FACILITATING

LEARNING
(Review)

SHANE CARMIE C. SAPERA

College of Social Sciences
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 What are we going to cover in our session?
01 02 03 04 05
Metacognition Information Pavlov’s Skinner’s
Thorndike’s
Processing Classical Operant
Connectionism
Theory Conditioning Conditioning
Theory

06 07 08 09 10
Tolman’s Bandura’s Bruner’s Ausubel’s
Purposive Social Learning Constructivism Subsumption Gestalt Theory
Behaviorism Theory Theory Theory
 METACOGNITION
The term metacognition is attributed to Flavell. He
described it as ”knowledge concerning one’s cognitive
processes and products or anything related to them, e.g., the
learning-relevant properties of information and data.”
Furthermore, he referred to it as “the active monitoring and
consequent regulation and orchestration of these processes
concerning the cognitive objects or data on which they bear,
usually in the service of some concrete goal or objective”
(Flavell, 1976).
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 METACOGNITION
Metacognitive knowledge
-is the result of an individual’s metacognitive
experiences. Flavell (1979) explained them as
experiences that “an individual has through which
knowledge is attained, or through regulation occurs.”

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 METACOGNITION
1. Declarative knowledge or personal knowledge
- the learner’s knowledge about things. It also refers
to the learner’s understanding of own abilities, and
the knowledge about oneself as a learner and of the
factors that moderate one’s performance.

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 METACOGNITION
2. Procedural knowledge or task knowledge
-involves the knowledge of how to do things and how
skills or competencies are executed. The assessment
on the learner’s task knowledge includes what
knowledge is needed (content) and the space
available to communicate what is known (length).
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 METACOGNITION
3. Conditional knowledge or strategy knowledge
-refers to the ability to know when and why various
cognitive acts should be applied. It involves using
strategies to learn information (knowing how to
know) as well as adapting them to novel contexts
(knowing when a strategy is appropriate).
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 INFORMATION
PROCESSING THEORY
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
Information Processing Theory is a cognitive
theory that focuses on how information is encoded
into our memory. The theory describes how our
brains filter information, from what we’re paying
attention to in the present moment, to what gets
stored in our short-term or working memory and
ultimately into our long-term memory.

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
The general model of information processing theory
includes three components:
● Sensory memory
Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of
information but it is more than what our
minds can hold or perceive
Duration: 1-3 seconds (depending on modality)

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
● Working Memory/Short Term Memory
Capacity: 5-9 chunks of information
Duration: 5-15 seconds (without rehearsal)

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
● Working Memory/Short Term Memory
Sensory memories transferred into working memory will
last for 15-20 seconds, with a capacity for 5-9 pieces or chunks of
information. Information is maintained in working memory through
maintenance or elaborative rehearsal. Maintenance refers to
repetition, while elaboration refers to the organization of
information (such as chunking or chronology).

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
● Long term memory
Capacity: unlimited
Duration: indefinite

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY
● Long term memory
Long term memory includes various types of
information:
▪ declarative (factual, semantic, and episodic)
▪ procedural (how to do something)
▪ imagery (mental images).

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INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

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 THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM
THEORY
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Connectionism theory is based on the
principle of active learning and is the result of
the work of the American psychologist Edward
Thorndike. This work led to Thorndike’s Laws.
According to these Laws, learning is achieved
when an individual is able to form associations
between a particular stimulus and a response.
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
1. Law of Readiness

● First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of

Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that
learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused
through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness
means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn,
learning cannot be automatically instilled in him
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
2. Law of Exercise

● The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which

means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and
durability of learning and according to Thorndike’s S-R Bond
Theory, the connections are strengthened with trail or practice
and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is
discontinued.
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 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
3. Law of Effect

● The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial
or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or
connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and
strengthening of the connection, whereas dissatisfaction,
annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of
the connection.
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

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PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
THEORY
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Classical Conditioning (also known
as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning
through association and was
discovered by Pavlov, a Russian
physiologist. In simple terms, two
stimuli are linked together to produce
a new learned response in a person or
animal.
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Pavlov’s other findings:
Stimulus Generalization: Once the dog has learned to
salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at the
other similar sounds.
Stimulus Discrimination: The dog could learn to
discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern
which bell would result in the presentation of food and
which would not.
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Pavlov’s other findings:
Extinction: If you stop pairing the bell with the food,
salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery: Extinguished responses can

be recovered or revived after an elapsed time, but will
soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with
food.
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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
Pavlov’s other findings:
Higher Order/Second-Order Conditioning:
Once the dog has been conditioned to associate
the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus such
as the switching on of light at the same time that the
bell is rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash
of the light without the sound of the bell.

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
1. It is the decrease in the conditioned response when the
unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the
conditioned stimulus.
2. The return of a previously extinguished conditioned
response following a rest period
3. When an organism learns to respond differently to
various stimuli that are similar.

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
4. When an organism demonstrates the conditioned
response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned
stimulus, it is called:

5. This is when a response is elicited not just because of the

conditioned stimulus but also because of an unconditioned
one.

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 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY
1. Drei was conditioned to check her phone every time she
hears a short beep, now she even checks her phone even
the tone that she hears is just similar and not the exact
tone.
2. Cassy was afraid of cats with dark fur. Now she is afraid of
all animals with black fur.
3. Miley already extinguished her fear of dogs but yesterday
he was bitten by a dog and her fear was relieved.
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SKINNER’S OPERANT
CONDITIONING
THEORY
OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
Operant conditioning, sometimes
referred to as instrumental conditioning,
is a method of learning that occurs
through rewards and punishments for
behavior. Through operant conditioning,
an individual makes an association
between a particular behavior and a
consequence (Skinner, 1938).
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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
Positive Reinforcement
It strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence
an individual finds rewarding.
Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also
strengthen behavior. Negative reinforcement strengthens
behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant
experience.
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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
Positive Punishment
Positive punishment works by presenting an
aversive consequence after an undesired behavior is
exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in
the future.
Negative Punishment
Negative punishment happens when a
certain reinforcing stimulus is removed after a particular
undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior
happening less often in the future.
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 OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
1. As a Phinma scholar, one will be exempted from the 90 -
hour duty if he/she can recruit one enrollee.
2. My teacher said “ anyone who got a final grade of 1.25 and
above will get a copy of all my PDF’s and PPT Presentations.”
3. Mommy D wants Manny to attend his boxing training more
often. She said she will give Manny more money every time
he goes to the gym.
4. Because of failing grades, Ron was not allowed to go out of
his room tonight.
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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
Behaviorists discovered that different patterns (or
schedules) of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of
learning and extinction. Ferster and Skinner (1957) devised
different ways of delivering reinforcement and found that this had
effects on:
1. Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever
(i.e., how hard the rat worked).
2. Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out
(i.e., how soon the rat gave up).
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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
(A) Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a

specific behavior occurs, e.g., every time a lever is pressed a
pellet is delivered, and then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is SLOW, Extinction rate is FAST

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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
(B) Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a

specified number of times. e.g., one reinforcement is given after
every so many correct responses, e.g., after every 5th response.
For example, a child receives a star for every five words spelled
correctly.

Response rate is FAST, Extinction rate is MEDIUM

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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
(C) Fixed Interval Reinforcement
One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval
providing at least one correct response has been made. An
example is being paid by the hour. Another example would be
every 15 minutes (half hour, hour, etc.) a pellet is delivered
(providing at least one lever press has been made) then food
delivery is shut off.
Response rate is MEDIUM, Extinction rate is MEDIUM

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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
(D) Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of

times. For examples gambling or fishing.

Response rate is FAST, Extinction rate is SLOW (very

hard to extinguish because of unpredictability)

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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
(E) Variable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made,

reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has
passed, e.g., on average every 5 minutes. An example is a self-
employed person being paid at unpredictable times.

Response rate is FAST, Extinction rate is SLOW

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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
1. The university has its periodic exam every after 2 months.
2. For every recruit, a Phinma scholar will receive Php
1,000.00.
3. No one knows who will be called during recitation.
4. Clark and Leah don’t know when will the immigration
officers visit and interview them.
5. The CSDL will choose a winner for the college shot contest
every week.
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OPERANT CONDITIONING THEORY
6. Astronomers always keep their equipment ready and on site because
they’ll never know when will they have a sighting of a shooting star.
7. If a Gryffindor student committed 4 mistakes he/she will be
transferred to Slytherin.
8. Every 25 years President Snow will invite all the champions from
different districts to join the Hunger Games.
9. The mailman keys on pressing the doorbell because he knows that
there are people inside the house.
10. Tatay keeps on betting at Lotto.

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 TOLMAN’S
PURPOSIVE
BEHAVIORISM
 NEOBEHAVIORISM
Neo behaviorism is an approach to psychology influenced
by logical positivism that emphasized the development of
comprehensive theories and frameworks of behavior through
empirical observation of behavior and the use of consciousness
and mental events as explanatory devices. It thus contrasted with
classical behaviorism, which was concerned with freeing
psychology of mentalistic concepts and explanations.

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 PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
1. Learning is always purposive and goal-directed. Tolman
asserted that learning is always purposive and goal-directed. He
held the notion that an organism acted or responded for some
adaptive purpose. He believed individuals do more than merely
respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing
conditions, and they strive toward goals. Tolman saw behaviour
as holistic, purposive and cognitive.

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 PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
2. Cognitive maps in rats. In his most famous experiment, one
group of rats placed at random starting locations in maze but the
foods was always on the same location. Another group of rats had
food placed in different locations which always required exactly the
same pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that
had the food in the same location performed much better than the
other group, supposedly demonstrating that they had learned the
location rather than a specific sequence of turns. 48
 PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM

This is tendency to “learn location” signified that rats somehow

formed cognitive maps that help them perform well in the maze. He
also found out that organism will select the shortest or easier path
to achieve a goal. Applied in human learning, since a student
passes by the same route going to school every day, he requires a
cognitive map of the location of his school. So when transformation
re-routing is done, he can still figure out what turns to make to get to
school the shortest or easier way. 49
 PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
3. Latent Learning. Latent learning is a kind of learning that
remains or stay with individual until needed. It is learning that in
not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it can
exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat
experiments wherein rats apparently “learned the maze: by
forming cognitive maps of the maze, but manifested this
knowledge of the maze only when they needed to.
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 PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
4. The concept of intervening variable. Intervening variables
are variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinants
of behaviour. Tolman believed that learning is mediated of is
influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs
and other internal or environmental variables. Example, in his
experiments with rats he found out that hunger was an
intervening variable.
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 PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM
5. Reinforcement not essential for learning. Tolman
concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning,
although it provides an incentive for performance. In his studies,
he observed that a rat as able to acquire knowledge of the way
through a maze, i.e., to develop a cognitive maps even in the
absence of reinforcement.

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BANDURA’S SOCIAL
LEARNING THEORY
 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Social learning theory focuses on the learning

occurs within a social context. It considered that

people learn from one another, including such concepts

as observational learning, imitation and modelling.

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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
General Principles of Social Learning Theory
1. People can learn by observing the behaviour of others and the
outcomes of those behaviours.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behaviour.
3. Cognitive plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition
between behaviourist learning theories and cognitive learning
theories.
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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social learning theory has cognitive factors as wll as
behaviourist factors (actually operant factors)
1. Learning without reinforcement: Bandura makes a distinction
between learning through observation and the actual imitation
of what has been learned. This is similar to Tolman’s latent
learning.
2. Cognitive processing during learning: Social learning theorist
contend that attention is a critical factor in learning.

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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
3. Expectation: As a result of being reinforced, people form
expectations about the consequences that future behaviours are
likely to bring. They expect certain behaviours to bring
reinforcements and others to bring punishment. The learner needs
to be aware, however, to the response reinforcements and
response punishment. Reinforcement increases a response only
when the learner is aware of that connection.

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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
4. Reciprocal causation: Bandura proposed that
behaviour can influenced both the environment and the
person. In fact each of these three variables, the
person, the behaviour, and the environment can have an
influenced on each other.

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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
5. Modeling: There are different types of models. There
is the live model, an actual person demonstrating the
behaviour. There can also be a symbolic model, which
can be a person or action portrayed in some others
medium, such as television, videotape, computer
programs.
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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR EFFECTIVE MODELLING TO
OCCUR:

1. Attention

2. Retention

3. Motor Reproduction

4. Motivation

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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Bandura suggested that the environment also reinforces
modelling. This is in several possible ways:
1. The observer is reinforced by the model.
2. The observer is reinforced by a third person.
3. The imitated behaviour itself to reinforcing consequences.
4. Consequences of the model’s behaviour’s affect the observer’s
behaviour vicariously.

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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
1. Sarah, upon seeing her classmates in proper uniform, also started
to wear proper uniform. She continues to follow the proper
decorum because she feels proud of her uniform and of her course.
2. The Dean congratulates Sarah for not being suspended because of
not wearing proper uniform.
3. Betty saw how Dean congratulated Sarah for wearing proper
uniform. Because of that Betty also started to wear proper
uniform.

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 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
4. Manny Pacquiao rewarded and praised Ippo who is very dedicated in
his boxing training; Ippo also made Manny his inspiration.
5. Ippo because of training well felt better and became healthier. His
training also boosts his confidence.
6. She saw her teacher scolding her classmates because of being late.
From then, she made sure to come to school 15 minutes before time.

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 BRUNER’S
SPIRAL CURRICULUM
 CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is ‘an approach to learning that holds
that people actively construct or make their own knowledge
and that reality is determined by the experiences of the
learner’ (Elliott et al., 2000, p. 256).
In elaborating constructivists’ ideas Arends (1998)
states that constructivism believes in personal construction
of meaning by the learner through experience, and that
meaning is influenced by the interaction of prior knowledge
and new events.
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 CONSTRUCTIVISM
Bruner's theory on constructivism encompasses the idea
of learning as an active process wherein those learning are
able to form new ideas based on what their current knowledge
is as well as their past knowledge. A cognitive structure is
defined as the mental processes which offer the learner the
ability to organize experiences and derive meaning from them.
These cognitive structures allow the learner to push past the
given information in constructing their new concepts.

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 CONSTRUCTIVISM
What are the principles of constructivism?

1. Learning is an active process.

2. All knowledge is socially constructed.

3. All knowledge is personal.

4. Learning exists in the mind.

5. Constructivist approaches to teaching.

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 CONSTRUCTIVISM
Identify whether the statement describes
TRADITIONAL or CONSTRUCTIVIST classroom:
1. Strict adherence to a fixed curriculum is highly
valued.
2. Learning is based on repetition and drills.
3. Teacher’s role is interactive and negotiative.
4. Teacher at the spotlight.
5. Students are passive recipients of knowledge.
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 CONSTRUCTIVISM

6. Pursuit of student questions and interests is valued.

7. Teacher as a guide at the side.
8. Learning is interactive.
9. Teacher’s role is rooted in authority
10. Promotion of cooperative learning

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 SPIRAL CURRICULUM
Jerome Bruner as a constructivist promotes
spiral curriculum. In spiral curriculum, teachers must
revisit the curriculum by teaching the same content
in different ways depending on students’
development levels.

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 CONSTRUCTIVISM
Jerome Bruner identified three stages of cognitive
representation:
● Enactive, which is the representation of
knowledge through actions.
● Iconic, which is the visual summarization of
images.
● Symbolic representation, which is the use of
words and other symbols to describe experiences.
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EDGAR
DALE’S
CONE OF
EXPERIENCE

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GESTALT THEORY
 GESTALT THEORY
Laws/ Principles of Grouping derived from this
theory (Wertheimer, 1938):
● Similarity
The law of similarity suggests that similar items
tend to be grouped together. If a number of objects in a
scene are similar to one another, you will naturally
group them together and perceive them as a whole.
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GESTALT THEORY

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 GESTALT THEORY
Laws/ Principles of Grouping derived from this
theory (Wertheimer, 1938):
● Proximity

The law of proximity suggests that objects near each other

tend to be viewed as a group. If you see a number of
people standing close together, for example, you might
immediately assume that they are all part of the same
social group.
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GESTALT THEORY

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 GESTALT THEORY
Laws/ Principles of Grouping derived from this theory
(Wertheimer, 1938):
● Continuity
The principle of continuity states that elements that are
arranged on a line or curve are perceived to be more related than
elements not on the line or curve. The law of continuity posits that
the human eye will follow the smoothest path when viewing lines,
regardless of how the lines were actually drawn.

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GESTALT THEORY

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 GESTALT THEORY
Laws/ Principles of Grouping derived from this theory
(Wertheimer, 1938):
● Closure
The principle of closure refers to the mind’s tendency to
see complete figures or forms even if a picture is incomplete,
partially hidden by other objects, or if part of the information
needed to make a complete picture in our minds is missing.

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GESTALT THEORY

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GESTALT THEORY

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 GESTALT THEORY
Laws/ Principles of Grouping derived from this theory
(Wertheimer, 1938):
● Pragranz/Simplicity
The law of prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of
good figure or the law of simplicity. This law holds that when
you're presented with a set of ambiguous or complex objects,
your brain will make them appear as simple as possible.

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GESTALT THEORY

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GESTALT THEORY

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 GESTALT THEORY
Laws/ Principles of Grouping derived from this theory
(Wertheimer, 1938):
● Figure-Ground
The figure-ground principle states that people instinctively
perceive objects as either being in the foreground or the
background. They either stand out prominently in the front (the
figure) or recede into the back (the ground).

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GESTALT THEORY

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1. The concept of review of the previous lesson provides smooth
transition from one topic to another.
2. Based on this law, we tend to fill the gaps and tend to assume that
a given figure is whole.
3. For this law, learners should find the elements of appearance,
pattern as well as commonality.
4. Teacher Jane wrote the parts of speech on the board using colored
chalks and the typical white-colored chalk for the definition.
5. Lea passed a portfolio with a beautiful front cover design. She did
this to emphasize the cover page rather than the back as well as
the content. She is using the Law of .

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 AUSUBEL’S
SUBSUMPTION
THEORY
 SUBSUMPTION THEORY
The Subsumption Learning
Theory was developed in 1963 by the
American psychologist David
Ausubel. The theory focuses on how
individuals acquire and learn large
chunks of information through visual
means or text materials.

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 SUBSUMPTION THEORY
1. Correlative Subsumption
The new material is an extension of the already
grasped knowledge.
2. Derivative Subsumption
The new material derives from the existing structure,
and can be linked to other concepts or lead to new
interpretations.

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 SUBSUMPTION THEORY
3. Superordinate Learning
Specific examples are known but not the major
concept itself.
4. Combinatorial Learning
The newly acquired knowledge combines with prior
knowledge to enrich the understanding of both
concepts

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 MOTIVATION:
Types and Theories
 TYPES OF MOTIVATION
1. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION involves performing a
task because it's personally rewarding to you.

2. EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION involves completing a

task or exhibiting a behavior because of outside
causes such as avoiding punishment or receiving a
reward.

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THEORIES ON MOTIVATION
ATTRIBUTION THEORY
Attribution theory assumes that people try to
determine why people do what they do, i.e., attribute
causes to behavior. A person seeking to understand
why another person did something may attribute one
or more causes to that behavior.

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THEORIES ON MOTIVATION
SELF-EFFICACY THEORY
Self-efficacy theory emphasizes the importance of
the individual and the individual's perceptions of
his/her personal capabilities as key determinants of
successful outcomes.

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THEORIES ON MOTIVATION
SELF-DETERMINATION THEORY
Self-determination theory suggests that all humans
have three basic psychological needs—autonomy,
competence, and relatedness—that underlie growth
and development.

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THEORIES ON MOTIVATION
SELF-REGULATION THEORY
Self-regulation theory (SRT) is a system of
conscious personal management that involves the
process of guiding one's own thoughts, behaviors and
feelings to reach goals.

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THEORIES ON MOTIVATION
CHOICE THEORY
Developed by psychiatrist William Glasser, Choice
Theory states humans are motivated by a never-
ending quest to satisfy 5 basic needs woven into our
genes: to love and belong, to be powerful, to be free,
to have fun and to survive. Specifically: Survival,
belonging, power, freedom, and fun.

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THEORIES ON MOTIVATION
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

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