1.

DERIVATIVE AS A RATE MEASURE:

The meaning of differential coefficient can be interpreted as rate of change of the dependent
dy
variable with respect to the independent variable, for example is the rate of change of y with
dx
dv ds
respect to x. Similarly and etc. represent the rate of change of volume and surface area
dt dt
w.r.t. time.

Illustration 1:
1 3
Displacement ‘s’ of a particle at time ‘t’ is expressed as s = t  6t , find the acceleration at the
2
time when the velocity vanishes (i.e., velocity tends to zero).
Solution:
1 3
s = t  6t
2
ds  3t 2 
Thus velocity, v     6
dt  2 
dv d 2s
and acceleration, a    3t
dt dt 2
3t 2
Velocity vanishes when 6 = 0
2
 t2 = 4  t = 2
Thus acceleration when velocity vanishes is a = 3t = 6 units.

Illustration 2:
On the curve x3 = 12y, find the interval of values of x for which the abscissa changes at a faster rate
than the ordinate?
Solution:
Given x3 = 12y, differentiating with respect to y
dx
3x2 12
dy
dx 12
 
dy 3x 2
The interval in which the abscissa changes at a faster rate than the ordinate, we must have
dx 12
  1 or 1
dy 3x 2

4 4  x2
or  1  0
x2 x2
 x ( 2, 2)  {0} .
Thus x  (–2, 2) – {0} is the required interval in which abscissa changes at a faster rate than
the ordinate.
 Drill Exercise - 1
1. A point is moving along the curve y3 = 27 x. Find the interval of values of x in which
the ordinate changes faster then abscissa.
2. An edge of a variable cube is increasing at the rate of 3 cm per second. How fast is the
volume of the cube increasing when the edge is 10 cm long ?

3. An inverted cone has a depth of 10 cm and a base of radius 5 cm. Water is poured into it
at the rate of 1.5 cm3/sec. Find the rate at which level of water in the cone is rising, when
the depth of water is 4 cm.
4. Water is dripping out from a conical funnel, at the uniform rate of 2 cm3/sec through a tiny
hole at the vertex at the bottom. When the slant height of the water is 4 cm, find the rate of
decrease of the slant height of the water given that the vertical angle of the funnel is 1200.

2. ANGLE OF INTERSECTION OF TWO CURVES:

Let y = f(x) and y = g(x) be two given intersecting curves. Angle of intersection of these curves is
defined as the acute angle between the tangents that can be drawn to the given curves at the point
of intersection.
Let (x1 , y1) be the point of intersection.  y1  f (x1 )  g(x1 )

 df 
Slope of the tangent drawn to the curve y = f(x) at (x1, y1) i.e., m1 =  dx 
  ( x1 ,y1 )

 dg 
Similarly slope of the tangent drawn to the curve y = g(x) at (x1, y1) i.e., m2 =  dx 
( x1 , y1 )

m1  m 2
If  be the angle (acute) of intersection, then tan  = 1  m m .
1 2

If  = 0, then m1 = m2 . Thus the given curves will touch each other at (x 1 , y1)

If   , then m1 m2 = –1. Thus the given curves will meet at right angles at (x1, y1) (or curves cut
2
each other orthogonally at (x1, y1)).
Illustration 3:
Find the acute angle between the curves y = |x2 – 1| and y = |x2 – 3| at their points of intersection.
Solution:

2
y =|x -1| 2
y =|x -3|

(– 3 , 0 ) (-1, 0) (1, 0)
( 3 , 0)
 The points of intersection are (  2,1)
Since the curves are symmetrical about y-axis,
the angle of intersection at (  2,1)
= the angle of intersection at ( 2 , 1).
At ( 2 , 1), m1 =2x = 2 2 , m2 = –2x = –2 2 .

4 2 4 2 4 2
 tan       tan 1
1 8 7 7
Drill Exercise - 2

Find the angle of intersection of the following curves :

1. y = 4 - x2 and y = x2.
2. y2 = 4ax and x2 = 4by, where a > 0 and b > 0

3. Show that the curves y = 2 sin2 x and y = cos 2 x intersects each other at x = . Also find
6
the angle of intersection.

4. Find the condition that the curves ax2 + by2 = 1 and a x2 + b y2 = 1 intersect orthogonally

x2 y2 x2 y2
and hence show that the curves, 2 + 2 = 1 and 2 + 2 =1
a  k 1 b  k1 a  k2 b  k2
intersect orthogonally.
3. EQUATIONS OF TANGENT AND NORMAL:
Cartesian Equations: The angle  which the tangent at any point (x, y) on the curve y = f(x)
makes with x-axis, is given by
dy
tan    f (x) .
dx
Thus, the equation of the tangent at the point (x, y) on the curve y = f(x) is
Y – y = f (x) (X – x)
Where (X, Y) is an arbitrary point on the tangent.
The equation of the normal at (x, y) to the curve y = f(x) is
Y – y = –[1/ f  (x)] (X – x)  (X – x) + f  (x) (Y – y) = 0, f  (x)  0.

Illustration 4:
Find the equation of normal to the curve x + y = xy, where it cuts the x-axis.
Solution:
Given curve is x + y = xy
at x-axis y = 0,
x + 0 = x0  x = 1
Now to differentiate x + y = xy, take log on both sides
  ln(x + y) = y ln x
1  dy  1 dy
 1    y  (ln x )
x  y  dx  x dx
Putting x = 1, y = 0, we get
 dy   dy 
1    0   dx    1
 dx   (1,0)
 slope of normal = 1
y0
Equation of normal is,  1  y = x – 1.
x 1
Drill Exercise - 3

1. Find the parameters a, b, c if the curve y = ax2 + bx + c is to pass through the point (1, 2)
and is to be tangent to the line y = x at the origin.

x y
2. Show that the line   1 touches the curve y = b e  x / a at the point where it crosses the y-axis.
a b
3. Show that the angle between the tangent at any point P and the line joining P to the origin
‘O’ is the same at all points of the curve n (x2 + y2) = c tan–1 (y/x) where c is constant.
4. Find the equation of tangent to the curve whose parametric equations are,

x = a cos 2 t .cos t ; y = a cos 2 t .sin t at t = .
6

5. If the tangent at (x1, y1) to the curve x3 + y3 = a3 meets the curve again at (x2, y2) show that
x2 y2
  1 .
x1 y1

4. LENGTHS OF THE TANGENT, NORMAL, SUB-TANGENT AND SUB-NORMAL

AT ANY POINT OF A CURVE:
Let the tangent and the normal at any point (x, y) of the curve y = f(x) meet the x-axis at T and G
respectively. Draw the ordinate PM.
Then the lengths TM, MG are called the sub-tangent and sub-normal respectively.
The lengths PT, PG are sometimes referred to as the lengths of the tangent and the normal
respectively.
Clearly MPG  
dy
Also tan  
dx
From the figure, we have
 (i) Length of Tangent
y = f(x)
Y
= TP = MP |cosec  | = | y| (1  cot2 ) P

  dx 2  y
= | y | 1   dy  
   
T M G X
dx
(ii) Length of Sub-tangent = TM = MP | cot  | | y |
dy

  dy 2 
(iii) Length of Normal = GP = MP |sec  | = | y| (1 tan2 )  | y | 1   dx  
   
dy
(iv) Length of Sub-normal = MG = MP| tan  | | y |
dx
Illustration 5:
Find the equation of family of curves for which the length of normal at any point P is equal to the
distance of ‘P’ from origin.
Solution:
Let P(x, y) be the point on the curve.
OP = radius vector = x 2  y2
PN = length of normal
1 Y Tangent
Now, tan   
 dy  P(x, y)
 
 dx 
y
y mal
PN  Nor
 
sin 
N O X
It is given OP = PN
2
2 2  dy 
 x  y  y 1  
 dx 

2 2 2
  dy  2   dy 
2
dy x
 x  y  y 1 
     x =y   
2 2 
  dx    dx  dx y
 ydy =  x dx integrating both sides,
y2 =  x2 + c is the required family of curves.

Drill Exercise - 4
x
1. Consider the curve y = c e . Prove that the subtangent is constant and the tangent at (x1 , y1) on
a

the curve intersects the x-axis at the distance of (x1 – a) from the origin. Also find the equation of
normal to the curve where the curve cut y-axes.
2. Find the length of tangent and normal at t, to the curve x = asin3t, y = acos3t.

3. If p be the length of the perpendicular drawn from the origin upon the tangent to the curve.
x = a cos  + a  sin , y = a sin  – a  cosat the point , then prove that :
p 

a a  a 2  y2
4. Prove that the portion of the tangent to the curve x = a 2  y 2  log
2 a  a 2  y2
between the point of contact and the x-axis is of length a.

5. ROLLE’S THEOREM:
It is one of the most fundamental theorem of differential calculus and has far reaching consequences.
It states that if y = f(x) be a given function and satisfies,
 f(x) is continuous in [a, b]
 f(x) is differentiable in (a, b)
 f(a) = f(b)

Then f (x) = 0 at least once for some x  (a, b).

Geometrical Interpretation Y
If the graph of y = f (x) has the ordinates at two C
point A, B equal, and if the graph be continuous
throughout the interval fromA to B and if the curve B
A
has a tangent at every point on it from A to B
except possibly at the two extreme points A and X
B, then there exists a point between A and B O x=a x=c x=b
where the tangent is parallel to the x-axis.
Illustration 6:
Let f(x) = x2 – 3x + 4. Verify Rolle’s theorem in [1, 2].
Solution:
f(1) = f(2) = 2
3
Now, f (x) = 0  2x – 3 = 0  x   (1, 2 ) .
2
Hence, Rolle’s theorem is verified.

Illustration 7:
Let f(x) = (x – a) (x – b)(x – c), a < b < c, show that f (x) = 0 has two roots one belonging to
(a, b) and other belonging to (b, c).
Solution :
Here, f(x) being a polynomial is continuous and differentiable for all real values of x. We also have
f(a) = f(b) = f(c). If we apply Rolle’s theorem to f(x) in [a, b] and [b,c] we would observe that
f (x) = 0 would have at least one root in (a, b) and at least one root in (b, c). But f (x) is a
 polynomial of degree two, hence f (x) = 0 can not have more than two roots. It implies that
exactly one root of f (x) = 0 would lie in (a, b) and exactly one root of f (x) = 0 would lie in (b, c).
Remarks:
Let y = f(x) be a polynomial function of degree n. If f(x) = 0 has real roots only, then f (x) = 0,
f (x) = 0, ... , f n–1(x) = 0 would have only real roots. It is so because if f(x) = 0 has all real roots,
then between two consecutive roots of f(x) = 0, exactly one roots of f (x) = 0
would lie.

Illustration 8:
a0 a a
Prove that if a0, a1, a2, ..., an are real numbers such that  1  ...  n 1  a n  0
n 1 n 2
then there exists at least one real number x between 0 and 1 such that
a0xn + a1xn–1 + a2 xn–2 + ... + an = 0,
Solution :
Consider a function f defined as
a 0 n 1 a1 n a
f(x) = x  x  ...  n 1 x 2  a n x, x [0,1]
n 1 n 2
f being a polynomial satisfies the following conditions.
(i) f is continuous in [0, 1]
(ii) f is derivable in (0, 1)
(iii) Since f(0) = 0 and f(1) = 0 by hypothesis,
 f(0) = f(1)
Hence there is some x (0, 1) such that f  (x) = 0
a0 a a
 (n  1) x n  1 nx n 1  ...  n 1 .2x  a n  0
n 1 n 2
 a0xn + a1xn–1 + ..... + a n 1 x  a n  0

6. LAGRANGE’S MEAN VALUE THEOREM (LMVT):

If a function f is
(i) continuous in a closed interval [a, b] and
(ii) derivable in the open interval (a, b), then there exists at least one value c  (a, b) such that
f (b)  f (a)
 f  (c) .
ba

Geometrical Interpretation:
f (b)  f (a)
Let P be a point [c, f (c)] on the curve y = f(x) such that  f (c)
ba
f (b)  f (a)
The slope of the chord AB is and that of the tangent at P(c,f(c)) is f  (c). These being
ba
equal, it follows that there exists a point P on the curve, the tangent which is parallel to the
chord AB.
 Y Y P2
P P1
B
B
A A P3

X
O L M X O L M

Illustration 9:
If f(x) and g(x) be differentiable functions in (a, b), continuous at a and b and g(x)  0 in [a, b],
then prove that
g(a) f (b)  f (a) g(b) (b  a) g(a) g(b)
 2 for atleast one c  (a, b) .
g(c) f (c)  f (c) g(c)  g(c) 
Solution:
We have to prove (after rearranging the terms)
f (b) f (a)

g(b) g(a) g(c) f (c)  f (c) g(c)

(b  a) (g(c)) 2

f (x)
Let F(x) =
g(x)
As f(x) and g(x) are differentiable function in (a, b), F(x) will also be differentiable in (a, b). Further
F is continuous at a and b. So according to LMVT, there exist one c  (a, b) such that
F(b)  F(a)
F(c)  , which proves the required result.
ba

Illustration 10:
If f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) then prove that there exists atleast one
f (c) f (b)  f (a)
c  (a, b) such that  .
3c 2 b3  a 3
Solution:
We have to prove
(b3 – a3) f (c) – (f(b) – f(a)) (3c2) = 0
Let us assume a function
F(x) = (b3 – a3) f(x) – (f(b) – f(a)) x3
which will be continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) as f(x) and x3 both are continuous.
Also F(a) = b3f(a) – a3 f(b) = F(b)
So, according to Rolle’s theorem, there exists atleast one c  (a, b) such that, F(c)  0 , which
proves the required result.
 Drill Exercise - 5
1. Verify Lagrange’s mean value theorem for the function, f(x) = (x - 3) (x - 6) (x - 9) on the
interval [3, 5].

2. If 2a + 3b + 6c = 0, then prove that the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has at least one real
root in (0, 1).

3. Without trying to solve the equation, show that between x = – 2 and x = – 1, there lies one
and only one real root of x4 + 3x + 1 = 0.

4. Let f be differentiable for all x. If f(1) = –2 and f (x)  2 for all x  [1, 6] . Then prove that
f(6)  8.

1  1
5. Let f(x) = x sin for x  0 and f(0) = 0. Prove that in the interval 0,  , there are
x  
infinitely many values of x, where f  vanishes.

6. Let ,  (  ) be two real roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. By using Rolle’ss

b
theorem, show that lies between  and  .
2a
7. Prove that if an interval (a, b) contains k roots of a real polynomial p(x) then it, contains at
least k – 1 roots of p( x ) .

7. MONOTONICITY :
Let y = f(x) be a given function with D as it’s domain.
Let D1  D, then

7.1 Increasing Function

f(x) is said to be increasing in D1 if for every x1, x2  D1 ,
x1  x 2  f (x1 )  f (x 2 )
It means that there is a certain increase in the value of f(x)
with an increase in the value of x (Refer to the adjacent figure).

7.2 Non-Decreasing Function

f(x) is said to be non-decreasing in D1 if for every x1, x2  D1 ,
x1 > x2  f(x1)  f(x2). It means that the value of f(x)
would never decrease with an increase in the value of x
(Refer to the adjacent figure).
7.3 Decreasing Function
f(x) is said to be decreasing in D1
if for every x1, x 2  D1 , x1 > x2  f(x1) < f(x2)
it means that there is a certain decrease
in the value of f(x) with an increase in the value of x
(Refer to the adjacent figure).

7.4 Non-increasing Function

f(x) is said to be non-increasing in D1
if for every x1. x2  D1, x1 > x2  f(x1)  f(x2).
It means that the value of f(x) would
never increase with an increase in the value of x
(Refer to the adjacent figure).
7.5 Basic Theorems
Let y = f(x) be a given function, continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b). Then
 f(x) is increasing in (a, b) if f (x)  0  x  (a, b) .
 f(x) is non-decreasing in (a, b) if f (x)  0  x  (a, b) .
 f(x) is decreasing in (a, b) if f (x)  0  x  (a, b) .
 f(x) is non-increasing in (a, b) if f (x)  0  x  (a, b) .
Remarks :
(i) If f (x)  0  x  (a, b) and points which make f (x) equal to zero (in between (a, b))
don’t form an interval, then f(x) would be increasing in (a, b).
(ii) If f (x)  0  x  (a,b) and points which make f (x) equal to zero (in between (a, b))
don’t form an interval, f(x) would be decreasing in (a, b).
(iii) If f(0) = 0 and f (x)  0  x  R, then f (x)  0  x  ( , 0) and f (x)  0  x  (0,  ) .
(iv) If f(0) = 0 and f (x)  0  x  R then f (x)  0  x  ( , 0) and f (x)  0x  (0, ).
(v) A function is said to be monotonic if it’s either increasing or decreasing.
(vi) The points for which f (x) is equal to zero or doesn’t exist are called critical points. Here
it should also be noted that critical points are the interior points of the domain of the
function.
(vii) The stationary points are the points of the domain where f (x) = 0.
(viii) If f  ( x) = 0 or dose not exist at points where f ( x) exists and if f  ( x) changes sign when
passing through x = x0 and f ( x) doesn’t change its sign then x0 is called a point of
inflection.
If f  ( x) < 0, x ( a , b) then the curve y = f(x) is convex in (a, b)
If f  ( x) > 0, x ( a , b) then the curve y = f(x) is concave in (a, b)
At the point of inflection, the curve changes its concavity.
Illustration 11:
(i) Find t he critical points and t he intervals of increase and decrease for
f(x) = 3x4 – 8x3 – 6x2 + 24x + 7.
(ii) Find the intervals of monotonicity of the following functions:
(a) f(x) = x4 – 8x3 + 22x2 – 24x + 7
(b) f(x) = x ln x
Solution:
(i) f(x) = 3x4 – 8x3 – 6x2 + 24x + 7
f (x) = 12x3 – 24x2 – 12x + 24 = 0 sign scheme for f (x) :
3 2
 12(x – 2x – x + 2) = 0
 12(x – 1) (x – 2) (x + 1) = 0
Critical points are –1, 1 and 2.
The wavy curve of the derivative is given in the figure.
Hence function increases in the interval [–1, 1]  [2,  ) and

decreases in the interval (–  , –1]  [1, 2].

(ii) (a) we have
f(x) = x4 – 8x3 + 22x2 – 24x + 7, x  R
 f (x)  4x3  24x2  44x  24  4(x 1)(x  2)(x  3)
From the sign scheme for f  (x), we can see that f(x)
decreases in (–  , 1]
increases in [1, 2]
decreases in [2, 3]
and increases in [3,  ).
(b) we have f(x) = x ln x , x > 0
 f  (x) = lnx + 1 < 0 x  e 1
 f(x) decreases in (0, e–1]
increases in [e–1,  ).

Illustration 12:
Prove the following inequalities :
x2
(a) ln(1 + x) > x – x (0, ) (b) sin x < x < tan x x  0,  
2  2
Solution:
(a) Consider the function
x2
f(x) = ln (1 + x) – x + , x (0, )
2
1 x2
Then f (x)  1  x   0 x  (0, )
1 x 1 x
 f(x) increases in (0,  )  f(x) > f(0+) = 0
 x2
i.e., ln(1 + x) > x –
2
which is the desired result.
(b) Consider the function
 
f(x) = tanx – x, x  0, 
 2

2  
f (x) = sec x  1 0 x  0, 
 2
 
Thus f(x) increases in  0,   f(x) > f(0) = 0
 2
i.e., tanx > x
Now, consider the function
 
g(x) = x –sin x, x   0, 
 2
x  
Then g (x) = 1 – cosx = 2 sin2    0 x   0, 
2  2
 
 g(x) increases in  0,   g(x)  g(0) = 0 i.e., sinx < x
 2

Drill Exercise - 6
Find the intervals of monotonicity for the following functions :
2
4 x
1. f(x) = 2. e x

2. f(x) = cos
x

3. Find the values ‘a’ for which the function f(x) = (a + 2)x3 - 3a x2 + 9a x - 1 decreases for all real
values of x.
F
Gx I
2

H2 JK f (6  x ) for all x  R . It is given that

2
4. Discuss the monotonicity of g(x), where g(x) = 2 f

f  ( x)  0 for all x  R .

Prove the following

5. 2x > 3 sin x - x cos x for all x ( 0,  / 2) .
tan x x
7.  for 0  x   / 2 .
x sin x
 8. MAXIMA AND MINIMA OF A FUNCTION:
8.1. CONCEPT OF LOCAL MAXIMA AND LOCAL MINIMA
Let y = f(x) be a function defined at x = a and also in the vicinity of the point x = a. Then, f(x) is said
to have a local maximum at x = a, if the value of the function at x = a is greater than the value of the
function at the neighboring points of x = a. Mathematically, f(a) > f(a – h) and f(a) > f(a + h) where
h > 0 (very small quantity).

a–h a a + h a–h a a + h
Local maxima Local minima
Similarly, f(x) is said to have a local minimum at x = a, if the value of the function at x = a is less than
the value of the function at the neighboring points of x = a.
Mathematically, f(a) < f(a – h) and f(a) < f(a + h) where h > 0.
A local maximum or a local minimum is also called a local extremum.
8.2 Tests for Local Maxima/Minima
8.2.1 Test for Local Maximum/Minimum at x = a if f(x) is Differentiable at x = a.
If f(x) is differentiable at x = a and if it is a critical point of the function (i.e., f (a) = 0) then we have
the following three tests to decide whether f(x) has a local maximum or local minimum or neither at
x = a.

First Derivative Test :

If f (a) = 0 and f (x) changes it’s sign while passing through the point x = a, then
(i) f(x) would have a local maximum at x = a if f (a  0) > 0 and f (a  0) < 0. It means that
f (x) should change it’s sign from positive to negative.
(ii) f(x) would have a local minimum at x = a if f (a  0) < 0 and f (a  0) > 0. It means that
f (x) should change it’s sign from negative to positive.
(iii) If f(x) doesn’t change it’s sign while passing through x = a, then f(x) would have neither a
maximum nor a minimum at x = a.
Second Derivative Test:
This test is basically the mathematical representation of the first derivative test. It simply says that,
(i) If f (a) = 0 and f (a)  0, then f(x) would have a local maximum at x = a.
(ii) If f (a) = 0 and f (a)  0, then f(x) would have a local minimum at x = a.
(iii) If f (a) = 0 and f (a)  0, then this test fails and the existence of a local maximum/minimum
at x = a is decided on the basis of the nth derivative test.

nth Derivative Test

It is nothing but the general version of the second derivative test, It says that if,
f (a)  f (a)  f (a)  ....f n (a)  0 and f n 1 (a)  0 (all derivatives of the function up to order n
 vanishes and (n + 1)th order derivative does not vanish at x = a), then f(x) would have a local
maximum or local minimum at x = a if n is odd natural number and that x = a would be a point of
local maxima if f n+1 (a) < 0 and would be a point of local minima if f n+1 (a) > 0. However if n is
even, then f has neither a maxima nor a minima at x = a.
It is clear that the last two tests are basically the mathematical representation of the first derivative
test. But that shouldn’t diminish the importance of these tests. Because at that times it becomes
very difficult to decide whether f (x) changes it’s sign or not while passing through point x = a,
and the remaining tests may come handy in these kind of situations.

Illustration 15:
1
Let f(x) = x + , x  0 . Discuss the maximum and minimum values of f(x).
x
Solution:
Here,
1 x 2  1 (x  1) (x  1)
f  (x) = 1 –  f (x)  
x2 x2 x2
sign scheme for f (x) :
+ – +
–1 1
Using number line rule, we have maximum at x = –1 and minimum at x = 1
 at x = –1 we have local maximum  fmax(x) = – 2
and at x = 1 we have local minimum  fmin(x) = 2

8.2.2. Test for Local Maximum/Minimum at x = a if f(x) is not differentiable at x = a

Case 1 : When f(x) is continuous at x = a and f  (a – h) and f  (a + h) exist and are non-zero, then
f(x) has a local maximum or minimum at x = a if f  (a – h) and f  (a + h) are of opposite signs.
If f  (a – h) > 0 and f  (a + h) < 0 then x = a will be a point of local maximum.
If f  (a – h) < 0 and f  (a + h) > 0 then x = a will be a point of local minimum.
Case 2: When f(x) is continuous and f  (a – h) and f  (a + h) exist but one of them is zero, we
should infer the information about the existence of local maxima/minima from the basic definition of
local maxima/minima.
Case 3: If f(x) is not continuous at x = a and f  (a – h) and/or f  (a + h) are not finite, then
compare the values of f(x) at the neighboring points of x = a.

Remark: It is advisable to draw the graph of the function in the vicinity of the point x = a because
the graph would given us the clear picture about the existence of local maxima/minima
at x = a.

Illustration 16:
x 3  x 2  10x, x  0
Let f(x) =  . Investigate x = 0 for local maxima/ minima.
 3sin x, x 0
Solution:
Clearly f(x) is continuous at x = 0 but not differentiable at x = 0 as f(0) = f(0 – 0) = f (0 + 0) = 0
f (  h)  f (0) h 3  h 2  10h  0
f   (0)  lim  lim = 10
h 0 h h 0 h
f (h)  f (0) 3sinh
But f  (0)  lim  lim 3
h0 h h 0 h
Since f  (0)  0 and f  (0)  0, x  0 is the point of local maximum.

Drill Exercise - 7

Find the local maximum and minimum values for the following functions :

1. f(x) = 2x3 - 21x2 + 36x - 20

x
2. Find the local maximum value of the function y = , 1 x 4.
(x  1) (x  4)
5 2 3 2
3. For what real values of ‘a’ are all the extrema for the function f(x) = a x  2ax  9 x  b are
3
positive and the function has a maximum at the point x = -5/9.

4. Show that all the rectangles with a given perimeter, the square has the largest area.

5. A chord of length 2a divides a circle area of radius r into segments. Find the sides of the rectangle
with the largest area that can be inscribed in the smaller segment.

9. CONCEPT OF GLOBAL MAXIMUM/MINIMUM:

Let y = f(x) be a given function with domain D. Let [a, b]  D. Global maximum/minimum of f(x) in
[a, b] is basically the greatest/least value of f(x) in [a, b].
Global maximum and minimum in [a, b] would always occur at critical points of f(x) within [a, b] or
at the end points of the interval, if f is continuous in [a, b].
9.1 Global Maximum/Minimum in [a, b]
In order to find the global maximum and minimum of a continuous function f(x) in [a, b], find out all
the critical points of f(x) in (a, b). Let c1, c2, ... , cn be the different critical points. Find the value of
the function at these critical points. Let f(c1), f(c2), .... , f(cn) be the values of the function at critical
points.
Say, M1 = max {f(a), f(c1), f(c2), .... , f(cn) , f(b)}
and M2 = min {f(a), f(c), f(c2), ..., f(cn), f(b)}
Then M1 is the greatest value of f(x) in [a, b] and M2 is the least value of f(x) in [a, b].
9.2 Global Maximum/Minimum in (a, b)
Method for obtaining the greatest and least values of f(x) in (a, b) is almost same as the method
used for obtaining the greatest and least values in [a, b] however with a caution.
Let y = f(x) be a continuous function and c1, c2 ... c3 be the different critical points of the function
in (a, b).
 Let M1 = max. {f(c1), f(c2), f(c3) .... f(cn)}
and M2 = min {f(c1), f(c2), f(c3) ... f(cn)}
lim
Now if (orx xa b0 0) f(x) > M1 or < M2 , f(x) would not have global maximum (or global minimum) in
(a, b).
This means that if the limiting values at the end points are greater than M1 or less than M2, then f(x)
lim
would not have global maximum/minimum in (a, b). On the other hand if M1 > (and x a 0 f(x) and
x b  0)

lim
M2 < (and
x a  0 f(x), then M1 and M2 would respectively be the global maximum and global minimum
x  b  0)
of f(x) in (a, b).

Illustration 17:
let f(x) = 2x3 – 9x2 + 12x + 6. Discuss the global maximum and minimum of f(x) in [0, 2] and
in (1, 3).
Solution:
f(x) = 2x3 – 9x2 + 12x + 6
 f (x) = 6x2 – 18x + 12 = 6 (x2 – 3x + 2) = 6 (x – 1) (x– 2)
First of all let us discuss [0, 2].
Clearly the critical point of f(x) in [0, 2] is x = 1.
f(0) = 6, f(1) = 11, f(2) = 10
Thus x = 0 is the point of global minimum of f(x) in [0, 2] and x = 1 is the point of global maximum.
Now let us consider (1, 3)
Clearly, x = 2 is the only critical point in (1, 3),
f(2) = 10 , lim f (x) = 11 and lim f (x) = 15
x 1 0 x 3 0
Thus x = 2 is the point of global minimum in (1, 3) and the global maximum in (1, 3) does not exist.

Drill Exercise - 8
Find the maximum and minimum values for the following functions :
1. f(x) = x + sin 2x, x [0, 2]
2. f(x) = x2 log x, x  1, e

Discuss the global maxima/minima of following functions in the given interval.

3. f(x) = 3x4 – 2x3 – 6x2 + 6x + 1 in [0, 2]

4. f(x) = sinx sin2x in (–  ,  )

 ANSWER
Drill Exercise - 1

3
1. x (-1, 1) – {0} 2. 900cm3/sec 3. cm/sec
8
1
4. cm / sec
3
Drill Exercise - 2

F4 2 I at d2 , 2i ; tan F4 2 I at d 2 , 2i
1. tan 1 G
H7 JK G
H7 JK
1

 3a1/3b1/ 3 
 tan 1
   2
2. at (0, 0) ; 1/3 2/3 2/3 1/3 or
2  
 2 a 2 /3  b 2 /3   at (4 a b , 4 a b ) 3.
3 3

1 1 1 1
4.   
a b a  b
Drill Exercise - 3

2
1. a = 1, b = 1, c = 0 4. y = a
4
Drill Exercise - 4
1. cy + ax = c2 2. Length of tangent = |y sect| ; Normal = |y cosect|

Drill Exercise - 6

1. D in ( , 2] and I in [2, )

F
G 1 I
H2K  1 2 K JKDecreasing in,  2K1 2 ,
1 1 
2. Increasing in ,
 , K I
2K  1 

4.    3,  
I   3, 0 

D   ,  3    0, 3 
5. (-  , -3)
Drill Exercise - 7

1. local max. at x = 1, max. value = -3, local min. at x = 6, min. value = -128
2. –1

3. a = 81/ 25 then b  ( 400 / 243, )

1 9r 2  a 2  3 r 2  a 2
5. 6r 2  2a 2  2 ( r 2  a 2 )(9 r 2  a 2 ) ,
2 4
Drill Exercise - 8

1. max. at x = 2 , max. value = 2 ; min. at x = 0, min. value = 0

2. max. value = e2, min. value of = 0

3. Global minimum value = 1, Global maximum value = 21

4 4
4. Global minimum value =  , Global maximum value =
3 3 3 3