NCE4205

HYDRAULICS LECTURE
MODULE 2: CONCEPT OF FLUIDS AND ITS PROPERTIES

I. INTRODUCTION
Before the students goes on with the various topics
and concepts in this subject, a clear understanding of
the concept of fluid is a must. This understanding must
not only be limited to abstract ideas but also to specific
concepts that describes fluids.

II. DIAGNOSTIC ASSESSMENT

The students will be assess about the following:
A. Describe about their ideas of fluids based from
what they have learned in their previous science
classes
B. What various parameters can they use to
technically describe a fluid

III. INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid that does not
The objective of this module is for the student to have follow Newton's law of viscosity, i.e., constant
the basic knowledge about fluid. Specifically, the viscosity independent of stress. In non-Newtonian
learning outcomes of the module are as follows: fluids, viscosity can change when under force to
A. The student must be able to define fluid in their either more liquid or more solid.
own words.
B. The student must be able to differentiate liquid and
gas
C. The student must show the necessary competency
in computing the various fluid properties
parameters and must demonstrate the ability to
show the relationship among the mathematical
properties of fluids

IV. THEORIES AND CONCEPTS

A. What is Fluid?
A fluid is a substance that is not capable of
retaining its own shape and it is either liquid or gas.

B. What is a Liquid? The behavior of Non-Newtonian fluid can be

A liquid is a type of fluid in which the molecules are
much closer but not close enough for it to retain its
own shape. Oil and Water are common examples
of liquid.
C. What is Gas?
Gas is a type of fluid in which the molecules are
much farther apart. Like liquid, it is incapable or
retaining its own shape but unlike liquid, it is also
incapable of retaining its own volume
described in four ways:
1. Dilatant
Viscosity of the fluid increases when shear is
applied. Example of which are Quicksand,
Cornflour and water mixture and Silly putty
2. Pseudoplastic
Pseudoplastic is the opposite of dilatant; the
more shear applied, the less viscous it
becomes. Example of this is ketchup

D. Classification of Fluids 3. Rheopectic

Fluids are generally classified as either:
1. Newtonian
2. Non Newtonian
A Newtonian fluid is a fluid in which the viscous
stresses arising from its flow, at every point, are
linearly correlated to the local strain rate, which is
rate of change of its deformation over time.
Examples of Newtonian fluids are water, gasoline,
mineral oil and alcohol
Rheopectic is very similar to dilatant in that
when shear is applied, viscosity increases. The
difference here is that viscosity increase is
time-dependent. Examples of Rheopectic
fluids are Gypsum paste and Cream
4. Thixotropic
Fluids with thixotropic properties decrease in
viscosity when shear is applied. This is a time-
dependent property as well. Examples of
thixotropic fluids are Paint, Cosmetics, Asphalt
and Glue
E. Basic Properties of Liquid π 0.52 3
Just like in solid, there are properties of liquid that Vol cyl = ∗1.25=0.245 m
must be learned in order for force and energy 4
analysis to be made. The following properties are:
Determine the Density
1. Density ρ
Density is simply the ratio of mass over the mass m
ρ= =
unit volume. Mathematically, it is expressed as volume V
follows:
185 kg kg
ρ= 3
=755.102 3
mass m 0.245 m m
ρ= =
volume V
Determine the Unit Weight
2. Specific Weight or Unit Weight γ
Specific weight is simply the ratio of weight weight mg 185∗9.81 N
γ= = = 3
=7407.55 3
over the unit volume. Mathematically, it is volume V 0.245 m m
expressed as follows:
also
weight W mg
γ= = = =ρ g
volume V V kg m N
γ =ρ g=755.102 3
∗9.81 2 =7407.55 3
m s m
3. Specific Gravity s
Specific gravity is the ratio of a fluid’s unit Determine the Specific Gravity
weight over the standard unit weight of water
at 40C (taken to be at 9810 N/m3 or 62.4 γ fluid 7407.55
lbs/ft3). s= γ = =0.755
water 9810

It can also be the ratio of the fluid’s density also

over that of the standard density of water at
40C (taken to be at 1000kg/m3 or 1.94 ρ fluid 755.102
slugs/ft3) s= ρ = =0.755
water 1000
γ fluid ρ fluid
s= γ =ρ Determine the Specific Volume
water water

3
4. Specific Volume ν (nu) Volume 0.245 m
ν= = =0.00132
Specific Volume is the ratio of unit volume over mass 185 kg
its mass. Mathematically, it is written to be:
5. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity E
Volume V 1 Similar in concept to the modulus of elasticity
ν= = =ρ of a material, the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity
mass m
idescribes how resistant a substance is to
EXAMPLE 1: compression.
A container is cylindrical in shape and it is 50cm in
diameter, 1.25m tall and it is filled with oil having a It is defined as the ratio between pressure
mass of 185kg. Determine the following: increase and the resulting decrease in a
a. Density material's volume. Which is expressed
b. Unit Weight mathematically to be:
c. Specific Gravity
d. Specific Volume (P 1 −P 0 )
E=

Solutions:
Determine the volume of the container. This will
|V 1 −V 0
V0 |
give us the volume of the liquid Along with the Young's modulus, the shear
modulus, and Hooke's law, the bulk modulus
Vol cyl =Area∗Height describes a material's response to stress or
strain
π D2
Vol cyl = ∗H
4
Example 2: Example 4:
A liter of liquid is placed in a container having a A 2mm tube is placed in a glass of water. If the
pressure of 2GPa. When the pressure is increased angle is 0, determine the capillary rise? Use σ =
to 2.5GPa the volume shrunk to 950cc (cm 3) 0.0741N/m
Determine the Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

Solutions:
From the equation of the bulk modulus of elasticity
(P 1 −P 0 )
E=
|
V 1 −V 0
V0 |
(2.5 GPa−2.0 GPa)
E= Solutions:
|0.95−1
1 | From the surface tension equation for capillary
tube
E=10 GPa
4 σ cosθ
h=
Dγ
6. Surface Tension σ
Surface tension is the attractive property of 4∗0.0741 cos 0
fluid molecules at the surface it comes into h=
0.002∗9810
contact.
- Surface adhesion of water
h = 0.015m or 15mm
- Capillary Rise in soil
- Capillary rise in tubes
7. Viscosity μ
Viscosity is defined to be the “stickiness” of a
The forces between molecules in the bulk of
fluid whether it is liquid or gas.
the liquid are equal in all direction and as a
result no net force is applied in the molecules
Mathematically, viscosity is a function of
Torque. It is expressed as follows:
For surface tension the following applications
will be discussed: Th
- Droplets μ= 2
2π R ω L
PR Where:
σ= P – pressure
Where:
2 T – Torque
R – Radius
h – cylinder gap (R0 - R1)
- Bubbles D – diameter of tube
R – radius of cylinder
δ – unit weight of liquid
PR ω – Angular velocity
σ= Θ – angle of repose
L – length of cylinder
4
- Capillary tubes The equation above is obtained from a device
4 σ cosθ called viscosimeter. This device is used to
h= measure the viscosity of a fluid
Dγ
Example 3:
Given the surface tension of water to be 0.0741
N/m and the diameter of the bubble to at 5 inches.
What is the pressure inside the bubble?

Solutions:
From the surface tension equation for bubbles

PR
σ=
4

N
0.0741 =
P∗2.5∗ ( 2.54
1
∗
100 )
1
; P = 4.67N/m2
m 4
Example 5: The Basic Property of Thermodynamics starts with
A certain liquid is placed inside a viscosimeter having a the ideal gas law
length of 0.3m. The diameter for the smaller cylinder is P= ρ R T
20cm while the larger cylinder is 20.2cm. What is the
viscosity if the applied torque is 0.13N-m at 400rpm Where:
P – absolute pressure (kPa or psi)
Solutions: ρ - density of fluid (kg/m3)
From the equation of absolute viscosity T – Absolute Temperature (K or R)
Th R – Gas constant (J/kg-K)
μ= 2
2π R ω L
Example 6:
From the given in the problem, the following can be A gas having a volume of 40liters has a pressure of
obtained: 0.24MPa at 240C. If the gas constant R is 212J/kg-
h = R0 – R1 = 0.101m – 0.10m = 0.001m K determine the following
T = 0.13N-m 1. Density of the gas
R = R1 = 0.1 – smaller cylinder 2. Mass of the gas
L = 0.3m 3. Weight of the gas
2π rad
ω =400∗ =41.89
60 s Solutions:
From the ideal gas law equation
Substituting these to the equation of viscosity
P= ρ R T
0.13∗0.001 m N −s
μ= =0.000165
( )
2 3
2 π (0.1 )(41.89)0.30 m J
240000 Pa= ρ 212 ( 24+273.15)
kg−K
The values of viscosity were tabulated for common
types of liquid in various thermodynamics books but all ρ = 3.81kg/cu.m
of these are obtained experimentally and by
mathematical projections To obtain the mass of the gas use the equation of
density
F. Thermodynamic Properties of Gas mass m
ρ= =
Gases as fluids are have also properties but the volume V
approach in determining them is not as
straightforward as that of liquid. mass
3.81= 3
1m
The thermodynamic properties are governed by 40li∗
1000 li
the laws which are given as follows:
1. Conservation of Mass Mass = 0.1524kg
Matter is indestructible
2. Conservation of Momentum The weight can then be computed as follows:
The momentum of a system is constant unless W = mg
acted upon by an external force W = 0.1524kg * 9.81m/s2 = 1.498N
Newtons 2nd Law
3. Conservation of Energy The first law of thermodynamics states that when
The total energy of the system is constant a system change from one state to another,
there is heat exchanged.
Thermodynamic Properties are broadly classified
as follows: For example, a piece of ice is suddenly placed in
A. Extensive Properties open air. It is noticeable that the ice cube will
B. Intensive Properties immediately start to melt.
Extensive properties are dependent on mass while It is not enough to say that the surrounding is
Intensive properties are independent of mass simply warm or hot. The ice absorbs heat and the
movement of heat from the air into the ice is called
heat transfer. The consequence of heat transfer
is the expansion of the distance of the
molecules.
Mathematically, this is expressed to be Another useful thermodynamic properties are
a) Constant Pressure Specific Heat Cp
Q 1−2 −W 1−2 =E 2 −E 1 b) Constant Volume specific Heat Cv

Where: The relationship between Cp and Cv can be written

Q = heat transferred as follows:
W = work done C p =C v +R
E = Energy
and
It should be noted that Energy consists of potential
and kinetic energy which is written to be as Cp
follows: k=
Cv

( )
2
v
E=m +γ h+ v̄
2 The values of k, Cp and Cv are given in various
thermodynamic texts
Where:
m – mass Example 7:
The temperature on a cold winter day in Wyoming
mv
2
is -300C and the elevation is 3000m. Determine the
- Kinetic Energy density of the air if the pressure is 70kPa and also
2
the speed of sound in the air. Cp = 1.004 kJ/kg-K
mgh – potential energy while Cv is 0.717kJ/kg-K

m v̄ - internal energy Solutions:

From the given, the density of the air can be
obtained using the ideal gas law:
If a system is isolated, there will be no heat
exchanged therefore:
P= ρ R T
0−0=E 2 −E 1
The speed of sound in the air is
E 1 =E 2
v = √ kRT
It must be noted that for incompressible fluids such For this problem there are also some parameters
as water, the three laws of thermodynamics will that are not directly given. The problem implies
suffice. In short the physical properties of fluid will that the gas constant that will be needed here is
remain constant for such situations such as water that of air. From the previous lesson it is known to
flowing in pipes and channels as well as in certain be Rair = 287J/kg-K
situations such as air flowing on ducts.
The density of air can be obtained from the ideal
For compressible fluids, the properties changes gas law equation to be
that additional thermodynamic quantities must be
made by combining additional thermodynamic P
properties ρ=
RT
One such condition is called Enthalpy H and 70000Pa
mathematically expressed as: ρ=
J
287 ∗(273.15 K −30)
H =m ū+W 1−2 kg−K

ρ = 1.0031kg/m3
which can be rewritten as:
For the speed of sound the unknown quantity here
H =m ū+PV
will be k. In the previous discussions, k is obtained
from the equation
The transformation from W to PV will be discussed
Cp
in the laboratory. k=
Cv
The intensive property (independent of mass) of
enthalpy is given to be: 1.004
k= =1.4
0.717
h=ū+ RT
 Substituting to the equation of velocity of sound in
the air
v = √ kRT

v = √ 1.4∗287∗243.15

v = 312.56 m/s

A process in which pressure, temperature and

other properties are essentially constant is called
quasiequilibrium or isothermal. While for the
process in which no heat is transferred, the
process is called Isentropic.

The practical problems for isothermal and

Isentropic processes will be discussed in the next
module

V. ASSESSMENT
The student will be assess by the following activities:
A. Quizzes
B. Module Activities with focus on practical and
situational problems

VI. REFERENCES
A. Mechanics of Fluids 4th Ed
M. Potter; D. Wiggert, B. Ramadan
Cengage Learning