1.

DEFINITION
A scalar is a quantity, which has only magnitude but does not have a direction. For example time,
mass, temperature, distance and specific gravity etc. are scalars.
A Vector is a quantity which has magnitude, direction and follow the law of parallelogram
(addition of two vectors). For example displacement, force, acceleration are vectors.

(a) There are different ways of denoting a vector : a or a or a are different ways. We use for
  
our convenience a , b, c etc. to denote vectors, and a, b, c to denote their magnitude.
 
Magnitude of a vector a is also written as | a | .

(b) A vector a may be represented by a line segment OA and arrow gives direction of this
vector. Length of the line segment gives the magnitude of the vector.

O A
Here O is the initial point and
A is the terminal point of OA

2. ADDITION OF TWO VECTORS

  
Let OA  a , AB  b and OB  c .
   
Here c is sum (or resultant) of vectors a and b . It is to be noticed that the initial point of b
 
coincides with the terminal point of a and the line joining the initial point of a to the terminal point
  
of b represents vector a  b in magnitude and direction.
B

c = ab
b

O
a A

2.1 PROPERTIES :
   
(i) ab ba, (Vector addition is commutative)
     
(ii) a  ( b  c )  (a  b )  c , (Vector addition is associative)
     
(iii) | a  b || a |  | b | , equality holds when a and b are like vectors
     
(iv) | a  b |  || a |  | b || , equality holds when a and b are unlike vectors
(v)     
a 0 a  0a
    
(vi) a  (  a )  0  ( a )  a

3. TYPE OF VECTORS
(i) Equal Vectors
Two vectors are said to be equal if and only if they have equal magnitudes and same
 A B
AB = CD
direction. C D
As well as direction is same
(ii) Zero Vector (null vector)
A vector whose initial and terminal points are same, is called the null vector. For example

AA . Such vector has zero magnitude and no direction, and denoted by 0 .

AB  BC  CA  AA or AB  BC  CA  0
C

A B
(iii) Like and Unlike Vectors
Two vectors are said to be
(a) Like, when they have same direction.

 
(b) Unlike, when they are in opposite directions. a and – a are two unlike vectors as
 
their directions are opposite, a and 3 a are like vectors.

(iv) Unit Vector

A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is unity. We write, unit vector in the direction of

a
a as â . Therefore â   .
|a|
(v) Parallel vectors
Two or more vectors are said to be parallel, if they have the same support or parallel
support. Parallel vectors may have equal or unequal magnitudes and direction may be
same or opposite. As shown in figure
O a
A
b
C B
c
E D
(vi) Position Vector
If P is any point in the space then the vector OP is called position vector of point P ,
where O is the origin of reference. Thus for any points A and B in the space,
AB  OB  OA

(vii) Co-initial vectors

Vectors having same initial point are called co-initial vectors. As shown in figure:
Here OA, OB, OC and OD are co-initial vectors.
 D A

d a

C O B
c b

Drill Exercise - 1
 
1. If a , b are any two vectors, then give the geometrical interpretation of the relation;
   
|a b|  |a b|

2. If the sum of two unit vectors is a unit vector, prove that the magnitude of their difference is 3 .

3. If G is the centroid of the triangle ABC and if G is the centroid of another triangle ABC then
prove that : AA + BB + CC = 3GG

4. P, Q, R are the points on the sides AB, BC and CA respectively of ABC such that
AP : PB = BQ : QC = AR : RC = 1 : 2. Show that PBQR is a parallelogram.

5. If O is the circumcentre and P the orthocentre of ABC, prove that

(i) OA + OB + OC = OP (ii) PA + PB + PC = 2 PO

4. MULTIPLICATION OF VECTOR BY SCALARS :

  
If a is a vector and m is a scalar, then m a is a vector parallel to a whose modulus is | m | times that
  
of a . This multiplication is called Scalar Multiplication. If a and b are vectors and m, n are
scalars, then :
     
m( a ) = ( a )m = m a m(n a ) = n(m a ) = (mn) a
      
(m + n) a = m a + n a m( a + b ) = m a + m b

Illustration 1:
 
If a and b are the vectors determined by two adjacent sides of a regular hexagon, what are the
vectors determined by the other sides taken in order?
Solution:
 
OABCDE is a regular hexagon. Let OA  a and AB  b . Join OB and OC
D C
We have
 
OB  OA  AB  a  b
E B

Since OC is parallel to AB and double of AB. b

O A
a
 
 OC  2AB  2b
  
Now BC  OC  OB  2b  (a  b)  b  a
 
CD  OA  a and DE   AB   b
   
Also EO  BC  (b  a )  a  b

Drill Exercise - 2

1. Find a vector of magnitude (5/2) units which is parallel to the vector 3 î + 4 ˆj .

2. Given three points whose position vectors are x î  yĵ  zk̂ , î  zˆj and  î  ĵ . Find the condition
for the points to be collinear.

     
3. If c = 3 a + 4 b and 2 c = a – 3 b , show that
   
(i) c and a have the same direction and | c |> |a|
   
(ii) c and b have opposite direction and | c |> |b|

5. LINEAR COMBINATIONS :
      
Given a finite set of vectors a , b , c ,...... then the vector r  xa  yb  zc  ........ is called a
  
linear combination of a , b , c ,...... for any x, y, z ..... R . We have the following results:

     
(i) If a , b are non zero, non-collinear vectors then xa  yb  x' a  y' b  x  x' ; y  y'

 
(ii) FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM : Let a , b be non zero , non collinear vectors . Then any
  
vector r coplanar with a , b can be expressed uniquely as a linear combination of
    
a , b i.e. There exist some unique x,y R such that xa  yb  r .

  
(iii) If a , b , c are non-zero, non-coplanar vectors then :
     
xa  yb  zc  x' a  y' b  z' c  x  x' , y  y' , z  z'

  
(iv) FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM IN SPACE : Let a , b , c be non-zero, non-coplanar vectors

in space . Then any vector r , can be uniquely expressed as a linear combination of
      
a , b , c i.e. There exist some unique x,y  R such that xa  yb  zc  r .
  
(v) If x1 , x 2 ,...... x n are n non zero vectors, & k 1, k2, .....kn are n scalars & if the
  
linear combination k1x1  k 2 x 2 ........ k n x n  0  k1  0, k 2  0..... k n  0 then
   
we say that vectors x1 , x 2 ,...... x n are LINEARLY INDEPENDENT VECTORS .
  
(vi) If x1 , x 2 ,...... x n are not LINEARLY INDEPENDENT then they are said to be
  
LINEARLY DEPENDENT vectors . i.e. if k1x1  k 2 x 2  ........  k n x n  0 & if
  
there exists at least one kr ¹ 0 then x1 , x 2 ,...... x n are said to be LINEARLY DEPENDENT
    
Note 1 : If kr ¹ 0 ; k1x1  k 2 x 2  k 3x 3  .......  k r x r  ......  k n x n  0
     
 k r x r  k1x1  k 2 x 2  .......  k r 1 . x r 1  k r 1 . x r 1 ...... k n x n
1  1  1  1  1 
k r x r  k1 x1  k 2 x 2  ..... k r 1. x r 1 ..... k n xn
kr kr kr kr kr
     
x r  c1x1  c 2 x 2 ...... c r 1x r 1  c r x r 1 ...... c n x n

i.e. x r is expressed as a linear combination of vectors .
    
x1 , x 2 ,.......... x r 1 , x r 1 ,........... x n
     
Hence x r with x1 , x 2 ,.... x r 1 , x r 1 .... x n forms a linearly dependent set of vectors .

Note 2 :
 
(i) If a = 3i + 2j + 5k then a is expressed as a LINEAR COMBINATION of vectors i, j, k.

Also, a , i, j, k form a linearly dependent set of vectors . In general , every set of four
vectors is a linearly dependent system.
(ii) i , j , k are LINEARLY INDEPENDENT set of vectors. For
K1i + K2j + K3k=0 K1= 0= K2= K3.

Illustration 2:
        
Sho w that the vectors 5a  6b  7 c, 7a  8b  9c and 3a  20b  5c are co planar
  
(where a , b, c are three non-coplanar vectors).
    
Solution : Let A  5a  6b  7 c , B  7a  8b  9c and C  3a  20b  5c
A, B and C are coplanar  x A  y B  z C  0 must have a real solution for x, y,, z
other than (0, 0, 0).
         
Now x (5a  6b  7 c)  y(7a  8b  9c)  z (3a  20b  5c )  0
   
 (5x  7 y  3z) a  (6 x  8y  20z) b  (7 x  9 y  5z) c  0
5x + 7y + 3z = 0
6x – 8y + 20 z = 0
  
7x + 9y + 5z = 0 (As a , b, c are non-coplanar vectors)

5 7 3
Now D = 6  8 20  0
7 9 5
So the three linear simultaneous equation in x, y and z have a non-trivial solution.
Hence A, B and C are coplanar vectors.
 Drill Exercise - 3

1. Show the vectors î  ˆj , ĵ  k̂ and k̂  î are linearly independent.

2. Show that the vectors î  3 ĵ  2k̂ , 2î  4ˆj  k̂ and 3î  2ˆj  k̂ are linearly independent.

     
3. The base vectors a1 , a 2 , a 3 are given in terms of base vector b1 , b 2 , b 3 :
           
a1 = 2 b1 + 3 b 2 – b 3 , a 2 = b1 – 2 b 2 + 2 b 3 and a 3 = –2 b1 + b 2 – 2 b 3
       
If F = 3 b1 – b 2 + 2 b 3 , express F in terms of a1 , a 2 , a 3 .

  
4. If a = î  ˆj  k̂ , b = 4î  3 ĵ  4k̂ and c = î   ˆj  k̂ are linearly dependent vectors and

| c | = 3 then find the value of and 

6. COLLINEARITY AND COPLANARITY OF POINTS

  
(a) The necessary and sufficient condition for three points with position vectors a , b and c to
   
be collinear is that there exist scalars x, y, z, not all zero, such that , where xa  yb  zc  0 .
   
(b) The necessary and sufficient condition for four points with position vectors a , b, c and d
to be coplanar is that then exist scalars x, y, z and u, not all zero, such that , where
    
xa  yb  zc  ud  0 .

Illustration 3:
Let 'O' be the point of intersection of diagonals of a parallelogram ABCD. The points M, N, K and
P are the mid points of OA, MB, NC and KD respectively. Show that N, O and P are collinear.

Solution :

D C

P
K

O
M

N
A B

  
Let O  ( o), A(a ), B( b)
 
 a   
b
a  2b
Now M  a , N  2 
2 2 4
 
ab   
a
2b  3a
K 4 
2 8

 2b  3a
b  
8  6b  3a
P 
2 16
3  
 OP   ( 2b  a )
16
1  
Also, ON  (a  2b)   OP
4
1
6
 
Hence points N, O and P are collinear.

Drill Exercise - 4
      
1. Prove that the three points a  2b  3c , 2a  3b  4c and  7b  10c are collinear..
 
2. If a and b are non collinear vectors, find the value of x for which vectors :
     
  ( x  2)a  b and   (3  2x )a  2b are collinear..
    
3. If a , b, c are three non zero vectors, no two of which are collinear and the vector a  2b is
      
collinear with c and b  3c is collinear with a , then find the vector a  2b  6c .
           
4. Prove that the four points 2a  2b  c , a  2b  3c , 3a  4b  2c and a  6b  6c are non

coplanar, where a , b , c are non-coplanar vectors.

5. Prove that if cos1, cos 1, anc cos  1, then the vectors, a = î cos + ˆj + k̂ ,
 
b = î + ˆj cos + k̂ , c = î  ˆj  k̂ cos can never be coplanar..

7. SECTION FORMULA
  
Let A, B and C be three collinear points in space having position vectors a , b and r .

A (x1, y1, z1)

n
C (x, y, z)
a
m
r B (x2, y 2, z 2)
O b
 AC n
Let 
CB m
or, m AC = n CB
or, m AC  n CB . . . (i)
(As vectors are in same direction)
 
Now, OA  AC  OC  AC  r  a . . . (ii)
   
r  CB  b  CB  b  r . . . (iii)
 
 ma  nb
Using (i), we get r 
mn

Drill Exercise - 5
 
1. If a and b be the position vectors of points A and B respectively, find the position vector of point
C in AB produced such that AC = 3 AB .
2. Prove, by vector method that the internal bisectors of the angles of a triangle are concurrent.
       
3. If a , b , c , d be the position vectors of points A, B, C, D respectively and b  a = 2d  2c ,
show that the point of intersection of the straight lines AD and BC divides these lines in the ratio 2 : 1.
  
4. a , b , c are the position vectors of the vertices of a triangle, then prove that the position vector of
  
abc
its centroid is  .

 3 
5. ABC is a triangle, the point P is on side BC such that 3 BP = 2 PC , the point Q is on the line CA
such that 4 CQ = QA . Find the ratio which the line joining the common point R of AP and BQ
and the point S divides AB .

8. ORTHOGONAL SYSTEM OF UNIT VECTORS

Let OX, OY and OZ be three mutually perpendicular straight lines. Given any point P(x, y, z) in
space, we can construct the rectangular parallelepiped of which OP is a diagonal and
OA = x, OB = y, OC = z.
Here A, B, C are (x, 0, 0), (0, y, 0) and (0, 0, z) respectively and L, M, N are (0, y, z),(x, 0, z) and
(x, y, 0) respectively. Y
B N

P (x, y, z)

O X
A

C M
Z
 Let î, ˆj, k̂ denote unit vectors along OX, OY and OZ respectively..

We have r  OP  x î  yĵ  zk̂ as OA  x î, OB  yˆj and OC  zk̂ .

ON  OA  AN
OP  ON  NP
So,

OP  OA  OB  OC NP  OC, AN  OB 

r  | r |  | OP |  x 2  y 2  z 2

 r x î  yˆj  zk̂ 
 r     î  mˆj  nk̂  r  r î  mrĵ  nrk̂
|r| 2
x y z 2 2

Drill Exercise - 6

1. If OP = 2î  3ˆj  k̂ and OQ = 3î  4ˆj  2k̂ find the modulus and direction cosines of PQ .

       
2. The position vectors of the points P, Q, R and S are respectively i  j  k , 2 i  5 j , 3 i  2 j  3k
   1
and i  6 j  k , prove that the lines PQ and RS are parallel and the ratio of their length is .
2
    
3. What is the unit vector parallel to a  2 i  4 j  2k ? What vector should be added to a so that

the resultant is a unit vector i ?

4. A vector V is inclined at equal angles to OX, OY and OZ. If the magnitude of V is 6 units,
find V .

9. SCALAR PRODUCT OF TWO VECTORS (DOT PRODUCT)

   
The scalar product, a.b of two non-zero vectors a and b is defined as | a | | b | cos  , where  is
angle between the two vectors, when drawn with same initial point.
Note that 0     .
  
If at least one of a and b is a zero vector, then a.b is defined as zero.
9.1 PROPERTIES :
(i)   (scalar product is commutative)
a.b  b.a
  
(ii) a 2  a.a  | a |2  a 2
    
(iii) ( ma ).b  m( a.b)  a ( mb) (where m is a scalar)

 a .b 
(iv)   cos 1    
| a |.| b |
     
(v) a.b  0  Vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other.. [ a , b , are non-zero vectors].

(vi) î. ĵ  ˆj.k̂  k̂.î  0

    
(vii) a.( b  c)  a.b  a.c
       
(viii) (a  b).( a  b)  | a |2  | b |2  a 2  b 2
 
(ix) Let a  a 1î  a 2 ĵ  a 3k̂, b  b1î  b 2ˆj  b 3k̂ .

Then a.b  (a 1î  a 2ˆj  a 3k̂ ).(b1î  b 2ˆj  b 3k̂ )
   
(x) Maximum value of a .b = |a | |b|
   
(xi) Minimum value of a .b = – |a | |b|
  
(xii)
 
ej ej d i
Any vector a can be written as, a = a. i i  a. j j  a. k k .

9.2 Algebraic projection of a vector along some other vector :

B


 a.b  b
ON  OB cos   | b |    â.b
| a || b |
 A
O a

Illustration 4:
Prove that the angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
Solution:
Let O be the centre and AB the bounding diameter of the semi-circle. Let P be any point on the
P

circumference. With O as origin.

B O A

Let OA  a , OB  a and OP  r
Obviously OA = OB = OP, each being equal to radius of the semi-circle.
AP  r  a and BP  r  (a )  r  a

 AP.BP  (r  a ).(r  a )  r 2  a 2 = OP2 – OA2 = 0

 AP and BP are perpendicular to each other, i.e., APB  90 0 .
 Drill Exercise - 7

     
1. Find the cosine of the angle between the vectors p and q such that 2p  q  î  ĵ , p  2q  î  ˆj .

        
2. If | a | = 3, | b | = 1, | c | = 4 and a  b  c = 0, find the value of a.b  b.c  c.a .

 
3. If the vectors a = (c log2x) î  6 ĵ  3k̂ and b = (log2x) î  2 ĵ + (2c log2x) k̂ make an obtuse
angle for any x (0, ). Then determine the interval to which ‘c’ belongs.


4. Let  = 4î  3 ĵ and  be two vectors perpendicular to each other in the xy-plane. Find all the
 
vectors in the same plane having the projections and 1 and 2 along  and  respectively..

10. VECTOR (CROSS) PRODUCT

 
The vector product of two non-zero vectors a and b , whose modules are a and b respectively, is
 
the vector whose modulus is ab sin  , where (0    ) is the angle between vectors a and b .
     
Its direction is that of a vector n perpendicular to both a and b , such that a , b, n are in
right-handed orientation.

b

O
a
 
By the right-handed orientation we mean that, if we turn the vector a into the vector b through the

angle  , then n points in the direction in which a right handed screw would move if turned in the
       
same manner. Thus a  b  | a || b | sin  n̂ . If at least one of a and b is a zero vector, then a  b
is defined as the zero vector.

10.1 PROPERTIES :
   
(i) a  b  ( b  a )
     
(ii) ( ma )  b  m( a  b)  a  ( mb) (where m is a scalar)
    
(iii) a  b  0  vectors a and b are parallel.
 
(provided a and b are non-zero vectors).

(iv) î  ˆj  ˆj  ĵ  k̂  k̂  0
(v) î  ˆj  k̂  (ˆj  î ), ˆj  k̂  î  ( k̂  ĵ), k̂  î  ˆj   ( î  k̂ )
      
(vi) a  ( b  c)  a  b  a  c
 
(vii) Let a  a 1î  a 2ˆj  a 3 k̂ and b  b1î  b 2ˆj  b 3k̂ , then
 î ĵ k̂
 
a  b  a1 a2 a3
= ˆi(a 2 b3  a 3b2 )  ˆj(a 3b1  a1b3 )  k(a
ˆ b a b )
1 2 2 1
b1 b2 b3

 
| ab|
(viii) sin     . (Note : we cannot find the value of  by using this formula)
| a || b |
1 1 1  
(ix) Area of triangle = ap  ab sin   | a  b |
2 2 2
B
b
P

O A
a
 
(x) Area of parallelogram = ap  ab sin  | a  b | .
B C

b
p

O A
a
   
(xi) a x b  b x a (not commutative)
  
 axb
(xii) Unit vector perpendicular to the plane of a & b is    .
axb
 
(xiii)
  r axb
A vector of magnitude ‘r’ & perpendicular to the plane of a & b is    .
 
axb
  1  
(xiv) Area of any quadrilateral whose diagonal vectors are d1 & d 2 is given by d1 x d 2 .
2
   
    2 2   a .a a .b
(xv) Lagranges Identity : for any two vectors a & b ;(a x b)2  a b  (a . b) 2      .
a .b b.b
Illustration 5:
If a, b, c be three vectors such that a + b + c = 0, prove that a × b = b × c = c × a and deduce the
sin A sin B sin C
sine rule   .
a b c
Solution :
Let BC, CA, AB represent the vectors a, b, c respectively..
Then, we have
 - A A

c b

B - C

a C
- B

a + b + c = 0,
==> c = - (a + b)
==> b × c = b × (- a - b)
=-b×a=a×b
Similarly, c×a=a×b
Hence, b×c=c×a=a×b
==> bc sin(   A )  ca sin(   B)  ab sin(   C) ==> bc sin A = ca sin B = ab sin C
sin A sin B sin C
==>  
a b c

Drill Exercise - 8

1
1. Show that a unit vector perpendicular to each of the vectors 3î  ˆj  2k̂ and 2î  2ˆj  4k̂ is
3
2
( î  ĵ  k̂ ) and the sine of the angle between them is 7
.

       
2. Let a , b, c be unit vectors such that ; a.b  a.c  0 and the angle between b and c is ; prove
6
  
that a = ±2 ( b  c) .

  
3. If a , b, c are position vectors of the vertices A, B, C of a triangle ABC, show that the area of
1         
triangle ABC is | a  b  b  c  c  a | . Deduce the condition for points a , b, c to be collinear..
2

11. SCALAR TRIPLE PRODUCT ( BOX PRODUCT )

  
The scalar triple product of three vectors a , b and c is defined as
       
(a  b).c = | a | | b | | c | sin  cos  where  is the angle between a & b &  is the angle
     
between a x b & c . It is also defined as [ a b c ]
  
Let a  a 1î  a 2ˆj  a 3k̂ , b  b1î  b 2ˆj  b 3k̂, c  c1î  c 2 ĵ  c3 k̂
 î ĵ k̂
  a a 3 ˆ a1 a 3 a a2
Then a  b  a1 a2 a 3  î 2 j  k̂ 1
b2 b3 b1 b 3 b1 b 2
b1 b2 b3
a1 a2 a3
   a a3 a a3 a a2
(a  b).c  c1 2  c2 1  c3 1  b1 b 2 b3
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
c1 c 2 c3
                 
Therefore (a  b).c  ( b  c).a  ( c  a ).b  ( b  a ).c   ( c  b).a  (a  c).b
        
Note that (a  b).c  ( b  c).a  a.( b  c ) , hence in scalar triple product dot and cross are
     
interchangeable. Therefore we denote (a  b).c by [a b c] .

11.1 PROPERTIES
  
(i) | (a  b).c | represents the volume of the parallelepiped, whose adjacent sides are
  
represented by the vectors a , b and c in magnitude and direction. Therefore three

a1 a2 a3
     
vectors a , b, c are coplanar if and only if [a b c] = 0. i.e., b1 b2 b3  0
c1 c2 c3

1  
(ii) Volume of the tetrahedron = | [(a b c ] | .
6
         
(iii) [a  b c d ]  [ a c d ]  [ b c d ]
  
(iv) [a a b ]  0 .
(v) In a scalar triple product the position of dot & cross can be interchanged i.e.
            
a . ( b x c)  (a x b). c OR [ a b c ]  [ b c a ]  [ c a b ]
       
(vi) a . (b x c)   a .( c x b) i. e. [ a b c ]   [ a c b ]

a a a
   
1 2 3

(vii) If a = a1i+a2j+a3k ; b = b1i+b2j+b3k & c = c1i+c2j+c3k then [a b c]  b1 b 2 b 3 .

c1 c2 c3
           
In general, if a  a 1 l  a 2 m  a 3 n ; b  b1 l  b 2 m  b 3n & c  c1 l  c2 m  c3n then

a1 a2 a3
     
 
a b c  b1 b2 b3  l mn  ; where  , m & n arenon coplanar vectors .
c1 c2 c3
   
(viii) If a , b , c are coplanar  [ a b c ]  0 .

(ix) Scalar product of three vectors, two of which are equal or parallel is 0 i.e. [ a b c ]  0 ,
   
Note : If a , b , c are non - coplanar then [ a b c ]  0 for right handed system &
 
[ a b c ]  0 for left handed system .

(x) [i j k] = 1.

 
(xi) [ K a b c ]  K[ a b c ] .

    
(xii) [ (a  b) c d ]  [ a c d ]  [ b c d ] .

(xiv) The volume of the tetrahedron OABC with O as origin & the pv’s of A, B and C being
   1 
a , b & c respectively is given by V  [ a b c ]
6
(xv) The position vector of the centroid of a tetrahedron if the pv’s of its angular vertices
    1    
are a , b , c & d are given by [a  b  c  d] .
4
Note that this is also the point of concurrence of the lines joining the vertices to the centroids
of the opposite faces and is also called the centre of the tetrahedron. In case the tetrahedron
is regular it is equidistant from the vertices and the four faces of the tetrahedron.
         

Remember that : a  b b  c c  a = 0
 
 & a  b   
b c ca = 2 a b c .

Illustration 6:
Prove that the formula for the volume V of a tetrahedron in terms of the lengths a, b and c of three
concurrent edges and their mutual inclinations ,  and  is given by

1 cos  cos 
V2 = cos  1 cos  .
cos  cos  1
Solution:
Let OABC be the tetrahedron with O as origin. Let a, b, c be the position vectors of A, B, C.

Let a = a1 i + a2 j + a3 k, b = b1 i + b2 j + b3 k, c = c1 i + c2 j + c3 k.

Then
a1 a2 a3
1 1
V = [a b c]  b1 b2 b3
6 6
c1 c2 c3

a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3
1
V2 = b1 b2 b 3  b1 b 2 b3
36
c1 c2 c 3 c1 c 2 c3
 2 2 2
a1  a 2  a 3 a 1 b1  a 2 b 2  a 3 b 3 a1c1  a 2c 2  a 3c3
1 2 2 2
= a 1b1  a 2 b 2  a 3b 3 b1  b 2  b 3 b1c1  b 2 c 2  b 3c 3
36 2 2 2
a1c1  a 2 c 2  a 3c3 b1c1  b 2c 2  b3c 3 c1  c 2  c 3

| a2 | a.b a.c
1 2
= a.b |b| b.c
36
a.c b.c | c |2

a2 a b cos  c a cos 
1
= a b cos  b2 b c cos 
36
c a cos  b c cos  c2

1 cos  cos 
a 2 b 2c 2
= cos  1 cos 
36
cos  cos  1

Drill Exercise - 9

1. Find the volume of the parallelopiped whose edges are represented by

           
a  2 i  3 j  4k , b  i  2 j  k and c  3 i  j  2k .

2. Find the value of the constant  so that the vectors

           
a  2 i  j  k , b  i  2 j  3k and c  3 i   j  5k are coplanar..

           
3. Examine whether the vectors a  2 i  3 j  2k , b  i  j  2k and c  3 i  2 j  4k form a left
handed or a right handed system.

      
4. If a  b  c and b  c  a , show that a , b, c are orthogonal in pairs. Also show that | c | = | a |

and | b | = 1.

          
5. If a , b, c are any three vectors in space then show ( c  b)  ( c  a ) . ( c  b  a )  [a b c] .

12. VECTOR TRIPLE PRODUCT

     
The vector triple product of three vectors a , b and c is defined as a  ( b  c) . If at least one
     
a , b and c is a zero vector or b and c are collinear vectors or a is perpendicular to both
        
b and c , only then a  ( b  c)  0 . In all other cases a  ( b  c) will be a non-zero vector in the
 
plane of non-collinear vectors and perpendicular to the vector a .
        
Thus we can take a  ( b  c)  b  c , for some scalars  and  . Since a  a  ( b  c) ,
       
a.( a  ( b  c ))  0   (a.b)  ( a.c )  0   (a.c) ,   (a.b) , for same scalar  .
         
Hence a  ( b  c)  (a.c) b  (a.b) c , for any vectors a , b and c satisfying the conditions given
  
in the beginning. In particular if we take, a  b  î, c  ĵ , then   1.
      
Hence a  ( b  c)  (a.c) b  (a.b) c
Illustration 7:
    
For any vector a , prove that î  ( a  î )  ˆj  (a  ˆj)  k̂  (a  k̂ )  2a .
Solution : [î  (a  î )]  [ˆj  (a  ĵ)]  [k̂  (a  k̂ )]
    
= [( î.î ) a  ( î.a )î ][( î. ĵ)a  ( ĵ.a ) ĵ]  [( k̂.k̂ )a  ( k̂.â ) k̂ ]
    
= a  ( î.a ) î  a  ( ĵ.a ) ĵ  a  ( k̂.â ) k̂ [ î.î  ĵˆj  k̂k̂  1]
  
= 3a  [( î.a ) î  ( ĵ.a )ˆj  ( k̂.â ) k̂ ]

Let a  a 1î  a 2ˆj  a 3 k̂ . Then

îa  î (a 1î  a 2 ĵ  a 3k̂ )  a 2 î 2  a 2 (î. ĵ)  a 3 (î.k̂ )  a 1 (1)  a 2 (0)  a 1

Similarly, ĵ.â  a 2 , k̂.a  a 3
   
 L.H.S. = 3a  (a1î  a 2 ĵ  a 3k̂ )  3a  a  2a = R.H.S.

Drill Exercise - 10

              
1. If A  2 i  j  3k , B  i  2 j  k and C   i  j  4k find A  ( B  C) .
       
2. Prove that i  ( a  i )  j  (a  j)  k̂  (a  k̂ )  2a .
           
3. A, B, C are three vectors given by 2 i  k , i  j  k and 4 i  3 j  7k . Then find R , which
     
satisfies the relation R  B  C  B and R . A = 0.
   
4. Show that the points whose position vectors are a , b, c, d will be coplanar if
          
[a b c] – [a b d ] + [a c d] – [ b c d ] = 0.

      b  
5. If a , b, c are three unit vectors such that a  ( b  c) = , find the angles which a makes with b
2
  
and c where b and c being non-parallel.

13. RECIPROCAL SYSTEM OF VECTORS

    
Let a , b and c be a system of three non-coplanar vectors. Then the system of vectors a , b and
          
c which satisfies a.a  b.b  c.c  1 and a.b  a.c  b.a  b.c  c.a  c.b  0 , is called the
           
reciprocal system to the vectors a , b, c . In term of a , b, c the vectors a , b, c  a , b, c are
     
 b  c b   c  a c  a  b
given by a      ,   ,   .
[a b c ] [a b c ] [a b c ]

13.1 PROPERTIES :
(i) a.b  a.c  b.a  b.c  c.a  c.b  0

(ii) The scalar triple product [a b c] formed from three non-coplanar vectors a, b, c is the
reciprocal of the scalar triple product formed from reciprocal system.

14. SOLVING OF VECTOR EQUATION

Solving a vector equation means determining an unknown vector (or a number of vectors satisfying
the given conditions)
Generally, to solve vector equations, we express the unknown as the linear combination of three
non-coplanar vectors as
        
r  xa  yb  z(a  b) as a , b and a  b are non-coplanar and find x, y, z using given conditions.
Sometimes we can directly solve the given condtions it would be more clear from some examples.

Illustration 8 :
Solve the vector equation :
      
r  b  a  b, r .c = 0 provided that c is not perpendicular to b .
Solution.
We are given;
   
r b  ab
  
 (r  a)  b  0
  
Hence ( r  a ) and b are parallel
  
 r a  t b . . . (i)

and we know r .c = 0,

 taking dot product of (i) by c we get
  
r .c  a.c = t ( b.c )
 
0 – a.c = t ( b.c )

 a.c 
or t = –    . . . (ii)
 b.c 

 from (i) and (ii) solution of r is ;

 = –  .c   .
  a
r a  b.c  b
 Drill Exercise - 11

1. Find the set of vectors reciprocal to the set

        
2 i  3 j  k , i  j  2k  i  2 j  2k

     
 b c  ca  ab      
2. If a ' =    , b' =    , c' =    then show that a  a ' + b  b' + c  c' = 0, where
[a b c ] [a b c ] [a b c ]
  
a , b, c are non coplanar..

     
3. Find vector r if r .a = m and r  b  c , where a.b 0.

           
4. Solve for X ; such that A.X = C and A  X  B with C 0, A  O B  O , A  B .

        
5. Solve for vectors A and B , where A  B  a , A  B  b , A.a =1.
 ANSWERS
Drill Exercise - 1

1. â  b̂

Drill Exercise - 2

1
1. (3î  4ˆj) 2. x – 2y = 1
2

Drill Exercise - 3

  
3. F = 2a1  5a 2  3a 3 4.  = ±1, = 1

Drill Exercise - 4

1 
2. x=– 3. 0
4

Drill Exercise - 5

 
1. 3b  2a 5. 6:1

Drill Exercise - 6

 1 7 3 
1. 59 ,  59 , 59 , 59 
 

1
3. ˆ
24 ( 2î  4 j  2k̂ )
4. 
2 3 î  ĵ  k̂ 
Drill Exercise - 7

 4
1. = cos–1    2. –19
 5

 4 
3. c    , 0  4. 2î  ˆj
 3 
Drill Exercise - 8
3.      
a  b  b c  ca  0

Drill Exercise - 9

1. 7 2. –4 3. right handed system

Drill Exercise - 10

 
1. 8î  19ˆj  k̂ 3. î  8ˆj  2k̂ 5. ,
2 3

Drill Exercise - 11

2î  k̂  8î  3ˆj  7 k̂  7 î  3ˆj  5k̂  1   

1. , , 3. r    (a  c  mb)
3 3 3 ab
   
 CA  B  A  (a  b)  a  (b  a )  a (a 2  1)
4. X  5. A ,B 
| A |2 a2 a2