Part 2.

Electrical Methods
Electrical methods – group of methods based on the study
of Natural and Artificial electrical properties of the earth.
In electrical prospecting objects are studied from the
view of Active or Passive conductors of Electricity.

Electrical Electro- Magneto-

Electro- chemical
Radio-
Resistivity telluric
magnetic methods methods wave
Methods methods
(EM) (IP, SP,
(Ex.:
MTS, TC, ..)
(ES & EP) PEM) (Ex. :
VLF-EM)
 Electrical Properties of Earth Materials
Electrical resistivity () or conductivity (=1/):– Characterize the ability
of rocks to resist or conduct electric current when a voltage is applied.
Units : Resistivity in Ohm-meters (-m); conductivity in 1/-m) -
in Siemens/meter (S/m).
Electric polarization () / chargeability (M): –Characterize the ability of
rocks to create secondary electric field when the primary field source is
switched off. Polarizability () or chargeability (M) may be expressed in %,
mV/V or mSec.
Dielectric permeability ():– it is a property that characterizes the ability
of rocks to concentrate and discharge electromagnetic energy. Its unit is
farad/meter.
Electro-chemical activity (): – this property that characterizes the
ability of rocks to create secondary electric fields due to different
chemical reactions (oxidation-reduction, filtration, diffusion-
absorption and others) taking place in the subsurface. It is measured in
mV.
Increasing of: Saturation, Salinity of the underground
water, Porosity of rock (water-filled voids) and
Number of fractures (water-filled) all these DRECREAS
Measured Resistivity.
Increasing of compaction of soils or rock units drives
out water and effectively Increases Resistivity.
The presence of Air in voids increases subsurface
resistivity.

Factors that affect the measured potential,

and thus can be mapped using this method
include the presence and quality of pore
fluids and clays.
 Basic principles of DC Flow
It assumes an EARTH is characterized by:
 Electrically passive nature of the material: until current is
injected, the ground is considered electrically neutral or no
electric current flow in the subsurface;

 Linearity nature of the current flow: with the increasing of

the primary signal, the current flowing in to the ground
also increases;

 Stationary: If the way of generating primary electric field is

constant, the field at every point in the earth ground is also
constant.
 Resistivity of rocks
No Rock type Resistivity (-m)
1  Sandstone porous 105- - 106
 Sandstone dry 2x103 - 7x105
2 Anhydrite 104-105
3 Gypsum 105-107
4 Dolomite 105-106
5 Limestone 104-106
6 Conglomerate 2x105 - 2x106
7 Clay 103 - 105
8 Marble 103 - 108
9 Granite 108
10 Granite-gneiss 2x107
11 Schist 6.4x104 - 6.5x106
12 graphite 0.1
Sedimentary rock due to high porosity they are characterized by low
resistivity; meanwhile, due to low porosity and consequently low
moisture content carbonate rocks (dolomite, limestone, anhydrite,
gypsum) are characterized by high resistivity values (101-108 Ohm-m;
~103 Ohm-m; unconsolidated – 101-104 Ohm-m; ~103 Ohm-m).

Igneous Rocks: they often show low porosity and low moisture content.
Therefore, their resistivity is high and varies from 102 to 104 -m.
However, the resistivity is inversely affected by the degree of fracturing
and property of materials filling the fracture (102-108 Ohm-m; ~104
Ohm-m).

Metamorphic rocks: degree and type of metamorphism determines the

resistivity responses. Example: Graphitic rocks are very conductive,
whereas gneisses are highly resistive (~103 Ohm-m)..

Groundwater - 1-10 Ohm-m; Pure water - 103 Ohm-m

 Physical & mathematical foundations
From physics Ohm’s law is expressed as R  V
I
The electrical resistance R of a length wire L is the ratio of the potential
difference (V) between the ends of a wire and the current intensity (I)
flowing in the wire.
L Electrical resistance (R) is also
A proportional to the length (L) of
the wire and its cross-sectional
I area (A) and could be expressed
by:

 L
L
 R 
R  A
Pot. difference per unit length of wire is A
(E) & I intensity / unit area current V I LILI RA
RA
 VVRxI
RxI  
density (j) ; E vs j L A AA   L
L
 
E j The unit of resistivity () has the
VA m 2 dimensions of a length (L)
     m multiplied by a resistance (R).
IL m
Physical principles and laws applied for homogeneous isotropic media

1. Kirchhoff’s law:
div j=0 (j – current density)
Mathematically, div j=0 expresses the law of conservation of electric
charge and its continuity.
This law states that “The total electric charge in an isolated system ( i.e.,
the algebraic sum of the positive and negative charges) present at any
time, never changes, unless there is a source or leak in the system”.
“The Quantity of electric current going in to a voluminous material must
leave the other side unless there is a source or leak”.
2. Ohm’s law
Ohm’s law in a differential form: j=E
3. Potential function (U):
Potential function (U) vs Electric field strength (E): E= - grad U
4. Laplace equation: combines Ohm’s law & continuity equation
divgradU  U   2U  0
Fundamental Equation of DC flow used in electrical prospecting
 Electric potential field due to a point source
A M B

current lines
Equipotential lines
Current
conductivity Distribution of electric field:
density
j =  E Ohm’s law 1 dU I I dU
E = - grad U j  E   j  E  j
 dr S 2r 2 dr
Pot. function

Distribution of potential field:

dU I dr  I r I
  dU  I U   dU 
Elec. field pot
dr 2r 2 2r 2 
2 r r 2

2 r
C

I
At infinite distance (r) C=0; if so: U 
2 r
M

Distribution of potential field at points M & N:

I 1 I 1
UM  U 
2  AN
N
2 AM
I 1 1
 U  U M  U N  U MN  (  )
2 AM AN
Potential field due a dipole source
Dipole - two poles equal in strength but opposite in polarity and placed at a distance
very small compared to that between the source and point of observation.
A M
I
N B A x M l-x B
Potential @ M due to A:
I
U 
2 x
AM
P (x, z)
Potential @ M due to B:
Z I 1
U BM 
Potential difference @ M due to A & B: 2 l  x
I 1 1
UM  U AM  U BM  (  ) Electric field strength (E) along AB:
2 x l  x
U I 1 1
E  ( 2 )
E x 2 x (l  x) 2

U I 1 1
O E  (  )
x 2 AM 2
BM 2
A(+) AB/3 B(-) Summary:
 U & E attain maximum close to the current
U electrodes and while crossing the center of AB, U
changes its polarity.
 There is a relatively uniform current distribution @ the central one-third part of AB , i.e., a
uniform depth penetration. This is applied during electrical resistivity surveys.
 Apparent resistivity and its physical essence

M N I 1 1 1 1
UMN  UM UN  (    )
rAM rAN 2 rAM rAN rBM rBN
rBM rBN 2
k K is geometric factor
1 1 1 1 or array coefficient
  
A(+I) B(-I) rAM rAN rBM rBN

Considering K, the apparent resistivity is calculated using formula:

 U MN
a  k
I
a U
 U0 - potential drop between M & N in homogeneous medium.
0 U O U
 a  0
U O
Apparent resistivity characterizes the degree of distortion of current lines close
to the measuring electrodes. It reflects the degree of in-homogeneity of
resistivity property of the medium.
 Summary questions
1. What is the general trend of resistivity variation
among volcanic, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks?
2. What is the essence of apparent resistivity (a)
and what differs it from 0 ?
3. How are the electric potential (U) and field
strength (E) behave themselves within the limit of
the current electrodes (A & B)?
4. What does the array coefficient accounts for?
5. What assumptions are laid in the formulation of
DC electric current distribution in the ground?
 Potential Field in Homogeneous Anisotropic medium
A x l (longitudinal resistivity)
y x
jx
iy jz

z
y z t (transverse
l (longitudinal resistivity)
resistivity)

In most metamorphic & sedimentary rocks resistivities

measured // to the stratification (l - longitudinal resistivity) are
completely different from those obtained  to the stratification
(t – transverse resistivity).

The degree of variation of resistivity measurements

in any stratified media is characterized by
coefficient of anisotropy ().
 Anisotropy: a characteristic of stratified rocks which is generally
more conducive in the bedding plane. In such medium, the
equipotential surfaces are represented by series of identical
ellipsoids compressed (squeezed) along the Z-axis (i.e.,  to the
strike of anisotropic media).

E
The coefficient  expresses the ratio of the
major axis to the minor of an ellipse.

In anisotropic media (in schist or in a large scale

Z as in layered sequence of shales) vectors j and E
are not in the same direction
t
 
l
ρl : Longitudinal Resistivity  Varies from1 to 2
ρt : Transverse Resistivity
Contd..
In anisotropic media an array that measures the
A x l resistivity // to the stratification measures the mean
y
jx
x resistivity value (m):
iy jz
(long.  m  t  l
Res.)
Meanwhile, array which measures the resistivity  to
z the stratification measures the lowest longitudinal
y t (Tran. Res.)
l z resistivity (l), which is completely unexpected and
(long. Res.)
doesn’t reflect the reality on the ground.

This antagonistic phenomenon is called paradox

anisotropy.

Mathematically, paradox anisotropy is expressed as: a/2 < a0 .

Thus, apparent resistivity values measured over anisotropic media

depend not only on the resistivity of earth materials but also on
the azimuth (orientation) of the electrode array relative to the
direction of stratification /bedding plane.
Arrays used in DC Resistivity Surveys
A) Four electrode array A. Schlumberger array: AB~5MN
2 U
I a 
1 1 1 1 I
  
U AM AN BM BN

A M N B U rAM rAN
a 
I rMN

B) Wenner Array
B. Wener array: AM=MN=NB=a
A M N B k=2a U
 a  2a
I
C) Dipole-Dipole Array
Plotting point
C. Diploe-Diploe Array: AB=NM=a

A a B nxa M a N
k=n (n+1)(n+2)a
 =k U/I
Contd..
D) Three-Pole array D. AMNB
U  U N   K U
 M
2 (rAM rAN ) U
M
U
N a 
I I rMN I
A B
I

M N
E) Combined Three-Pole array: O
AMNC / CMNB A B

C
CMNB AMNC
2

Aa 
UM UN   2 U
K
U
1 1 1 I
I  I
AM AN
A MN C
Ba 
UM UN   2 U
K
U
1 < 2 > 1 I 1 1 I I
> 
BN BM
Contd..
G. Double-pole (two electrodes) array

A M N B

r 2rU MN
K=2r where r=rAM a 
I
F. Central Gradient Array

1/3AB 1/3AB
2 (rAM rAN ) U
A a 
M N B
rMN I

1/3AB Area of survey

Disadvantages of the D-D array :
 Large capacity generator is required of a to produce
ample amount of current, especially for deep
explorations;
 Special theoretical knowledge is required to
interpret most dipole-dipole.
 Reciprocity Theorem (Principle of Reciprocity)
Consider two sets of arrays:
1. in the 1st one I flows through A & B, but IMN=0;
2. in the 2nd one IAB=0, but through M & N there is a I flow.
U(+I)A +U(-I)B +U0M +U0N = U0A + U0B +U(+I)M +U(-I)N
UA - UB = UM –UN
If we keep I the same in both cases, then UMN = UAB and if I is not maintained
the same, then . U MN U AB

I AB I MN
 U MN Considering that UMN = UAB then
 a ( AMNB )  K AMNB
I AB KAMNB = KMABN
 U AB
 a ( NABM )  K MABN a(AMNB) =a(MABN)
I MN
RT states that in any medium (isotropic or anisotropic, homogeneous or
heterogeneous) the U at point M due to a current source at A is the same as if the
current sources were at M and the potential measured were at A.
OR
The mutual interchanging of positions of current electrodes by potential or vice
versa doesn’t lead to any change in the a values.
 DC Resistivity Prospecting Techniques

Electrical Sounding: the array is expanded so

that it permits to investigate the vertical
variation of the geological section.
Electrical profiling: The array size is kept
unchanged to maintain a uniform depth
penetration) and the lateral variation of the
ground is investigated.
 Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES)
Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) is a process by which depth
investigations are made through successive resistivity measurements
done with regularly increasing electrode separations keeping array’s
center and its orientation fixed.
Assumption:
The layers are laterally uniform, i.e., no changes in the thickness or
resistivity of the rocks being mapped, but vertical variation is expected.

Generator/
Battery
OA reel OB reel
A+ B-
M Tx N
(I)
Rx U)
The Fundamental problem of VES is to find the solution for the
problem of potential (U) field distribution due to DC sources over
a horizontally layered heterogeneous media.

I Q
d1 d2 d3 1 , U 1

 2U 1 U  2U
   0
di i , Ui r 2
r r z 2

dn-1 n-1 , Un-1

 n , Un
Z
A multi-layered horizontal section is a function of resistivity,
thickness and electrode spacing, AB/2, i.e.,
a = f (1,2,3…i…n,h1,h2,h3…,hi…,hn-1, AB/2)
In the case of two layer section the electrode spacing at which the
apparent resistivity a asymptotically approaches the value 2
depends on three factors: thickness of the first layer (h1), value of
=2/1 and type of array used in measurements.
At the boundary plane of two layers section coefficient of emission (qn) is
equal to coefficient of reflection (K12).

r 3
2 ( )
1 a 
h1
q n  K 12 
 2  1 1

For a two layer  1  2  K 12n
1 3

 2  1  2  1 section we will have:  r 2 2

n 1 2
(
 h )  ( 2 n ) 
1  1 

The ratio of  2 is denoted by . and it is called module of two layers

1
section.
a r a r
 f ( , )  f ( )   var iable
1 h1 1 h1

If r 0, then a  1. Therefore, the left asymptote of any two layers curve is
equal to the true resistivity of the top layer.
Types of Earth models
i. Two-layered I

1 A M N B

2

a Two options
2 i) 1 >  2
ii 1 < 2
1

AB/2

1 < 2 1 >2
Two-layered master curves


 2

AB/2
1

0
ii. Three layer earth model
Four possible combinations:
1. 1 >  2 < 3 - H type section: -inverted-down arc
2. 1 < 2 < 3 - A type section: Ascending type
3. 1 < 2 > 3 - K type section: Bell-shaped type
4. 1 >2 > 3 - Q type section: Descending type
I
A M N B
1
2
3

1>2< 3 1<2> 3 1<2< 3 1>2>

H type K type A type Q type
Auxiliary curves
A type

Q-type
2/1

2/1
Auxiliary curves
K type

Q-type

2/1

2/1
 iii. Four layer earth model
I
A M N B
1
2
3
4

HA AA
KA QH
QQ
HK AK
KQ

1>2<3 <4 - HA; 1<2>3 >4 - KQ; 1>2>3>4-QQ; 1>2>3 <4 - QH

1>2<3 >4- HK; 1<2> 3<4- KA; 1<2<3 <4-AA; 1<2<3>4 - AK
 Advancement of current electrodes
The principle of progression of AB is based on ensuring a sufficient
definition of sounding curve shapes and their better resolution.
 Too small progression coeff. - hampers survey pace (advancement of AB);
 Too large progression coeff. - adversely affects curve definitions.
Based on experience from various conditions and studies of VES curve
shapes progression coefficient of 2 has been established to be the most
efficient.

300
200 Smoothed curve Under normal condition
a (-m)

100 M1N1
50 M2N2 M4N4
M3N3
30 Each segment corresponds to
20 a different MN.
10 1 2 3 5 10 20 50 100 200 300 500 1000
AB/2
 Maximum spacing of AB
It is helpful to increase the maximum of AB until it is possible to
determine from the VES curve the depth to the substratum.
 If the substratum is resistive - about 4 points on the final ascent
of the curve are needed to define its course properly;
 If the substratum is conductive: AB should be increased until
the sounding curve flattens towards asymptote representing the
resistivity of the substratum.

A
V
B
Each calculated  value should be
plotted immediately before the I
M N
1000
a (-m)

x=60 m O
Without leakage electrodes are moved to the next
300
position. This help to rectify reading
100
errors or errors due to current leakage
50
AB/2)max= x + MN/2 (m) or other sources by repeating the
30 MN=5 m MN=20 m; MN=80 m measurement
15

10
15 50 100 300 1000 3000

AB/2 (m)
 MN segment affected by MN effect : it is relatively simple to correct for
the electrode effect by displacing the segment vertically to join with
adjacent segment.
In extremely heterogeneous terrain all the MN segment may be displaced
relative to one another. Then it is no longer simple to which MN segment
the corrections must be done.

The general principle is to

make correction so that the
MN segments join up with
the longest MN since it is
this MN distance that
samples the largest area and
which therefore provides the
best average information.

The shorter MN distance is influenced by the local inhomogenities

Field data acquisition
Sample of field data book
( Note: AB/2 spacing is prepared with 2 electrode progression)

Date:______ Operator’s Instrument AB spread direction _______

Name:_______ Type: _____ VES # _______
Location: _____E, ___N,
__Elev.
No AB/2 MN/2 V, mV I, mA K a, -m Remark
1 1 0.5 6.28 Note: when the potential
13.1 difference b/n M & N
2 1.5 0.5
becomes small to obtain
3 2.1 0.5 27.5 detectable signal, then
the MN spacing is
.. …. 0.5 …. increased, and
measurement continues.
.. 20 0.5 1256

.. 20 6 95.3 When selecting a center it is

necessary to avoid a site where:
.. 100 6 2609  MN electrodes are placed in
a depression and the AB
.. 150 6 5881 move up the slopes. This
will lead to abnormally
.. 150 45 714.7 high V values.
 the MN center is situated on
.. 220 6 12662 a hill and the AB move in
the depression. low V will
.. 220 45 1619 be measured.
Presentation of Sounding survey data
VES results are presented in form of graphs, where half-
length of the array (AB/2) is plotted on the x- axis and the
corresponding a) values are plotted on the y-axis. The
scale on both axes is bi-logarithmic.

Reasons for choosing logaritmic scale:

1. Logarithmic scale results in the same movement of curves for a given
relative variation of variables, regardless of their actual magnitudes. This
reasoning steams from the fact that the effect of a given layer diminishes
with depth and hence the accuracy with which we can determine its
depth also diminishes in proportion.
2. Log-log scale facilitates a means of comparison of field sounding
curves with theoretical ones prepared in advance for a
predetermined succession of resistivities. In effect, if we multiply
all electrode spacing and bed thicknesses involved by the same
factor, the apparent resistivity does not change.

1 2 3
2m; 60 -m 10 m; 60 -m 2m; 10 -m
2m; 300 -m 2m; 50 -m
10 m; 300 -m 6m ; 4 -m
6m ; 4 -m
 30m ; 24 -m 
a)

300
1 2
100
a (-m)

60
30 3
AB/2
10
2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500
180
b) 1
100 2
60
a (-m)

20 3
10 AB/2
50 100 150
Interpretation of VES data
Purpose: Obtain information from the resistivity measurements; about layer
parameters (resistivity and thickness/depth of layers)

Qualitative interpretation:
 The principle of interpretation lies on the comparison of
many theoretical sounding curves with a single practical
field curve.
 Interpretation of any multilayer curve is splitted in to a
series of three layer curves (by dividing it to series of left
and right segments) on which the traditional technique of
interpretations is applied.
 In homogeneous media the slope of an ascending branch
of a sounding curve can’t exceed 450.
 A branch which is long and has a constant slope
invariably indicates the presence of a suppressed layer.
Quantitative interpretation
Procedure for annual curve fitting technique (using two-layer master
and auxiliary graphs):
a. Plot the field curve in the usual manner.

b. Fit the first part of the field curve with a two-layer standard curve. This gives 1, h1 and μ1
from the position of the origin.

c. Mark the origin on the field plot (01). From 1 and μ1 we have 2.

d. Using 01 as origin, trace the appropriate auxiliary curve, corresponding to the value of μ1,
and the shape of the field curve. Keep axes parallel.
e. Remove the auxiliary curves. Fit the next part of the field curve with a standard two-layer
curve, keeping the origin of the standard curves on the auxiliary curve traced in 3.
f. The position of the origin of the standard curves on the auxiliary curve for the best fit of the
position and coordinates of the auxiliary point: 1’, h1’. Also the value of 1 (=h2/h1) is read
from the standard curves. Thus we have h2.
g. The value of h2/h1 is determined form the position of the auxiliary point on the auxiliary
curve; h2/h1 read off the auxiliary graph (along the dotted line). This gives h2.
h. The process is continued, by repeating steps 3-6 using the auxiliary point as origin,
replacing 2/1, by 3/2 , etc., until the field curve is exhausted.
Limitations of Resistivity Sounding
Principle of Equivalence

It applies to a layer whose resistivity is either higher or lower

than the layer above or below it.
A resistive bed located between two conductive beds manifests
itself by its transverse resistance (T=hx).

A conductive bed lying between resistive beds shows its presence by

h
its longitudinal conductance (S). .S 

Two resistive beds with different thicknesses & resistivities, but with the same
S cannot be distinguished by a sounding curve;

Two conductive layers cannot be distinguished if they have the same S.

Principle of suppression
This principle relates to a bed which has a resistivity
intermediate between the layer above or below it. Unless
such a layer is relatively thick its effect can’t be seen
clearly on a sounding curve.

The detectability of layer of given resistivity depends on its

relative thickness, which is defined as a ratio of bed
thickness to its depth of burial.

When the relative thickness of a layer is small, there is

always a minimum chance of detecting it on the sounding
curve.
 Electrical Sounding over laterally
inhomogeneous media
The effect of resistivity variations depends up on the
following factors:
• The size of in-homogeneities with respect to their
depth of occurrence.
• The size of in-homogeneities with respect to the
dimension of the array used.
• The resistivity contrast between the in-homogeneities
and the surrounding media.
• The type of electrode array used.
• The orientation of the measuring array with respect
to the strike of the in-homogeneities.
• The geometry of in-homogeneities.
Factors which control the Resistivity
 Geologic Age
 Salinity
 Free-ion content of the connate
water.
 Interconnection of the pore spaces
(Permeability).
 Temperature
 Porosity
 Pressure
 Exercise
V1 V2 V3 V4

AB/2
ρ1a=?
ρ2a=?

ρ3a=?

ρ4a=?
ρ1 a ρ2a ρ3a ρ4a ?
Exercise Layer parameter
Layer #  h

1 402 4
2 105 25
3 549 74
4 23 -

Layer #  h

1 126 0.4

2 404 1

3 12 0.2

4 341 77

5 44 288

6 1 -
Exercise - 5 AB/2 VES-1 VES-2 VES-3 VES-4 VES-5

1. Plot the VES data 10 20 24 1200 30 150

and interpret using 15 20 30 1150 32 150
the curve matching
20 20 37 1050 34 150
technique.
2. Using the IPWIN 30 25 51 800 41 150
software interpret 50 33 80 360 55 150
the given VES
curve. 70 44 103 150 65 150
3. Draw a Geo-electric 100 56 122 50 80 160
section
150 75 135 36 100 180
300 88 100 40 145 270
GIVEN
1. Distances between: 500 69 80 56 260 440
2. V1-V2=850m; 700 60 95 75 360 -
3. V2-V3=1200m; 1000 68 130 105 - -
4. V3-V4=1150m;
5. V4-V5=700 m. 1500 92 185 160 - -
2500 140 - 260 - -
 Exercise 5. Geo-electric section constructed using resistivity sounding (VES) data given

NE
SW V-5
V-3 V-4
V-1 V-2 Siltstone

Limestone 145 150

20
30
6000
4200
sandstone
50
1200
40 F?

2800

2200 F ?
View of the highly fractured/weathered basement (a)
views of the unstable slopes on the left and right
abutments shown by dotted yellow lines (b & c)
(Weiyto Bridge)
Example 3
Bridge Foundation Investigation (Weyito River Bridge)

Electrical Resistivity Imaging for bridge foundation investigation

 Sample
interpretation
result of VES data
from site X (AA)
VES result from the X HQ site
Geoelectric sections