LECTURE 1

INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives:

To explain the advantages and Disadvantages

of steel as structural material.

To know the stress-strain relationship of modern

structural steels.

To explain the use of steel in modern

construction and the responsibilities of a design
engineer.
Advantages of Steel as a Structural
Material
Steel exhibits desirable physical properties that
makes it one of the most versatile structural
material in use.

Its great strength, uniformity, light weight, ease

of use, and many other desirable properties
makes it the material of choice for numerous
structures such as steel bridges, high rise
buildings, towers, and other structures.
Advantages of Steel as a Structural
Material

Bridge Warehouse
Advantages of Steel as a Structural
Material

Sports Complex Transmission Towers

 Advantages of Steel as a Structural
Material
High Strength
✓the weight of structure
that made of steel will
be small

Uniformity
✓ properties of steel do
not change as oppose
to concrete.
 Advantages of Steel as a Structural
Material
 Ductility
✓Steel can
withstand
extensive
deformation
without failure
under high tensile
stresses.

 Toughness
✓ Strong
Advantages of Steel as a Structural
Material
Additions to Existing Structures
✓New bays or even entire new wings can be
added to existing frame buildings
✓Steel bridges may easily be widened
Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural
Material
Maintenance Cost
✓Susceptible to corrosion when exposed
to air, water, and humidity.
✓Must be painted periodically.

Fireproofing Cost
✓ Steel is incombustible, but its strength is
reduced at high temperatures due to
common fires.
Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural
Material
Susceptible to Buckling
✓As the length and slenderness of
a compressive column is increased,
its danger of buckling increases.

Fatigue
✓ the strength of structural steel member
can be reduced if this member is
subjected to cyclic loading.
Disadvantages of Steel as a Structural
Material
Brittle Fracture
✓Steel may lose its ductility at very low
temperatures, brittle fractures may
occur at places of stress
concentration.
Early Uses of Iron and Steel

1777-1779 : Metal as structural material

began with cast iron, used on a 100 ft (30 m)
arch span, which was built in England
1780-1820 : A number of cast iron bridges was
built during this period.
 1840 : Wrought iron began replacing cast
iron soon.
Early Uses of Iron and Steel
1846-1850 : The Brittania Bridge over Menai
Strait in Wales was built.
Early Uses of Iron and Steel

1855 : Development of the Bessemer process,

which help producing steel in large quantities
and at cheaper prices.

1989 : Steel shapes

having yield strength
of 24,000 to 100,000
psi were produced.
Steel Classifications

Built-Up
➢produced by plates welding together into the
desired shape and are limited to the use of
plates having a thickness greater than or
equal to 6 mm.
Steel Classifications

Cold-Formed
➢Formed by passing the flat steel products in
rolls or by press brake bending.
➢Divided into two classes: plate & light gage
Steel Classifications

Cold-Formed
➢Cold-Formed Plate:
• Thickness greater than or equal to 6 mm.
• The following thickness (mm) were adopted:
6, 8, 10, 12, 16, 20, 25, 28, 32, 40, 45
➢Cold-Formed Light Gage:
• Thickness less than or equal to 6 mm.
• The following thickness (mm) were adopted:
2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6
Steel Classifications

Rolled
➢produced by passing red-hot blooms or billet
steel through rolls until the desired shape is
attained
Steel Classifications

Metal Decks or Panels

➢Roofing, siding or wall and
floor panels of various
profiles, coating, and
base materials, belong to
this classification.
➢Materials used are
normally steel, aluminium
and sometimes stainless
steel.
 Steel Classifications and designation
Class Shape Designation
Built-Up Wide Flange BW H x W
Heavy Column BH H x W
Wide Flange BWT H x W
Cold-Formed Plate Angle BA H x B x t
Channel BC H x B x t
Cold-Formed Light Gage Stiffened Cee LC H x B x C x t
Stiffened Zee LZ H x B x C x t
Rectangular Tube LR H x B x t
Square Tube LS H x B x t
Rolled Wide Flange W dxw
S-Shape S dxw
Channel C dxw
Structural Tee WT d x w
Angle L HxBxt
Pipe-standard PS d
Pipe-extra strong PE d
Pipe-double extra PD d
Metal Deck SD (Steeldeck) SD Nw x t
CD (Condeck) SD Nw x t
Steel Classifications

S-sections
and
properties
Stress-Strain Relationships in Structural
Steel
Insert picture of
idealized and utm
result
Stress-Strain Relationships in Modern
Structural Steel
Yield Point of Modern Steels
➢In the past, a structural carbon steel
designated as A36 ( Fy = 36 ksi ) was the
commonly used structural steel.
➢Today, a steel having Fy = 50 ksi can be
produced and sold at almost the same
price as 36 ksi steel.
➢Structural steels are generally grouped into
several major ASTM classifications:
Stress-Strain Relationships in Modern
Structural Steel
Yield Point of Modern Steels
➢The carbon steels A36, A53, A500, A501 and
A529.
➢The high-strength low alloy steels A572, A618,
A913, and A992.
➢The corrosion resistant high-strength low-
alloy steels A242, A588, and A847
Properties Modern Structural Steel

The properties of steel used can be greatly

changed by varying the quantities of carbon
present and adding other elements such as
➢Silicon
➢Nickel
➢Manganese, and
➢Copper
A steel having a significant amount of these
elements is referred to as an alloy steel.
Properties Modern Structural Steel:
Uses of High-Strength Steels
Factors that Lead to the use of high-strength
steels:
➢Superior corrosion resistance
➢Possible savings in shipping, erection, and
foundation costs caused by weight savings.
➢Use of shallow beams permitting smaller floor
depths
➢Possible savings in fireproofing because
smaller members can be used.
Responsibilities of the Structural
Designer and Engineer
Structural designer or engineer must learn to
arrange and proportion the parts of structures.
Some of the items that must be considered
include:

➢Safety : structure can safely support the loads

to be subjected
➢Cost : lower cost without sacrificing strength
➢Practicality : understand fabrication methods
Computers in Structural Steel Design

Many of the commercial structural software

packages can perform
➢Structural Analysis, and
➢Structural Design
The design engineer can reduce the time
required to perform these calculations.
Although they have powerful potential utility,
computers are useless without a basic
understanding of how engineering systems work.
Computers in Structural Steel Design

“No matter how impressive your tool chest,

you will be hard-pressed to repair a car if
you do not understand how it works.”
Specifications, Loads, and Methods
of Design
Learning Objectives:

Determination of the corresponding code

provisions in steel design.
Determination of the types of load to be used in
structural steel design.
To define the load and strength factors used in
the design.
To explain the advantages of LRFD in steel and
timber design.
Load Factors

The load factors are usually amplifying factors

that are used in LRFD design equation to
increase the loads.
The purpose of increasing the loads is to
account for the uncertainties involved in
estimating the magnitudes of dead and/or live
loads.
Load Factors

 Since the dead loads can be estimated more

accurately than live loads, the factor for live load is
usually higher than that used for dead loads.
 Examples:
–A load factor of 1.6 for live loads in LRFD steel manual
as compared to 1.2 for dead loads.
–A load factor of 1.7 for live loads in ACI Code as
compared to 1.4 for dead loads.
Load Factors

 Loads and Load Combinations

1) 1.4 (D+ F)
2) 1.2 (D+ F+ T) + 1.6 (L+ H) + 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
3) 1.2 D+ 1.6 (Lr or S or R) + (0.5 L or 0.8 W)
4) 1.2 D+ 1.6 W+ 0.5 L+ 0.5 (Lr or S or R)
5) 1.2 D+ 1.0 E+ 0.5 L+ 0.2 S
6) 0.9 D+ 1.6 W+ 1.6 H
7) 0.9 D+ 1.0 E+ 1.6 H
Load Factors

 Notations:
U= the design (ultimate) load D= dead load
F= fluid load T= self straining force
L= live load Lr = roof live load
H= lateral earth pressure load, ground water pressure.
S= snow load
R= rain load
W= wind load
E= earthquake load
Strength or Resistance Factors

This can be accomplished by multiplying the

theoretical ultimate strength (also called
nominal strength) of each member by a
capacity reduction factor φ, which generally
less than one.
These values are 0.85 for columns, 0.75 or 0.90 for
tension members, 0.90 for bending or shear in
beams, and so on. Typical reduction factors are
provided in Table 1 (Table 2.2, Text).
Strength or Resistance Factors
LRFD Advantages

Provides a more rational approach for new

designs and configurations.
Provides consistency in reliability.
Provides potentially a more economical use of
materials.
Allows for future changes as a result of gained
information in prediction models, and material
and load characterization
Easier and consistent for code calibration.
HOMEWORK # 1

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