Evaporation

Introduction: Water is a precious natural resource, and its availability and quality are
critical for various activities and ecosystems. Effective water management requires
understanding the different factors that control water availability, and one such factor is
evaporation. This report aims to provide insights into the factors controlling the
evaporation process and how it impacts water budget determinations of reservoirs. We
will also explore how to estimate reservoir evaporation from pan evaporation and
related meteorological data and strategies to increase water supplies through reduced
evaporation.
1: Factors Controlling Evaporation Process Evaporation is the process by which water
changes from its liquid state to a vapor form. It is influenced by various factors, such as
temperature, humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, and water depth. The higher the
temperature, wind speed, and solar radiation, the greater the evaporation rate.
Conversely, the higher the humidity and water depth, the lower the evaporation rate.
Understanding these factors and their interactions can help design effective water
management strategies.
Evaporation is a natural process that occurs when the water molecules absorb enough
energy from their surroundings, causing them to change their state from liquid to vapor.
The factors controlling evaporation are numerous and complex, and their interplay
determines the rate of water loss from any given surface. Some of the most important
factors influencing evaporation are discussed below:
Temperature: Temperature is one of the primary factors that control evaporation. The
higher the temperature, the greater the amount of energy available to the water
molecules, which increases their kinetic energy and the rate of evaporation.
Humidity: Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor present in the air. The higher the
humidity, the less water can evaporate from any given surface, as the air is already
saturated with water vapor.
Wind speed: Wind speed is another crucial factor that influences evaporation. When
wind speeds are high, they help to remove the water vapor from the surface,
maintaining a gradient that promotes further evaporation.
Solar radiation: Solar radiation refers to the energy that is radiated by the sun. It is a
critical factor that influences evaporation as it provides the energy required to transform
water molecules from their liquid state to a gaseous state.
Water depth: The depth of the water body is also an important factor that influences
evaporation. As the depth of the water increases, it provides a greater mass of water
that needs to be heated to cause evaporation, which results in a lower rate of
evaporation.
Understanding these factors and their interactions can help design effective water
management strategies. For example, increasing wind speed over the water surface
can increase the rate of evaporation. In contrast, shading the surface with vegetation or
floating covers can reduce the amount of solar radiation absorbed and thereby
decrease evaporation rates. It is essential to consider the unique environmental
conditions of each site when designing water management strategies that aim to reduce
evaporation.

2: Water Budget Determinations of Reservoir Evaporation Water budget calculations

are crucial for managing water resources effectively. Reservoir evaporation is one of the
significant components of water budgets, and accurate calculations are essential for
preventing water shortages. Water budget determinations involve calculating the
difference between the inflow and outflow of a reservoir, and the amount of evaporation
needs to be accurately estimated. Factors such as reservoir size, climate, and
surrounding vegetation can also influence evaporation rates.
Water budget determination is a critical process that helps to estimate the water balance
of a given system. It involves the quantification of all the inputs and outputs of water,
including precipitation, runoff, groundwater recharge, and evapotranspiration.
Reservoirs are large water storage structures that are used for water supply, irrigation,
hydroelectric power, and other purposes. The water budget of a reservoir is an essential
consideration in the effective management of water resources. The following steps are
typically involved in water budget determinations of reservoir evaporation:
Measurement of the reservoir's surface area: The surface area of the reservoir is
measured using methods such as GPS or satellite imagery.
Measurement of pan evaporation: A pan is installed on the reservoir's surface to
measure the pan evaporation rate, which is the rate at which water evaporates from a
pan under standard meteorological conditions.
Measurement of meteorological data: Meteorological data such as temperature,
humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation are measured using sensors installed near the
reservoir.
Calculation of the evaporation rate: The evaporation rate of the reservoir is calculated
using a formula that combines the pan evaporation rate, meteorological data, and the
surface area of the reservoir.

Estimation of other water budget components: The other water budget components,
such as precipitation, runoff, and groundwater recharge, are estimated using various
methods such as precipitation gauges, stream gauges, and groundwater monitoring
wells.
Evaluation of the water budget: The water budget is evaluated to determine the overall
water balance of the reservoir. If the output of water exceeds the input, there is a deficit,
which may require the implementation of water conservation measures. If the input
exceeds the output, there is a surplus, which may require the release of water to
downstream users.
Water budget determination is crucial in reservoir management as it helps to identify
potential water shortages or surpluses, which can inform management decisions such
as water allocation, storage capacity, and water release schedules. The accuracy of
water budget determination can be improved by using advanced technologies such as
remote sensing, which can provide more detailed and accurate data on meteorological
conditions and water storage levels.

3: Estimation of Reservoir Evaporation from Pan Evaporation and Related

Meteorological Data Pan evaporation is the rate at which water evaporates from a
standard pan, and it is used to estimate the evaporation rate of a reservoir. However,
pan evaporation rates are not always representative of reservoir evaporation rates, and
adjustments need to be made to account for differences in climate and location. Related
meteorological data, such as temperature and humidity, can also be used to estimate
reservoir evaporation, but these methods also have limitations.
Evaporation from a reservoir is estimated using pan evaporation and related
meteorological data. A pan is a shallow container that is filled with water and placed on
the surface of the reservoir. The pan is used to measure the rate of water evaporation
from the surface of the reservoir under standard meteorological conditions. The
estimation of reservoir evaporation involves the following steps:
Installation of a pan on the surface of the reservoir: A pan is installed on the reservoir's
surface to measure the pan evaporation rate. The pan is typically made of metal and
has a diameter of about one meter.
Measurement of pan evaporation: The pan evaporation rate is measured daily using a
measuring stick to determine the water level in the pan. The pan evaporation rate is the
amount of water that evaporates from the pan's surface under standard meteorological
conditions, which include a clear sky, moderate wind, and no precipitation.
Measurement of meteorological data: Meteorological data such as temperature,
humidity, wind speed, and solar radiation are measured using sensors installed near the
reservoir.
Calculation of the reservoir evaporation rate: The reservoir evaporation rate is
calculated by multiplying the pan evaporation rate by a correction factor that accounts
for the differences in environmental conditions between the pan and the reservoir. The
correction factor is determined based on the comparison of the meteorological data
collected near the pan and the reservoir.
Monitoring and validation: The estimated reservoir evaporation rate is monitored and
validated periodically to ensure that it accurately represents the actual evaporation rate.
Any discrepancies are investigated, and the estimation method is adjusted accordingly.
The estimation of reservoir evaporation from pan evaporation and related
meteorological data is an essential component of water resource management. It
provides critical information for water allocation, reservoir management, and water
conservation efforts. The accuracy of the estimation method can be improved by using
advanced technologies such as remote sensing, which can provide more detailed and
accurate data on meteorological conditions and water storage levels.

4: Increased Water Supplies through Reduced Evaporation Reducing evaporation can

increase water supplies and is especially crucial in regions facing water shortages.
Strategies such as using covers, modifying the reservoir shape, and changing the water
depth can help reduce evaporation rates. For example, floating covers or blankets can
significantly reduce evaporation by preventing the water's direct contact with the
atmosphere. However, these strategies have varying degrees of effectiveness and cost-
effectiveness.
Reducing evaporation is one approach to increase water supplies, particularly in areas
that are experiencing water scarcity. Evaporation can occur from various water sources,
including lakes, rivers, reservoirs, and even agricultural fields. Some strategies that can
be employed to reduce evaporation and increase water supplies include:
Covering water surfaces: Covering the surface of water sources with physical barriers
such as plastic sheets or geomembranes can significantly reduce evaporation rates. For
example, covering a reservoir with a floating cover can reduce evaporation rates by up
to 95%.
Vegetation management: Vegetation management practices such as removing weeds
and trees around water sources can reduce transpiration, which is a form of evaporation
that occurs from plants. This can significantly reduce the overall evaporation rates.
Changing water management practices: Changing water management practices such
as reducing the frequency of water application, using more efficient irrigation systems,
and increasing soil moisture can reduce the amount of water available for evaporation
and increase water supplies.
Using chemical additives: Chemical additives such as monolayers and evaporation
inhibitors can be added to water sources to form a thin layer on the surface, which
reduces evaporation rates.
 Using floating solar panels: Installing floating solar panels on water sources can provide
shading, which reduces solar radiation and lowers water temperatures. This, in turn,
reduces evaporation rates and increases water supplies.
Reducing evaporation can be a cost-effective strategy to increase water supplies,
especially in areas where other sources of water are limited or expensive to develop.
However, it is essential to carefully evaluate the potential impacts of these strategies on
the environment and surrounding ecosystems. Additionally, some of these strategies
may require significant investments in infrastructure, and their effectiveness may vary
depending on the specific water source and local conditions.

Conclusion: Evaporation is a significant factor influencing water availability, and

understanding its control factors is crucial for effective water management. Accurately
estimating reservoir evaporation rates and reducing evaporation can increase water
supplies, especially in regions facing water shortages. However, effective strategies
need to be carefully evaluated for their effectiveness, practicality, and cost-
effectiveness.
References:
1.
Allen, R. G., Pereira, L. S., Raes, D., & Smith, M. (1998). Crop evapotranspiration-
Guidelines for computing crop water requirements-FAO Irrigation and drainage paper
56. FAO, Rome, 300(9), D05109.
2.
3.
Bras, R. L., & Rodriguez‐Iturbe, I. (1985). Random functions and hydrology. Water
Resources Research, 21(8), 1149-1158.
4.
5.
Deo, R. C., & Nathan, G. J. (2016). Impact of temperature and humidity on the
computation of reference evapotranspiration using selected empirical formulae.
Hydrological Sciences Journal, 61(9), 1611-1627.
6.
7.
Hicks, B. B., Jackson, T. J., & Brutsaert, W. (Eds.). (1989). Surface sensing and water
balance methods for estimating evapotranspiration. American Geophysical Union.
8.
9.
 Jensen, M. E., Burman, R. D., & Allen, R. G. (Eds.). (1990). Evapotranspiration and
irrigation water requirements (pp. 1-8). ASCE.
10.
11.
Jia, Y., Sun, F., & Yang, J. (2019). Estimation of evaporation from open water surfaces
using remote sensing: A review. Remote Sensing, 11(8), 938.
12.
13.
Liu, C., Xia, J., & Mitchell, K. E. (2012). Evaluation and reduction of biases in the
NCEP/NCAR reanalysis precipitation data using gage observations. Journal of Climate,
25(1), 173-188.
14.
15.
Ma, Z., Li, Z. L., & Tang, R. H. (2019). Evapotranspiration estimation from remote sensing:
A review. Journal of Hydrology, 569, 573-583.
16.
17.
Snyder, R. L. (2010). Evapotranspiration data sources and models. Advances in Irrigation,
1-23.
18.
19.
Xu, C. Y. (1999). From Gash's theory to a simple formula for estimation of evaporation.
Hydrological Processes: An International Journal, 13(9), 1457-1467.
20.