Dr. Carl E.

Balita Review Center

CBRC Headquarters
2nd Flr., Carmen Building, 881 G. Tolentino St. corner España Blvd., Sampaloc, Manila 1008

Academics and Services Department (ASD)

PHINMA Education Special Teaching Enhancement Program (STEP)

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT WITH LEARNER-CENTERED

TEACHING
BASIC CONCEPTS:

• Growth – an increase in an individual’s quantitative dimensions including height

and weight.
• Development – a qualitative increase in the complexity of functions/actions
• Maturation – physical, emotional, and mental change that comes with age.
• Learning – acquisition of knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors

STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT:

1. Prenatal – rapid biological development

2. Infancy – intense dependence on others for the satisfaction of their needs
3. Early Childhood – age of curiosity/exploratory age/ preschool age
4. Middle and Late Childhood – mastery of fundamental skills, school-age
5. Adolescence – rapid physical and emotional change; searching for personal identity
6. Young Adulthood – generally consists of leaving home, completing education,
beginning full-time work, attaining economic independence, establishing a long-term
intimate relationship, and starting a family.
7. Middle Adulthood – continuation of the gradual changes that started in early
adulthood
8. Late Adulthood – life adjustments on health and physical deterioration, dependency,
and death

PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT:

1. Development is relatively in order

a. Proximodistal Pattern: Greatest growth begins with the central/inner body
parts outwards
 b. Cephalocaudal Pattern: Greatest growth begins at the top/head downwards
2. Development takes place gradually
3. While the pattern of development is likely to be similar, the rate of development is likely
to vary among individuals.
4. Development is life-long. It does not end in adulthood.
5. Development is multi-dimensional. It involves biological, cognitive, and socio-
emotional dimensions.

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT:

1. Germinal (0-2 weeks):

- Creation of zygote
- Continued cell division
- Attachment of zygote to uterus

2. Embryonic (2-8 weeks):

- Zygote becomes an embryo
- Organogenesis (organ formation)

3. Fetal (2 months – birth):

- Growth and development continue dramatically during this period
STAGES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION - Children acquire language without being taught
the rules of grammar by their parents
1. Cooing - stage of infants' prelinguistic speech development and consists of the
production of single syllable, vowel-like sounds.
2. Babbling - use of repeated syllables over and over like “bababa,” but without specific
meaning.
3. Holophrase - one-word utterances may convey more meaning
4. Telegraphic Speech – two-word utterances
5. Basic Adult Utterances – one complete sentence

DEVELOPMENTAL ISSUES:

1. Nature vs. Nurture – extend to which development is influenced by nature (heredity)

and by nurture (environment)
 2. Continuity vs. Discontinuity – extend development involves gradual, cumulative
change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)
3. Stability vs. Change – the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist
through life or change

FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL THEORY

STAGE FOCUS
Oral (0-18 months) The pleasure centers on the mouth – sucking, biting, chewing,
etc.
Anal (18-36 months) The pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination, coping
with demands for control
Phallic (3-6 years) The pleasure zone is in the genitals, coping with incestuous
sexual feelings
Latency (6-puberty) Dormant sexual feelings
Genital (puberty Maturation and awakening of sexual urges/interests
onwards)

ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

Stage Basic Conflict Important Outcome

Events
Children develop a sense
of trust when caregivers
Infancy (birth to 18 Feeding
Trust vs. Mistrust provide reliability, care and
months)
affection. A lack of this will
lead to mistrust.
Children need to develop a
sense of personal control
over physical skills and a
Early Childhood (2- Autonomy vs. sense of independence.
Toilet Training
3 years) Shame and Doubt Success leads to feelings
of autonomy. Failure
results in feelings of shame
and doubt.
Children need to begin
Middle Childhood (3- asserting control and
Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration
5 years) power over the
environment. Success in
 this stage leads to a sense
of purpose. Children who
try to exert too much power
experience disapproval,
resulting in a sense of guilt.
Children need to cope with
new social and academic
Late Childhood (6- Industry vs. demands. Success leads to
School
11 years) Inferiority a sense of competence,
while failure results in
feelings of inferiority.
Teens need to develop a
sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads to
Adolescence(12-18 Identity vs. Role Social ability to the ability to stay
years) Confusion Relationships true to yourself, while
failure leads to role
confusion and a weak
sense of self.
Young adults need to form
intimate, loving
relationships with other
Young Adulthood Intimacy vs.
Relationships people. Success leads to
(19-40 years) Isolation
strong relationships, while
failure results in loneliness
and isolation.
Adults need to create or
nurture things that will
outlast them, often by
having children or creating
a positive change that
Middle Adulthood Generativity vs. Work and
benefits other people.
(40-65 years) Stagnation Parenthood
Success leads to feelings
of usefulness and
accomplishment, while
failure results in shallow
involvement in the world.
Older adults need to look
Late Adulthood (65- Ego Integrity vs. Reflection on
back on life and feel a
Death) Despair Life
sense of fulfillment.
 Success at this stage leads
to feelings of wisdom, while
failure results in regret,
bitterness and despair.

BRONFENBRENNER’S BIOECOLOGICAL THEORY - highlights the influence of different

social environments on the development of a child.
1. Microsystem - describes the individuals, groups, and institutions that directly
influence a child's development. Family, friends, peers, schools, religious groups, and
neighborhoods are all part of the microsystem.
2. Mesosystem - interaction between two microsystems
3. Exosystem - indirect but prominent influences like parents' jobs and the school
system
4. Macrosystem - cultural influences like customs, beliefs, and government
5. Chronosystem - transitional influences over the lifespan, for example growing up
during World War II or the civil rights movement

KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

1. Pre-conventional
a. Punishment/Obedience: One is motivated by fear of punishment
b. Mutual Benefit: You scratch my back, I scratch yours
2. Conventional
a. Social Approval: One is motivated by what others expect in behavior
b. Law and Order: The person will follow the law because it is the law
3. Post-Conventional
a. Social Contract: Laws that are wrong can be changed
b. Universal Principles: Associated with the development of one’s conscience

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

1. Sensi-motor Stage (Birth to infancy): initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and etc.
At this stage, the child is focused on the prominence of the senses and muscular
movements.
 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7 years old): Preschool years. Intelligence is intuitive in
nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental representations and is able to
pretend.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (8-11 years old): This stage is characterized by the
ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
4. Formal Operational Stage (12 years old onwards): This stage is characterized by
logical and abstract thinking. The child is expected to solve abstract problems and can
hypothesize.

BAUMRIND’S PARENTING STYLES

1. Permissive – Indulgent without discipline (high responsiveness, low demandingness)

2. Authoritative – Respectful of Child’s opinions but maintains clear boundaries (high
responsiveness, high demandingness)
3. Authoritarian – Strict disciplinarian (low responsiveness, high demandingness)
4. Neglectful – emotionally uninvolved and does not set rules (low responsiveness, low
demandingness)

VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY - views human development as a socially

mediated process in which children acquire their cultural values, beliefs, and problem-solving
strategies through collaborative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society.
Vygotsky's theory is comprised of concepts such as private speech and the Zone of Proximal
Development.

Zone of Proximal Development:

 • Actual Level: what the child can do alone
• Potential Level: what the child can do with the help of More Knowledgeable
Others (MKO)
• ZPD: the difference between the actual and potential level.
• Scaffolding: the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he
cannot accomplish independently

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

PEOPLE FIRST LANGUAGE

The People First Respectful Language Modernization Act of 2006, was enacted by the
Council of the District of Columba on July 11, 2006 to “require the use of respectful language
when referring to people with disabilities in all new and revised District laws, regulations, rules,
and publications and all internet publications.”

“People First Language” (PFL) puts the person before the disability, and describes what a
person has, not who a person is. PFL uses phrases such as “person with a disability,”
“individuals with disabilities,” and “children with disabilities,” as opposed to phrases that
identify people based solely on their disability, such as “the disabled.”

TYPES OF DISABILITY

1. Learning Disabilities

2. ADHD

3. Speech and Communication Disorder

4. Autism

5. Mental retardation

6. Emotional/ Conduct Disorders

7. Physical and health impairments

8. Severe and multiple disabilities

9. Visual Impairment

10. Hearing Impairment

11. Giftedness

12. Aphasia

MAINSTREAMING VS. INCLUSION

1. MAINSTREAMING:
• Attends regular classrooms in ALL academic subjects.
• Not expected to show some improvements
 • General Teacher and SPED Teacher
• Individualized Instruction

2. INCLUSION:
• Attends regular classroom in ALL academic subjects.
• Not expected to show some improvements
• General Teacher and SPED Teacher
• Individualized Instruction

PARTEN’S STAGES OF PLAY

1. Unoccupied play: Children are relatively still and their play appears scattered. This
type of play builds the foundation for the other five stages of play.
2. Solitary play: This type of play occurs when children play alone without any other
social involvement.
3. Onlooker play: Children who sit back and engagingly watch other children playing,
but do not join in
4. Parallel play: This occurs when children play next to each other, but are not really
interacting together.
5. Associative play: This type of play signifies a shift in the child. Instead of being more
focused on the activity or object involved in a play, children begin to be more interested
in the other players.
6. Cooperative play: This is play categorized by cooperative efforts between players.
Children might adopt group goals, establish rules for play