Lesson-11

POWERANDPOLITICS

CONTENTS
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 DistinguishbetweenPowerand Authority
11.3 BasesofPower
11.4 Consequencesof usingPower
11.5 PowerTactics
11.6 PoliticalBehaviorinOrganizations
11.7 The Reality of Politics
11.8 Maccoby’sFourPoliticalTypes
11.9 PoliticalStrategiesandInfluenceTactics
11.10 FromConceptstoSkills–Politicking
11.11 Summary
11.12 Glossary
11.13 References
11.14 Further Readings
11.15 Model Questions

11.0 OBJECTIVES
Afterstudying thislesson, youwillbeable to:
1. Distinguishbetweenpowerandauthority
 2. Understandtheimportanceofpower
3. DescribePowertactics
4. Understandthe politics in the organization.
5. Analyzing the type of political environment.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Power refers to the potential or actual ability to influence others in a desired direction. As
anexchange relationship, power occurs in transactions between an agent and a target. The agent is
theperson using the power, and the target is the recipient of the attempt to use power. Different
individualsand groups within and outside the organization can exert power individual employees,
including top andmiddlemanagement,technicalanalystsandspecialists,supportstaff,andothernon-
managerialworkers can influence the actions an organization takes to reach its goals. Formal groups of
employeessuch as various departments, work teams, management councils, task forces, or employee
unions, aswell as informal groups s.lch as those workers with offices near each other or those who see
each othersocially, can similarly exercise power. Non-employees may also try to influence the behavior
of anorganization and its members. Owners, suppliers clients, competitors, employee unions, the
generalpublic and directors of the organization may extent power that affects the organization. Thus, we
maydefinepowerastheabilityofaperson(orgroupA)toinduceanotherperson(orgroupB)tobehaveinawaythatt
heformerdesires.
11.2 DISTINGUISHBETWEENPOWER ANDAUTHORITY
Authority is the legal right to say "yes" and "no." Managers usually have authority. They can
giveapproval (or not) for new projects, spending limits, etc. Managers can authorize things like million
dollarmarketingplans.
Power is the ability to give and withhold cooperation. Employees usually have more power
thanauthority.Theycancooperateanddowhatmanagementhastoldthemtodo,donothing,ordosomething
entirely different. Unhappy employees can slow production, delay delivery, and
providepoorcustomerserviceallorwhichcan prettymuchruinthatmillion dollarmarketingplan.
A person who has authority is described at times as having the power to secure compliance
withcommands and the power to do things. Although authority and power are closely related
concepts,varying degrees of power are acquired in different ways by persons in an industrial
organisation. Someexercise power by graspingopportunities for actionwithout having theappropriate
authority. Theexercise or power is also inherent when authority is used for controlling or directing the
operation.Certainpersonsacquirepowerbyreasonoftheirgreaterknowledgeandaccesstoimportantinformati
on which they can transmit or withhold. Thus, in a business organisation whilst authority is
acentralelementoftheformalorganisation,powerreflectsthepoliticalrealitieswithintheorganisation.
All authority is subject to sharp restrictions. it is recognised by many experienced managers
thatauthority is moreeffectiveifconsidered as potential power and not ;as anessential ingredient
ofperforming the managerial job. To be most effective, it is generally necessary to use authority
sparinglyand selectively. Actually the course of the real power of the vested authority is the hidden and
impliedthreat of its use with a view to producing the desiredbehaviour. Hence, in the long-run the
application ofenlightened leadership ability and genuine managerial skills will produce superior results,
as the threatsof the use of authority „are subject to several limitations. In many cases the continuous
use of andreliance upon authority have not succeeded in achieving organisational effectiveness. Such
excessiveuse failed, to generate initiative, enthusiasm and desire in the subordinates to achieve the
desiredresults.
Because power is anability, individuals can learn to use it effectively. Influence lS the
processofaffecting the thoughts, behaviour and feelings of another person. Authorityis the right to
influenceanother person.Itisimportanttounderstandthesubtledifferencesbetweentheseterms.Forexample,
a manager may have authority but nopower. He or she may have the right, by virtue of his or
herposition as boss, to tell someone what to do. But he or she may not have the skill or ability to
influenceotherpeople.
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTION

1. Definetheterms:Power,authority

11.3 BASESOFPOWER
SourcesofPowerinOrganizations
There is much more to managing than simply taking charge. Even if employees settled for
beingordered around, attaining a competitive advantage depends on manager's skills at bringing out
thebestin their employees. This enlightened view of management implies that power comes notonly
fromhaving a job that gives youtheright to issue orders, but from other sources as well.
Managersthereforeneed to recognize multi bases or sources of power. These sources maybe
interpersonal orstructural

John French and Bertram Raven identified five types of interpersonal power that managers
use.They are reward, coercive, legitimate, referent and expert power. These sources of power are
calledinterpersonal because theyinvolve the relationship between the person who holds power and
thosewhoareinfluencedbyhimorher.
(a) Reward Power: When the source of power is a person's control over rewarding
outcomes,the power is called reward power. For example, managers control the rewards of salary
increases,bonuses and promotions. Reward power can lead to better performance, but only as long as
theemployee sees a clear and strong link betweenperformance and rewards. To use reward
powereffectively, then, the manager should be explicit about the behaviour being rewarded and should
makethe connection between, the behaviour and the reward clear. Non management employees also
mayhave reward power. For example, one employee might offer another Praise and approval, an
invitationtoadesirablesocialfunction,oraninterestingtaskinagroupproject.
(b) Coercive Power: A manager who exerts power by evoking fear has coercive power.
Tocoercesomeoneintodoingsomethingmeans toforcethepersontodoit,oftenwiththreatsofpunishment.
Managers using coercive power may verbally abuse employees or withhold support fromthem.
Coercion can create stress and anxiety for employees. In extreme cases, it can even lead
toincreasedabsenteeismandturnoverandmayencouragesabotageattheworkplace.
Employeesatalllevelsmayexertcoercivepowerthroughsuchtacticsasridiculeorexclusionofaco-
worker.Sexualharassmentcanbeanunethicalandillegaluseofcoercivepower.Coercive
power influences others by including compliance. Coercion merely prevents undesirable
behaviourratherthan stimulatingdesirablebehavior.
(c) Legitimate Power: Legitimate power which is similar to authority, it power that is based
onposition and mutual agreement. The agent and target agree that the agent has the right to influence
thetarget. For legitimatepower to be effective, the employees must believe the manager has the right to
tellthem what to do. Legitimate power stems from a person's occupation of a particular position in
theorganization. it is based on the presumption that the organization's structure gives people in
some,positions the right to influence other people. Legitimate power - especially when wielded by
someonehigheruptheorganization'shierarchy'-isauthority.
Responses to Legitimate Power: The basic response to legitimate power is
internalization.This means we comply because a degree of intrinsic satisfaction results from complying
with the ordersof a person in authority. The satisfaction is independent of whether that person doles out
reward orpunishments.
Limitations of Legitimate Power: Because legitimate power arises from a person's position
inthe urbanization, it is effective only for influencing behaviour that employees belief falls within
theauthorityofthatposition.Whenanemployee'srequestordirectivefallsoutsidethis"zoneofacceptance",
other(Subordinateorpeerlevel)employeeswillquestion itandmayrejectit.
(d) Referent Power: Some people influence others through the force of their attractiveness,
themysterious personal magnetism we call „charisma‟. This influence is called referent power.
Theagenthas referent power over the target because the target identifies with - or wants to be like - the
agent.Charismatic individuals are often thought to have referent power. An advantage of holding
referentpower is that it can lead people to do things that may not result in a tangible reward; the reward
comesinstead from the relationship with the charismatic person. However, asking for more than people
whoarewillingtodocanreduceaperson'sreferentpower.
(e) Expert Power: Power that arises from a person's expertise, knowledge or talent is
calledexpert power. People with expert power are influential because others believe they can benefit
from theinformationexpertscanprovide.Forexpertpowertowork,threeconditions mustheinplace.
 First,thetargetmusttrustthatthe informationgivenisaccurate.
 Second,theinformationinvolvedmustberelevantandusefultothetarget.
 Third, thetarget'sperceptiontheagentasanexpert is crucial.
ThevarioussituationsandstrategiesforusingInterpersonalPoweraregiven intable8.1
Table11.1:Buildingandusingeachtype oflnterpersonalPower
HowtoincreaseandMaintainpower HowtoUsePowerEffectively
Reward Power Offer
Discover what people need and desirablerewardsOfferfairan
wantGainmorecontroloverreward d ethicalrewards
Ensure people know you control Explain criteria for giving
rewardsDon't promise more than you rewardsProviderewardsaspromis
can deliverDon't use rewards in a ed
manipulate Userewardssymbolicallytoreinforcedesirablebehavi
our
wayAvoidcomplex,mechanicalincentives.
Don'tuserewards,forpersonalbenefit
Coercivepower
Identifycrediblepenaltiestodeterunacceptablebehav penalties.Giveamplepriorwarnings.
iour.
Gainauthoritytousepunishments.D
on'tmakerashthreats.
Don't use coercion in a manipulative
wayUse only punishments that are
legitimateFit punishments totheinfraction
Don'tuse coercionforpersonalbenefit
LegitimatePower
Gainmoreformalauthority.U
se symbolsofauthority.
Getpeopletoacknowledgeauthority.E
xerciseauthority regularly.
Followproperchannelsingivingorders.
Backupauthoritywithrewardand
coercive
power
ReferentPower
Show acceptance and
positiveregardActsupportiveandhelpf
ul
Don'tmanipulateandexploitpeopleforpersonaladvan Provideunexamineorproperbehaviour(rolemodeling
tage
Defendsomeoneinterestsandpackthem
whenappropriate
Keeppromise
Make self-sacrifices to show
concernUse
sincereformsofingratiation
Inform target of rules and
Understand situation before
punishing.Remaincalmhelpfulnothostil
e,
Encourageimprovementtoavoidtheneedforpunishm
ent.
AsktargettosuggestwaystoimproveAd
ministerdisciplineinprivate
Make polite, clear
requests,Explain
thereasonsforarequest
Don'texceedyourscopeofauthorityVe
rifyauthority,ifnecessary
Be sensitive to target
concernsFollow up to verify
complianceInsistoncompliance,ifap
propriate
Use personal appeals when
necessaryIndicatethatarequestisimportan
ttoyou
Don'taskforapersonalfavour thatisexcessive
)
up,
ExpertPower Explain the reasons for a request or
Gainmorerelevantknowledge proposalExplainwhyarequestis important
KeepinformedabouttechnicalmattersDevelopexclus Provide evidence that a proposal will
ivesourcesofInformation besuccessful
Usesymbolstoverifyexpertise
Listen seriously to target
Demonstrate competency by solving
difficultproblems. concernsShowrespectfortarget
Don'tmakerash,carelessstatementsD Act Confidentand decisiveina crisis
on't lie or misrepresent the
factsDon'tkeepchangingposition
UsingPowerEthically
Managers can work at developing all five of these forms of power for future use. The-key
tousing them well is using them ethically. The table 8.2 contains some guidelines to managers for
theethicaluseofpower.

FORMOFPOWER GUIDELINEFORUSE
RewardPower Verifycompliance
Makefeasible,reasonablerequestsM
akeonlyethicalrequests
OfferrewardsdesirabletosubordinatesOffer
onlycrediblerewards

CoercivePower inform subordinates of rules and

penaltiesWarnbeforepunishing
Administer Punishment
consistentlyuniformlyUnderstand the situation
before actingMaintaincredibility
FitpunishmenttotheinfractionPu
nishinprivate

LegitimatePower BecordialandpoliteB
econfident
Be
clearanfollowuptoverifyunderstandingMakesur
erequests isappropriate
Explain reasons for
requestsFollow proper
consistentlyExercise power
consistentlyEnforcecomplian
ce
Besensitivetosubordinatesconcern
ReferentPower Treat subordinate
fairlyDefendsubordinatesinter
ests
Be sensitive to subordinates needs and
feelingsSelectsubordinatesimilartooneself
Engageinrolemodeling
 Expert Power Maintaincredibility
Act confident and
decisiveKeepinformedRecogni
zeemployeesconcerns
Avoidthreateningsubordinatesself-esteem
Source: Gary A Yukl, „Leadershipin Organization„, PrenticeHall, EnglewoodCliffs? NJ(1981) page44-
58.
StructuralSourcesofPower
The degree of power wielded by a particular group/individual also depends on the structure of
aworkactivitiesandcommunicationsintheorganizationFigure8.2belowshowsagroup's/individual/spower
base on three variables: ability to reduce uncertainty, lack of
substitutesandcentralityofactivitiestoachieveorganizationsobjectives

UncertaintyReduction
Organizations must operate in the face of uncertaintyabout their key resources: Human
capital,rawmaterialssuppliesandequipment,moneyandtechnology.Thosewhoareabletoreduceuncertainty
havepowerintheorganization;Basicways ofreducinguncertaintyare:
 Resource Control: Groups or individuals gain resource control when they acquire hard-to
getresources and maintain access to them. in these cases, groups that have resource control
canreduceuncertaintyforothergroupsby providingaccess tothenecessaryresources;
 Information Control: The organization members who can provide needed information
havepowerbecausetheycanreduceuncertaintyforothers;Changesintechnologyandorganizational
structuresareintensifyingthe importanceofinformationpower. Henceaperson's
 power may be more closely related to his or her ability and willingness to share information
withthosewhocanapplyittowardmaintainingacompetitiveadvantage.
 Decision-making control: The groups and individuals who make decisions aboutthe use
ofresourcesalsohaverelativelygreatpower.Logically,thedecisionmakerscanreduceuncertainty by
making and communicating decisions affecting others in the organization. Thosewho gain the
power from decision-making control are the ones who make decisions about basicpolicies and
practices such as,whatthe organization will produce and who its target market willbe.
Substitutability: The power of an individual or groupis inversely related to the person's
orgroup's substitutability. People are powerful because they cannot easily be replaced. In other
words,organizations cannot find a substitute for their skills or knowledge. Being a hard-to-
replaceemployee isnot always advantageous. If a manager views an employee as indispensable for a
particular job, thatemployee may miss opportunities for promotion or career development. And if the
employee becomesassociated with a particular job or way of doing things, changes in the organization
can render him orherhighlydispensable.
Centrality: Central groups are those that have many connections with other groups and a
largeeffect on work flow. Thus, groups and individuals in a central position are generally more powerful
thanthose at the periphery. These people have command ofkey information and other resources,
andothersintheorganizationarelikelytobeawareofwhattheycontrolandhowtheyaffecttheorganization.
ManagingtheBoss:Theemployee-
bossrelationshipisoneofmutualdependence.Anemployeedependsonthebossfor
 Gettingperformancefeedback
 Resourcestodothejobsuccessfully,and
 Supplyingcriticalinformation.
Thebossdependsonhisorheremployeesfor
 Thebossesperformancedependsonhisemployees.
 Informationandsupport.
From the employee's point of view, this relationship is crucial because the boss is the
mostimportant link with the rest of the organization. The figure below shows the basic steps to take
inmanagingone‟srelationshipwiththeboss:
MakeSure youunderstandyouboss andhercontext,including:
Her Goal and
objectiveshepressureon
her
Herstrength,weaknesses,blindspots.
Herpreferredworkstyle
Assessyourselfandyourneeds,including
Your own strengths and
weaknesses.Yourpersonal style
Yourpredispositiontowardsdependenceonauthorityfigures
 DevelopandMaintaina Relationshipthat
Fitsbothyourneedsandstyles
Is characterized by mutual
expectationsKeepyourboss informed
Isbasedondependabilityandhonesty
Selectivityusesyourboss'stimeand resources

Source:J.J.GabarroandJ.P.Kotter,"ManagingYourBoss",HarvardBusinessReview,(January-
February 1980)Page92-100.
Figure8.3:ManagingyourRelationshipwithyourBoss
1stStep:Trytounderstandasmuchasyoucanaboutyourboss.Thiscanbeachievedbytryingfindoutabout
 Theboss'sstrengths,weaknessandblindspots.
 Theboss'spreferred work style.
 Theboss'spersonalgoalsandobjectives.
 Whatkindofpressurethebossfacesonthejob.
Gatherasmuch information aboutthe bossasyoucanandtryto put yourself hisshoes.
2ndStep:Thesecond stepistoassessyourselfand yourneeds.
 Whatare yourstrengths,weaknessesandblindspots?
 Whatisyourwork style?
 Howdo younormallyrelate toauthorityfigures?
3rd Step: Thethird step is to work todevelop an effective relationship; Both parties needs
andstyles mustbe accommodated. The employeeboss relationship must be based on dependability
andhonesty. This means giving and receiving positive and negative feedback. Most of us arereluctant
togive any feedback to the boss. but positive feedback is welcomed at the top. Negative feedback,
whiletougher to initiate, can clear the air. lf given in a problem-solving format, it can even bringabout
acloser relationship. The golden rule is to make the boss look good, because you expect the boss to
dothesameforyou.
11.4 CONSEQUENCESOFUSINGPOWER
Whenpeopleusepower,they becomeaddictedtopowerorusepowertoempowerothers.
1. Addictiveness of Power: An addiction to power is harmful for the
organization.Managerswho are addicted to power are likely to be arrogant and out of touch with their
employees.They usecoercive power tactics that alienate the people they try to influence. In the
long;such a manager suffersbecause his or her tactics damage morale, interfere with cooperation and
can even incite rebellion. Thefigurebelow showsthestepstowardsaddictionofpower.
 2. Empowerment: Jay Conger de tines empowerment as "creating conditions for
heightenedmotivation through the development of a strong sense of personal self-efficacy". This means
sharingpower in such a way that individuals learn to believe in their ability to do the job. When people
sharepower in thisway, they may empower others that is, transfer power to them. Empowerment is
easy toadvocatebutdifficulttoputintopractice;Congeroffers someguidelines.
 Managersshouldexpressconfidence. inemployeesandset highperformanceexpectations.
 Managersshouldcreateopportunitiesforemployeestoparticipateindecisionmaking.
 Managersshouldremovebureaucraticconstraintsthatstifleautonomy.
 Managersshouldset inspirationalormeaningfulgoals.
11.5 POWERTACTICS:
The main motive of individuals in organizationsis to gain power and to gain it they use
differenttactics. Through using these tacticswithin their groups or betweenthegroups theyinfluence
people andgain power. Power tactics which people use for influencing theirco-workers, employees or
bosses to bemoreeffectiveareasunder:
1. Formal Authority: When the „position has formal authority, they fix a deadline for others in
thegroup to comply the orders and do what is expected from them. This is called
assertivenessthroughwhichtheyremindothers toperformandobligeasperrules.
 2. Rationality: When a person using factsandinformation convinces others in a logical way
tocomply with,itlooks arationalwayforcompliance fromothers ascompetentman.
3. Pressure Building: Group of people like trade unions to gain power use pressure
building onpeople as well as organization; But this method may become counter
productive like in the caseofthreatofstrike,organizationmaygoforlockout.
4. Sanctions: To gain morepower logically the persons in power may use organizational
rewardsand punishment. When they give promotions or rise in salary for good work it is
called rewards.Similarly when someone lag behind in performance appraisal continuously
his promotion iswithheld.Itis
welledpunishment.Byusingmethodofsanctionstheygainmorepower.
5. Competition: When the organizational resources are scarce, the parties compete with
eachothertohavecontroloverthecriteria tobeusedforresourceallocationtogain morepower.
6. Coalition: When two or more groups in the organization make alliance to gain more, it
iscalledcoalition.
7. IntegrativeImportance-
:Wheninanorganizationaserviceprovidergroup'sservicesarerequired by all groups within
the organization that service providers group becomes importantand
soughtafterbyallgroup tofunctioneffectively. Thatgroupwillhavemore intergrouppower.
8. Bargaining: It is another methods to gain power. When one has already bestowed
benefits onothers in the past and he reminds others for favour through a process of
negotiation to get hiswork done.
9. Friendliness:Throughthismethodapersonrequestsanothertodohisworkthroughconvincing
him. He convinces another either through flattery i.e. praising his importance prior
torequest,orwaitingthroughfriendlyorhumblewaytillheis inreceptivemoodforrequest.
10. Higher Authority: Some managers, to get the work done from their subordinates may
makeefforts tosecuresupportofhigherauthorities.
Cooperation: It is one of the inter-grouppowertactics. In this method onegroup gives some of
itsimportantpositionstomembersofothergrouptohaveacontrolonthispolicymakingcommittees it is called
cooptation. Through this method they remove the chances of
beingcriticizedbyothergroupfordecisionstakeninthecommittees.

11.6 POLITICALBEHAVIOURINORGANIZATIONS
When people get together in groups, power will be exerted. People want to carve out a
nichefromwhichtoexertinfluence,toearnawards,andtoadvancetheircareers.Poweristightlylinkedtothe
concept of politics: Activities aimed at acquiring power and using it to advance interests, which maybe
personal or organizational. D. Farrell and J. C Petersen define political behaviour in organizations
as“those activities that are not required as part of one‟s formal role in the organization, but that
influence,orattempttoinfluence,thedistributionofadvantagesanddisadvantageswithintheorganization”.Tab
le
13.3summarizesbasicwayspeopleusepoliticalbehaviour.
 Table13.3:WaysPeopleUsePoliticalBehaviourinOrganizations
What They Advantages Drawbacks
CanInfluenc
e
Face-To-FaceMethods
Exercise of power Behaviour within Quick — requires If the request is
basedonposition. zonethat the other nooutlay of outsidethe acceptable
perceivesas legitimate tangibleresources. zone, itwill fail: if it is too
in light oftheobligation. faroutside, others might
seeitasillegitimate.
Exercise of power Attitudes and Quick— requires If the request is
basedonperceivedexpert behaviourwithin the nooutlay of outsidethe acceptable
ise. zone tangibleresources. zone, itwill fail; if it is too
ofperceivedexpertise. faroutside, others might
seeitasillegitimate
Exercise of power Attitudes and Quick — requires Restricted to
basedon identification behaviourthat are not in noexpenditure of influenceattempts that
with amanager. conflictwith the ideals limitedresources. are not inconflict with
thatunderlie the idealsthat underlie
theidentification. theidentification.
Exercise of power Wide range of Quick — can Repeated
basedon behaviourthat can be oftensucceed when influenceattempts
perceiveddependence. easilymonitored. othermethodsfail. encourage theother to
gain power
overtheinfluencer.
Coercive exercise Wide range of Quick — can Invites retaliation —
ofpower based behaviourthat can be oftensucceed when veryrisky.
onperceiveddependenc easilymonitored. othermethodsfail.
e.
Usepersuasion. Very wide range Can produce Can be very time-
ofattitudesandbehaviour internalizedmotivation consuming —
. that does notrequire requiresotherpersontol
monitoring;requires no isten.
power oroutlay of scarce
materialresources.
Combinethesemethods. Depends on the Can be more potent More costly than using
exactcombination. andless risky than using asinglemethod.
asinglemethod.
IndirectMethods
Manipulate the Wide range of Can succeed when face- Can be time-
other‟senvironment by behaviourandattitudes. to-facemethodsfail. consuming;is complex to
usingany or all of the implement;is very risky,
face-to-facemethods. especially ifused
frequently.
Change the forces Wide range of Has Often requires
thatcontinuously act on behaviourand attitudes continuousinfluence, not aconsiderable
theindividual; on acontinuousbasis. just a one-shot effect; poweroutlaytoachie
formalorganizationalarr can have averypowerful ve.
angements, impact.
informalsocial
arrangements,technolo
gy, resourcesavailable,
statement
oforganizationalgoals.
Source:JohnPKotter,“Power,DependenceandEffectiveManagement,”inJohnJGabaero,ed.“Managing
People andOrganizations”McGraw-Hill,NewYork(1991)page43.
Whyorganisationalpolitics?
Mileshasidentifiedfivemajorreasons:
1. Non-programmeddecision
2. Scarcityof resources
3. Ambigousgoals
4. Organisationalchange
5. Technologyandenvironment
Manyorganizationalconditions encouragepoliticalactivity.Amongthemare:
 UnclearGoals
 Autocraticdecisionmaking
 Ambiguouslinesofauthority
 Scarceresources, and
 Uncertainty
Individuals who use power in organizations are organizational politicians. Political behaviour
isactions not officially sanctioned by an organization that are taken to influence others in order to
meetone‟s personalgoals.
Techniquesorstrategiestogainpoliticalpower inorganisation.
1. Cultivatetheright accies.
2. Count onreciprocity.
3. Trytobepositively popular.
4. Learntobepursuasivewithout beingarrogant.
5. Buildyourimage.
6. Controlinformation
7. Controlcommunicationchannels.
11.7 THEREALITYOF POLITICS
Politics is afactoflifeinorganizations.Peopleplay politicsforthefollowingreasons:
 Organizationsaremadeupofindividualsandgroups withdifferentvalues,goalsandinterests.
 Resources in organizations are limited. This forces members to compete for the
organization‟slimitedresources.
 Most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity. People within organizations will
usewhateverinfluencetheycan totweakthefactstosupporttheirgoalsandinterests.
Politics cannot— and should not — be eliminated from organizations. Managers can, however,
take aproactivestanceandmanage thepoliticalbehaviourthatinevitably occurs.
 Uncertaintyisaconditionthattendstoincreasepoliticalbehaviour,whiletransparencyandopencommu
nicationreducesthisuncertainty.
 Regarding performance, clarify expectations. This can accomplished through the use of
clear,quantifiablegoalsandthroughtheestablishmentofaclearconnectionbetweengoalaccomplishm
entandrewards.
  Often,peopleengageinpoliticalbehaviourwhenthey feelexcludedfromdecision-makingprocessesin
theorganization Therefore,thekeyisparticipativemanagement.
 Managingscarceresourcesisimportant.Clarifytheresourceallocationprocess.Thisdiscouragesdysf
unctionalpoliticalbehaviour.
 Encourage co-operationamongworkgroups.Thiscaninstil
aunityofpurposeinworkteamsbyrewardingcooperativebehaviour.
11.8 MACCOBY’SFOURPOLITICALTYPES
Inhisbook“TheGamesman”,MichaelMaccobydescribesfourtypesoforganizationalpoliticians.They
are:
1. TheCraftsman: Craftsmen, driven by achievement, are the least political. They are
oftentechnical specialists who like details and precision. The person is usually quiet, sincere,
modestandpractical.
2. The Jungle Fighter: Jungle fighters, although very different in behaviour, are apt to be
activepoliticians. Unafraid to step on others to get ahead, this fighter believes employees should
beused to get ahead in the company. They desire success at any cost. There are two types
ofjunglefighters:
(a) Foxes: The foxes make their nests in the organization and maneuver from this
safebase.
(b) Lions:Conquerothers‟territoriesandbuildempires.
3. Company man or women: As politicians go, these are conservative people. They possess
astrong desire for affiliation and may not exhibit a lot of political behaviour. In fact, this
individual‟sidentity rests with the powerful, protective company. The concern of such people is
for humans;however, they are more involved with security than success and may miss
opportunities thatarise.
4. The Gamesman: The gamesmen are apt politicians. They view business as a game and
takecalculated risks. The Gamesman tends to be charismatic, thrives on challenge and
competitionandmotivatesemployeeswith enthusiasm.
ThemajorcontributionofMaccoby‟sworkisthatitshowsthatindividualsdifferintheirbehaviour
aspoliticalactors.

11.9 POLITICALSTRATEGIESANDINFLUENCETACTICS
Influence is the process of affecting the thoughts, behaviour or feelings of another person.
Theother person could be the boss (upward influence), an employee (downward influence), or a co-
worker(lateral influence). To understand how employees strengthen their power in organizations, we
can lookat certain political behaviour. The ways people obtain and use power to meet personal and
otherobjectives in an organization basically involve some form of assessing and using existing
resources orobtaining additional resources. There are eight basic types of influence tactics. They are
listed anddescribedintable 13.4 below:
Table13.4:InfluenceTacticsUsed inOrganizations
Tactics Description Examples
Pressure Thepersonusesdemands,threats, If you don‟t do this, you‟re
orintimidationtoconvince you fired.Youhaveuntil5:00tochangey
tocomplywitharequestortosuppor our mind, or I‟m going
taproposal. withoutyou.
Upwardappeals Thepersonseeks topersuadeyou I‟mreportingyoutomyboss.Mybos
that the request is s supportsthisidea.
approvedbyhighermanagement,
orappeals to higher
managementforassistanceingaini
ngyourcompliancewiththerequest
.
Exchange The person makes an explicit You owe me a favour. I‟ll
orimplicitpromisethatyouwillrecei takeyou to lunch if you‟ll support
verewardsortangiblebenefitsifyou meon this.
complywitharequest or support a
proposal, orreminds you of a
prior favour tobereciprocated.

Coalition Thepersonseekstheaidofothersto All the other supervisors

persuadeyoutodosomething or agreewithme.I‟llaskyouinfrontofth
uses the support ofothers as an ewhole committee.
argument for you toagree also.

Ingratiation The person seeks to get you in Only you can do this job right.
agood mood or to think Ican always count on you. so
favorablyofhimorherbeforeasking Ihaveanotherrequest.
youtodosomething.
Rationalpersuasion Thepersonuseslogicalarguments Thisnewprocedurewillsaveus
and factual evidenceto persuade $150,000 in overhead. It
you that a proposalor request is makessense to hire John: he
viable and likely toresult in the has themostexperience.
attainment of taskobjectives.

Inspirationalappeals The person makes an Being environmentally

emotionalrequest or proposal consciousistherightthing.Gettingt
that arousesenthusiasm by hataccount will be tough, but I
appealing to knowyou can doit.
yourvaluesandideals,orbyincreas
ing your confidence thatyou can
doit.
Consultation Thepersonseeksyourparticipatio Thisnewattendanceplaniscontrov
ninmakingadecisionorplanningho ersial.
wtoimplementaproposedpolicystr
Howcanwemakeitmoreacceptabl
ategy orchange.
e?
What do you think we can do
tomake our workers less fearful
ofthe new robots on the
productionline?

Source:GYuklandC.MFalb,“InfluenceTacticsandObjectivesinUpward,Downward,andLateralInfluence
Attempts,”JournalofAppliedPsychology(1990):Page 132-140.
SomeDeviousPoliticalTactics
1. Embraceordemolish.
2. Divideandrule.
3. Excludetheopposition
Alltheabovewouldvaryindifferentsituations.
 Ontheotherhand,somepoliticalblundersare:
1. Beingtemperamental.
2. Stickingtothelosingside.
3. Violatingthechainofcommand.
4. Creatingconflict withtopmanagement
How tomanagepolitical behaviour?
1. Positiverolemodel
2. Opencommunication.
3. Reduceuncertainty.
4. Studythepoliticalphenomenon.
Machiavellianism
It is a set of beliefs about human nature and a persons‟ ability to use various tactics
irrespectiveof their moral values in order to achieve his ambition. Christic and Gels have formulated a
„Mach Scale‟tomeasurepersonsmachiavellianism.
Characteristicsof People HighonMachScale
 Highselfesteen,selfconfidence.
 Coolandcalculating
 Allianceswithpowerfulpeople.
 Believethatendsjustifymeans.
 Manipulateotherbyflattery.
 Unfavourableviewof humannature.
 Willsaywhatothers wantto hear.
 Exertcontroloveruncleansituations.
Inastudy woodman,wayneandrubinshienconcludedthat:
„Of all variables responsible for an individuals political behaviour, Machiavellianism has
thestrongesteffectonpoliticaltendencyofanorganisationalmember.Bewareofsuchindividuals‟
In impression management, individuals use influence tactics to control others‟ impressions
ofthem. Which influence tactics are more effective. It depends on the target of the influence attempt
andthe objective. Individuals use different tactics for different purposes, and they use different tactics
fordifferent people. Besides the above mentioned political strategies and tactics, some other tactics
aredefinedbelow.Theyare:
 Sponsorship.
 Whistleblowing.
 Controlofresources.
 Attacksonothers.
Table13.5givestheinformation intabularform.
 Table13.5:Someother PoliticalStrategiesandTactics
StrategyorTactic Description Example
Sponsorship Commitment to an ideaorprojectby Throughrationalpersuasionorappeal
a manager who uses his or s,youconvinceahigherlevel manager
herpoliticalpowertosupportit. thatyouridea is agood one.

Whistleblowing Inform an outsider such as a Chargesofsexualharassmentorother

newsreporterorgovernmentagencya misdeedsthathurtstheorganization‟s
bout an organization‟s unethical reputation.
orillegalbehaviour.
Controlofresources Seeking and exercising control Managerswithrelativelygreaterpower
overinformation,fundingandotherres may keeppeoplewaiting.
ources.
Attackonothers Minimizing the successes of Forexample,scapegoats,peopleblam
othersanddrawingattentiontotheirfail edfor negativeoutcomes.
ures

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Discussthepoliticalbehavior inanorganization.

11.10 FROMCONCEPTSTOSKILLS-POLITICKING
1. ImpressionManagement
Impression management refers to the activity of controlling information in order to steer
others‟opinions in the service of personal or social goals. Although people can manage impressions of
almostanything(e.g.,aclothingbrand,apoliticalposition,etc.),peoplemostcommonlymanagetheimpressions
others form of themselves, a sub-type of impression management that is often termed selfpresentation.
Impression management is the process through which people try to control the
impressionsother people form of them. It is a goal-directed conscious or unconscious attempt to
influence theperceptions of other people about a person, object or event by regulating and controlling
information insocial interaction. It is usually synonymous with self-presentation, if a person tries to
influence theperceptionoftheirimage.
Impression management(IM)theory states that anyindividualor organization mustestablishand
maintain impressions that are congruent with the perceptions they want to convey to their
publics(Goffman, 1959). From both a communications and public relations viewpoint, the theory of
impressionmanagement encompasses the vital ways in which one establishes and communicates this
congruencebetweenpersonalororganizationalgoalsandtheirintendedactionswhichcreatepublicperception
.The goal is for one to present themselves the way in which they would like to be thought of by
theindividual or group they are interacting with. This form of management generally applies to the
firstimpression.
Goffman presented impression management, explaining the motivations behind complex
humanperformanceswithinasocialsettingbasedonaplaymetaphor(Dillardetal.,2000).Goffman‟sworkis
 written from a symbolic interactionist perspective, emphasizing a qualitative analysis of the
interactivenatureofthecommunication process(Barnhart,1994).
Mostpeoplewanttomakefavourableimpressionsonothers.Thisisparticularlytrueinorganizations,
where individuals complete for jobs, favourable performance evaluations and salaryincreases. The
process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of them iscalled „impression
management‟. Individuals use several techniques to control others‟ impressions ofthem.
Table13.6:ImpressionManagement(IM)Technique
Conformity:Agreeingwithsomeoneelse‟sopinionin Flattery: Complimenting others about their
ordertogainhisor her approval. virtuesin an effort to make oneself appear
perceptive andlikeable.
Example:Amanagertellshisboss“you‟reabsolutely
right on your reorganization plan for thewestern Example: New sales trainee to peer, “you
regional office. I couldn‟t agree with youmore. handledthat client‟s complaint so tactfully‟ I could
neverhavehandledthataswell as youdid.”
Excuses: Explanations of a predicament-
creatingevent aimed at minimizing the apparent Favors:Doingsomethingniceforsomeonetogainthat
severity ofthepredicament. person‟sapproval.
Example: Sales manager to boss. “We failed Example: Salesperson to prospective client,
togettheadinthepaperontime,butnoonerespondstot I‟vegot two tickets to the theater tonight that I can‟
hoseadsanyway.” tuse. Take them. Consider it a thank you for
takingthetimetotalkwithme.”
Apologies:Admittingresponsibilityforanundesirabl
e event and simultaneously seeking Association:Enhancingorprotectingone‟simage
togetapardonforthe action. by managing information about people andthings
withwhichone isassociated.
Example: Employee to boss, “I‟m sorry I made
amistakeonthereport.Please forgiveme.” Example: A job applicant says to an
Interviewer,“Whatacoincidence.YourbossandIwere
Acclaiming:Explanationoffavorableeventstomaxi
roommatesincollege!”
mizethedesirable implicationsforoneself.
Example:Asalespersoninformsapeer,“Thesales in
our division have nearly tripled since I washired.”

Source:W.LGardnerandM.JMartinko,“ImpressionManagementinOrganizations,”JournalofManag
ement,(June1988)page332.
Impression management seems to have an impact on others‟ impressions. As long as
theimpressionsconveyedareaccurate,thisprocesscanbeabeneficialfororganizations.Iftheimpressionsaref
oundtobefalse,however,astronglynegativeoverallimpressionmayresult.Furthermore,excessiveimpressio
nmanagementcanleadtotheperceptionthattheuserismanipulativeorinsincere.
2. DefensiveBehaviours
Reactiveandprotectivebehavioursto:
1. Avoidaction
(a) Overconforming
(b) Buck passing
 (c) Playingdunes
(d) Depersonalizing
(e) Stretchingandsmoothing
(f) Stalling
2. Avoidblameorchange
(a) Buffing
(b) Playingsafe
(c) Justifying
(d) Scapegoating
(e) Misrepresenting
11.11 SUMMARY
Power refers to the potential or actual ability to influence others in a desired direction. As
anexchange relationship, power occurs in transactions between an agent and a target. The agent is
theperson using the power, and the target is the recipient of the attempt to use power. Different
individualsandgroups withinand outside theorganization canexert power. Individual
employees,includingtopand middle management, technical analysts and specialists, support staff, and
other non-managerialworkerscan influence the actionsan organizationtakestoreach itsgoals.
Authority is the legal right to say “yes” and “no.” Managers usually have authority. They can
giveapproval (or not) for new projects, spending limits, etc. Managers can authorize things like million
dollarmarketingplans.
Influence is the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior or feelings of another person.
Theother person could be the boss (upward influence), an employee (downward influence), or a co-
worker(lateral influence). To understand how employees strengthen their power in organizations, we
can lookat certain politicalbehavior.
Impression management refers to the activity of controlling information in order to steer
others‟opinions in the service of personal or social goals. Although people can manage impressions of
almostanything(e.g.,aclothingbrand,apoliticalposition,etc.),peoplemostcommonlymanagetheimpressions
others form of themselves, a sub-type of impression management that is often termed self-
presentation.

11.12 GLOSSARY
Power:Powerreferstothepotentialoractualabilitytoinfluenceothersinadesireddirection.Thus,itis the
abilityorcapacitytoperformoracteffectively.
Politics: Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions. The term is
generallyappliedtobehaviorwithincivilgovernments,butpoliticshasbeenobservedinallhuman
groupinteractions,including corporate,academic,andreligiousinstitutions.
Impression Management: A person‟s management of his or her own behaviour and social actions,
sothattheimpressionsheorsheconveystootherscanbecontrolled.Theaimofimpressionmanagement is for
the person (e.g. a coach or team manager) to present himself or herself in agenerally favorable way,
which is appropriate to the social setting, and it often involves the personadoptinga particularrole.
Scapegoating:Scape goatingistheactofholdingaperson,groupofpeople.
Machiavellianism:Itisasetofbeliefabouthumannatureandapersons‟abilitytousevarioustacticsirrespectiveoftheirmora
lvalues in orderto achieve his ambition.
Politicking:Theactof engaginginpoliticalactivities.

11.13 REFERENCES
 P.G.Aquinas,"OrganizationalBehavior", ExcelBooks,NewDelhi.
 Ashburner L. (199)), "Impact of Technological and Organizational Change" Personnel
Review U.KStephenP.Robbins,Organizational Behavior,Concepts,PrenticeHall,India
 JamesH.Davis(1964)"Group Performance"Addison-WesleyReadingsMass.
 ClaytonP.Alderfer,"Existence,Relatedness,andGrowth:HumanNeedsinOrganizationalSettings",Free
Press,New York(1972).
o
11.14 FURTHER READINGS
 Abraham H. Maslow, "Motivation and Personality" Harper and Row, New York
(1954);AbrahamK;KorMan,"OrganizationalBehaviour"PrenticeHall,EnglewoodCliffs,N.J
.(1977).
 BernardBerelsonandGaryA.Steiner"HumanBehaviour"Harcourt,Brace &World,NewYork(1964).
 Elmer H. Burack and Robert D. Smith, "Personal
Management —AHumanResourcesSystemsApproach"JohnWiley,New
York(1982).
 P.G.Aquinas,“OrganizationalBehaviour”,ExcelBooks,NewDelhi.
 Ashburner L (1990) “Impact of Technological and Organizational Change” Personnel Review
U.K.StephenP.Robbins, OrganizationalBehaviour,Concepts,Prentice Hall,India
 GaryDesslar,OrganizationTheories,PrenticeHall,India
 L.M. Prasad, Management Process and Organizational, Sultan Chand &
SonsJamesHDavis(1964)”GroupPerformance”Addison-WesleyreadingsMass

11.15 MODEL QUESTIONS

1. Whatispower?
2. What aresomeways-toempower peopleat work?
3. Howwillanemployee Ideallymanagehisrelationshipwithhisboss?

4. Howwillamanageruse hispowerethically?
5. Discuss impressionmanagementinanorganization
6. Howare powerandpolitics linkedorrelated?
7. Defineorganizationalpolitics.Whyisitsowidespreadinorganizations?
8. Definepoliticalbehaviour.Whyis politicsafactoflifeinorganizations?
9. Whataresomewaystoempower people at work?
10. Howwillanemployeeideallymanagehisrelationshipwithhis boss?
11. Howdopracticingmanagersviewpoliticalbehaviour?
12. Howwillamanagerusehispower ethically?
13. Discussimpressionmanagementinanorganization.
14. Whatarethepoliticalstrategiesandinfluencetactics?
1. /