. Khweir and Fordyce [25] have obtained a shift factor of 77, which was the result of superposition
of ITFT data onto the fatigue design line reported by TRRL LR1132 [26]. Ekdahl and Nilsson [27] have
compared the fatigue criterion specified by the Swedish design code ATB Road with laboratory test results of
different mixtures (using Indirect Tensile Fatigue Tests). According to these authors, the shift factor of 10,
specified by the Swedish National Road and Research Institute, is not large enough and a shift factor of 42.4
would be more appropriate.

Based on the diversity of shift factors mentioned above, and on the concerns relative to the application of a
specific shift factor to results obtained under different testing conditions, an attempt was made to determine the
shift factor appropriate to the testing conditions used in this investigation. This would allow the use, in pavement
design, of the grouted macadam fatigue lines determined under the present study. Therefore, a laboratory testing
programme was established, using four-point bending tests, where a different loading pattern was used during
each test, as illustrated in Figure 11. This study focussed mainly on the effect of rest periods on the fatigue life of
the standard grouted macadam mixture, using the traditional failure criterion (50% of initial stiffness). Five
different loading patterns were used: (i) a continuous sinusoidal load; (ii) two sinusoidal loading cycles followed
by a rest period, with duration equivalent to one cycle; (iii) one loading cycle followed by a rest period of
equivalent duration; (iv) one loading cycle followed by a rest period with duration equivalent to two cycles and;
(v) 1000 loading cycles followed by an equivalent rest period.

continuous fatigue

2 cycles + 1 rest period

1 cycle + 1 rest period

1 cycle + 2 rest periods

Figure 11. Modes of loading used to determine the influence of rest periods on the fatigue life of grouted
macadams

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 119
Due to limitations of the equipment in controlling the actuator with an intermittent loading pattern (rest periods
between loading cycles), the maximum frequency that could be used was 5 Hz. Therefore, all tests were carried
out at this frequency. The results obtained according to the modes of loading shown in Figure 11 are presented in
Figure 12, where the extended fatigue life obtained by the inclusion of rest periods in fatigue tests is clear,
increasing with the duration of the rest periods. The test becomes more time consuming when rest periods are
included, especially when the duration of rest periods is longer than the loading time, and this was actually the
reason why the longest rest period used in this study was just two times the loading time.

A fifth result was obtained using a different loading pattern, not represented in Figure 11, which comprised 1000
consecutive loading cycles followed by an equivalent rest period. The results of this test are presented in
Figure 13, where each data-point represents the stiffness of the mixture at the end of each series of 1000 loading
cycles. The maximum number of loading cycles plotted in this figure was reduced to 60000 cycles to get a
clearer idea of the influence of rest period duration on the fatigue life.

100
90 1 Cycle + 1 Rest Period (duration = 2 cycles)
1 Cycle + Equivalent Rest Period
80
2 Cycles + 1 Rest Period (duration = 1 cycle)
% Initial Stiffness

70 Continuous fatigue
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000 700000 800000
Number of Cycles
Figure 12. Influence of rest periods duration on grouted macadam fatigue life

100
90
80
% Initial Stiffness

70
5
60 4
50 3
2
40 1
1 Cycle + 1 Rest Period (duration = 2 cycles)
30 1 Cycle + Equivalent Rest Period
20 2 Cycles + 1 Rest Period (duration = 1 cycle)
1000 Cycles + Equivalent Rest Period
10
Continuous fatigue
0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000
Number of Cycles
Figure 13. Influence of rest periods on the fatigue life of grouted macadams

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 120
Taking only the rest periods into account to define a shift factor (which is very conservative, according to the
results of the other researchers previously mentioned), and based on the results presented above, a shift factor
was calculated for each loading condition, as the ratio between the fatigue life of each test and the fatigue life of
the continuous fatigue test. The results are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 – Shift factor obtained for each fatigue line

Mode of loading Number of cycles Shift factor
Continuous fatigue (1) 17739 1.0
1000 cycles + equiv. rest period (2) 40980 2.3
2 cycles + 1 rest period (3) 50823 2.9
1 cycle + 1 rest period (4) 140050 7.9
1 cycle + 2 rest periods (5) 734395 41.4

In order to analyse the results of these tests from a field performance perspective, some assumptions have to be
made. Thus, a pavement design life of 20 years was used assuming the application of grouted macadams in a
heavily trafficked highway (design traffic of 150 million standard 80kN axles), with 6000 commercial vehicles
per day (assuming a wear factor of 3.5 standard axles per vehicle). If these commercial vehicles were distributed
over a period of 12 hours, the frequency would be approximately 1 commercial vehicle every 7.2 seconds (or 1
axle every 2 sec., distributed over the time interval). On the other hand, the frequency used in the laboratory tests
(5 Hz) would correspond to a ‘loading’ time of 0.7 sec (3.5 axles/5 Hz) per vehicle. Assuming an average
vehicle length of 12.5 m, the vehicle speed would be 17.86 m/s (approximately 40 miles/h). A rest period of
6.5 sec would be expected after each 0.7 sec of commercial vehicle loading (7.2 sec in total, per vehicle). This
corresponds to a rest period 9 times longer than the loading period.

In accordance with the calculations discussed above, the shift factor obtained from line 5 of Table 1 (41.4) would
be a very conservative value, since the rest period used in the laboratory tests is 4.5 times shorter than the rest
period between each commercial vehicle calculated above. However, each commercial vehicle actually
represents the concentration of 3.5 axle loads. As can be observed from lines 2, 3 and 4, the application of
consecutive loads before the rest period decreases the fatigue life of the mixture. Therefore, the extended life
expected from the longer rest periods (9 times the loading period instead of 2 times, as for line 5) was ignored,
taking the value of 41 as an adequate value for the shift factor (considering exclusively the effect of the rest
periods). The ultimate value resulting from the present investigation was 45, which includes an extra factor of
1.1 for the lateral load distribution as suggested by Brown et al. [24]. The final value also concurs with that
suggested by Ekdahl and Nilsson [27]. Nonetheless, the final shift factor (45) is still considered a conservative
value, due to the particular behaviour of grouted macadams, in terms of crack propagation, as discussed above.

In the case of low volume roads or distribution centres/warehouses, a higher value should be used for the shift
factor, as the duration of the rest periods is significantly higher. However, it is not sensible to suggest a different
value based on the available results. A new set of tests should be carried out using longer rest periods, but that
was not possible to accomplish during the current investigation.

5. CONCLUSIONS

The main conclusions that can be drawn from this investigation are as follows:
1. Two- and four-point bending fatigue tests carried out on grouted macadam specimens have shown
similar fatigue life, under similar testing conditions, confirming the representativeness of the results
obtained;
2. Fatigue tests carried out on a conventional asphalt mixture (DBM 50), considering the ‘traditional’
failure criterion (50% of the initial stiffness), have shown a fatigue characteristic slightly better than the
grouted macadam mixture studied;

© Copyright IJP 2007 Volume 6 Number 1-2-3 January-May-September 2007 Page 121
 3. The analysis of individual fatigue test results beyond the ‘traditional’ failure criterion has demonstrated a
difference in the stiffness reduction curves for the grouted macadam and the asphalt mixture studied.
This implies that the ‘traditional’ failure criterion may not properly represent the fatigue life of grouted
macadams;
4. In order to be able to use a grouted macadam fatigue characteristic (line) in pavement design (as the
fatigue failure criterion), a shift factor was determined, relating to the relationship between laboratory
fatigue tests and field performance. The results obtained are based on a series of laboratory fatigue tests,
with the inclusion of rest periods between each load application. Thus, as a result of this investigation, a
shift factor of 45 is suggested for the use of grouted macadams on heavily trafficked highway
pavements.

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